Vietnamese cuisine

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Nem cuon (salad rolls), a nem dish wrapped in banh trang
Video demonstration of spring rolls preparation
Bún bò Huế, a spicy, lemongrass rice vermicelli noodle soup served with fresh herbs and vegetables

Vietnamese cuisine encompasses the foods and beverages of Vietnam. Vietnamese cuisine features a combination of five fundamental taste elements (Vietnamese: ngũ vị) in the overall meal: spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet (Earth).[1] Each Vietnamese dish has a distinctive flavor which reflects one or more of these elements. Common ingredients include fish sauce, shrimp paste, soy sauce, rice, fresh herbs, fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes utilize lemongrass, ginger, mint, Vietnamese mint, long coriander, Saigon cinnamon, bird's eye chili, lime and basil leaves.[2] Traditional Vietnamese cooking is greatly admired for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil, and reliance on herbs and vegetables. With the balance between fresh herbs and meats and a selective use of spices to reach a fine taste, Vietnamese food is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide. [3]

Philosophical importance

Known for its balance of five elements, many Vietnamese dishes include five fundamental taste senses (Vietnamese: ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter (fire), salty (water) and sweet (Earth), corresponding to: five organs (Vietnamese: ngũ tạng): gall bladder, small intestine, large intestine, stomach and urinary bladder.

Vietnamese dishes also include five types of nutrients (Vietnamese: ngũ chất): powder, water or liquid, mineral elements, protein and fat.

Vietnamese cooks try to have five colours (Vietnamese: ngũ sắc): white (metal), green (wood), yellow (Earth), red (fire) and black (water) in their dishes.

Dishes in Vietnam appeal to gastronomes via five senses (Vietnamese: năm giác quan): food arrangement attracts eyes, sounds come from crisp ingredients, five spices detected on the tongue, aromatic ingredients coming mainly from herbs stimulate the nose and some meals, especially finger food, can be perceived by touching.[4]

Five element correspondence

Vietnamese cuisine is influenced by the Asian principle of five elements and Mahābhūta.

Correspondence Elements[5]
Wood Fire Earth Metal Water
Spices (ngũ vị) Sour Bitter Sweet Spicy Salty
Organs (ngũ tạng) Gall Bladder Small Intestine Stomach Large Intestine Urinary Bladder
Colors (ngũ sắc) Green Red Yellow Black White
Senses (năm giác quan) Visual Taste Touch Smell Sound
Nutrients (ngũ chất) Powder Fat Protein Minerals Water

Yin yang balance

The principle of yin and yang is applied in composing a meal in a way that provides a balance that is beneficial for the body. While contrasting texture and flavors are important, the principal primarily concerns the "heating" and "cooling" properties of ingredients. Certain dishes are served in their respective seasons to provide contrasts in temperature and spiciness of the food and environment.[6]

Some examples are:[7]

  • Duck meat, considered "cool", is served during the hot summer with ginger fish sauce, which is "warm". On the other hand, chicken, which is "warm," and pork, which is "hot," are eaten in the winter.
  • Seafood ranging from "cool" to "cold" are suitable to use with ginger ("warm").
  • Spicy food ("hot") are typically balanced with sourness, which is considered "cool"
  • Balut (Hột vịt lộn), meaning "Upside-down egg" ("cold"), must be combined with Vietnamese mint (Rau răm) ("hot").
  • Cold and flu patients must drink ginger water ("hot").

Cultural importance

Salt is used as the connection between the world of the living and the world of the dead. Bánh phu thê is used to remind new couples of perfection and harmony at their weddings. Food is often placed at the ancestral altar as an offering to the dead. Cooking and eating play an extremely important role in Vietnamese culture. The word ăn (eat) is included in a great number of proverbs and has a large range of semantic extensions.

Regional variations

The mainstream culinary traditions in all three regions of Vietnam share some fundamental features:

  • Freshness of food: Most meats are only briefly cooked to preserve their original textures and colors. Vegetables are eaten fresh; if they are cooked, they are boiled or only briefly stir-fried.
  • Presence of herbs and vegetables: Herbs and vegetables are essential to many Vietnamese dishes and are often abundantly used.
  • Broths or soup-based dishes are common in all three regions
  • Presentation: The condiments that accompany Vietnamese meals are usually colorful and arranged in eye-pleasing manners.

While sharing some key features, Vietnamese culinary tradition differs from region to region.[8]

In northern Vietnam, a colder climate limits the production and availability of spices. As a result, the foods here are often less spicy than those in other regions. Black pepper is used in place of chilis as the most popular ingredient to produce spicy flavors. In general, Northern Vietnamese cuisine is not bold in any particular flavor—sweet, salty, spicy, bitter, or sour. Most northern Vietnamese foods feature light and balanced flavors that result from subtle combinations of many different flavoring ingredients. The use of meats such as pork, beef, and chicken were relatively limited in the past. Freshwater fish, crustaceans, and mollusks—such as prawns, squids, shrimps, crabs, clams, mussels—are widely used. Many notable dishes of northern Vietnam are crab-centered (e.g., bún riêu). Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce, and limes are among the main flavoring ingredients. Being the cradle of Vietnamese civilization, northern Vietnam produces many signature dishes of Vietnam, such as c, bún riêu, and bánh cuốn, which were carried to central and southern Vietnam through the road of Vietnamese migration.[9]

The abundance of spices produced by central Vietnam’s mountainous terrain makes this region’s cuisine notable for its spicy food, which sets it apart from the two other regions of Vietnam where foods are mostly non-spicy. Once the capital of the last dynasty of Vietnam, Hue’s culinary tradition features highly decorative and colorful food, reflecting the influence of ancient Vietnamese royal cuisine. The region’s cuisine is also notable for its sophisticated meals constituted by many complex dishes served in small portions. Chili peppers and shrimp sauces are among the frequently used ingredients. Some Vietnamese signature dishes produced in central Vietnam are bún bò Huế and bánh xèo.

The warm weather and fertile soil of southern Vietnam create an ideal condition for growing a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and livestock. As a result, foods in southern Vietnam are often vibrant and flavorful with liberal uses of garlic, shallots, and fresh herbs. Sugar is added to food more than in the other regions. The preference for sweetness in southern Vietnam can also be seen through the widespread use of coconut milk in southern Vietnamese cuisine. Vast shorelines make seafood a natural staple for people in this region.

Cooking techniques

Common Vietnamese methods usually observed in preparing all ingredients include:

  • Rán,Chiên: fried dishes.
    • Chiên nước mắm: Fried with fish sauce.
    • Chiên bột: Battered then deep fried.
  • Rang: Dry-fried dishes without oil.
  • Áp chảo: Pan-fried then sautéed.
  • Xào: stir fry, sautéing.
    • Xào tỏi: Stir fry with garlic. Very common way of treating vegetables.
    • Xào sả ớt: Sautéed with lemongrass and chilli.
    • Xào lăn: Pan searing or stir frying quickly to cook raw meat.
    • Xáo măng: Braised/sautéed with bamboo shoots.
  • Nhồi thịt: Stuffed with minced meat before cooking.
  • Sốt chua ngọt: Fried with sweet and sour sauce.
  • Kho: stew, braised dishes.
    • Kho khô: literally dried stew (until the sauce thickens).
    • Kho tiêu/kho gừng/kho riềng: Stewed with peppercorns/ginger/galangal.
  • Nấu: Simply means cooking, usually in a pot.
    • Nấu nước dừa: Cooked with coconut juice.
  • Hầm/Ninh: slow-cook with spices or other ingredients over a long period of time.
  • Rim: simmering.
  • Luộc: boiling with water, usually applied to fresh vegetables and meat.
  • Hấp: steamed dishes.
    • Hấp sả: Hấp or steamed with lemongrass.
    • Hấp Hồng Kông or Hấp xì dầu: "Hong Kong" style steamed dish (i.e.: with scallion, ginger and soy sauce).
  • Om: clay pot cooking of Northern style.
    • Om sữa: Cooked in clay pot with milk.
    • Om chuối đậu: Cooked with young banana and tofu.
  • Gỏi: salad dishes.
  • Nướng: grilled dishes.
    • Nướng xiên: skewered dishes.
    • Nướng ống tre: Cooked in bamboo tubes over fire.
    • Nướng mọi/nướng trui/thui: Char-grilled over open fire.
    • Nướng đất sét/lá chuối: Cooked in a clay mould or banana leaves wrap. Recently clay moulds and banana leaves are being replaced by kitchen foil, hence the method has evolved into nướng giấy bạc.
    • Nướng muối ớt: Marinated with salt and chilli before being grilled.
    • Nướng tỏi: Marinated with garlic then grilled.
    • Nướng mỡ hành: Grilled then topped with melted lard, peanuts and chopped green onions.
  • Bằm: sauteed mixed of chopped ingredients.
  • Cháo: congee dishes.
  • Súp: soup dishes (not canh or clear broth soup)
  • Rô ti: roasting meat then bring to a simmer that usually accompany with strong spices.
  • Cà ri: curry/curry-like dishes.
  • Quay: roasted dishes.
  • Lẩu: hot pot dishes.
  • Nhúng dấm: Cooked in a vinegar-based hotpot, some variations including vinegar and coconut water-based hotpot.
  • Cuốn: Refers to any dish featuring rice paper wraps with bún and fresh herbs.
  • Bóp thấu/tái chanh: Raw meat/seafood preparing with lime or vinegar.

Typical Vietnamese family meal

A typical meal for the average Vietnamese family would include:[10]

  • Large bowl/pot/cooker of steamed white rice
  • Individual bowls of rice
  • Fish/seafood, meat, tofu (grilled, boiled, steamed, stewed or stir-fried with vegetables)
  • A stir-fry dish
  • Raw, pickled, steamed, or fresh vegetables
  • Canh (a clear broth with vegetables and often meat or seafood) or other soup
  • Prepared fish sauce for dipping, to which garlic, pepper, chili, ginger or lime juice are sometimes added according to taste.
  • Dipping sauces and condiments depending on the main dishes, such as pure fish sauce, ginger fish sauce, tamarind fish sauce, soy sauce, muối tiêu chanh (salt and pepper with lime juice) or muối ớt (chilli and salt).
  • Small dish of relishes, such as salted eggplant, pickled white cabbage, pickled papaya, pickled garlic or pickled bean sprouts
  • Fresh fruits or desserts, such as chè

All dishes except individual bowls of rice are communal and are to be shared in the middle of the table. It is also customary for the younger to ask/wait for the elders to eat first and the women sit right next to the rice pot to serve rice for other people. They also pick up food to each other as an action of care.

Feast

Feast (Vietnamese: cỗ, tiệc) is a significant event for families or a villages, usually up to 12 people for each table. Feast is prepared for weddings, funerals and festivals, including the wish-for-longevity ceremony. In a feast, ordinary foods are not served but boiled rice is still used. The well-known feast is the feast of 49 quan họ villages with cỗ năm tầng.

Vietnamese feast has two courses: main course (món mặn. Literally: salty dish) and dessert (món ngọt. Literally: sweet dish). All dishes, except for individual bowls of rice, are enjoyed collectively. All main course dishes are served simultaneously rather than one after another. The major dish of the main course is placed in the centers of the tables, usually big pots of soup or hotpot.

Attendants are arranged into several groups according to their social status, genders, ages, their degree of acquantaince and their eating habits and preferences. It is a custom that female guests will bring some food and help the hosts to prepare the feast.

A basic feast (cỗ một tầng) consists of ten dishes: five dishes in bowls (năm bát): bóng, miến (cellophane noodles), măng (bamboo shoot), mọc (meatball), chim or gà tần (bird or chicken stew dishes) and five dishes in plates (năm đĩa): giò (Vietnamese sausage), chả, gà or vịt luộc (boiled chicken or duck), nộm (Vietnamese salad) and xào (stir-frying dishes). This kind of feast is original and is organized only in the Northern Vietnam. Other variations are found in Central and Southern Vietnam.

Four dishes are indispensable in the feast of Tết are giò (Vietnamese sausage), nem (spring roll), ninh (stew dishes) and mọc (meat ball). At this time, the feast for offering ancestors includes sticky rice, boiled chicken, Vietnamese rice wine, and other preferred foods by ancestors in the past.

Gifts are given before guests leave the feast.

Imperial cuisine

In Nguyễn dynasty, 50 best chefs were selected in to Thượng Thiện board all over the kingdom to serve the King. There are 3 meals per day, 12 dishes in breakfast and 66 dishes in lunch and dinner (including 50 main dishes and 16 sweets). An essential dish is bird's nest soup (Vietnamese language: tổ yến). Others are: fish fin (vi cá), abalone (bào ngư), deer's tendon (gân nai), bear' hands (tay gấu), rhinoceros' skin (da tê giác), etc. Water must come from Hàm Long well, Báo Quốc pagoda, Cam Lồ well near Thúy Vân mountain's bottom or from the source of Hương river. Rice is de variety coming from An Cựu imperial rice field. Phước Tích clay pots for cooking rice was used one time only. Except for Thượng Thiện board members, no one are allowed to have any contact with cooked dishes. The dishes then are given to eunuchs before passing to the King' wives, and at last, being offered to the King. The King enjoy meals (Vietnamese: ngự thiện) alone in comfortable musical space. (ref: Vietnamese language: [1]).

Popularity

Outside of Vietnam, Vietnamese cuisine is widely available in countries with strong Vietnamese immigrant communities, such as Australia, the United States, Canada, and France. Vietnamese cuisine is also popular in Japan, Korea, Czech Republic, Germany, Poland, and Russia, and in areas with dense Asian populations.

Television shows featuring Vietnamese food have increased its publicity. On The Great Food Truck Race, a Vietnamese sandwich truck called Nom Nom Truck received the most money in the first five episodes. Anthony Bourdain wrote for the Financial Times in 2005:

A year from now, I plan to live here. I will move to a small fishing village in a coastal area of Vietnam near Hoi An. I have no idea what I'm going to do there, other than write about the experience. I plan only on being a visual curiosity, the lone westerner in a Vietnamese community; to rent a house, move in with few, if any, expectations and let the experience wash over me. Whatever happens, happens.

Proverbs

Examples:

  • Ăn coi nồi, ngồi coi hướng (lit. "Checking the status of the rice pot when eating, watch where/what direction you are sitting.") = Be careful of possible faux pas.
  • Ăn theo thuở, ở theo thì = Living in accordance to one's limit and social circumstance. A variation of "In Rome, do as Romans do" (within your means).
  • Cha ăn mặn, con khát nước (lit. "Father eats salty food, the children will be thirsty.") = Bad actions will later bring bad luck/consequences to descendants.
  • Ăn kĩ no lâu, cày sâu tốt lúa (lit. Eating carefully [makes you] feel full longer, ploughing deep is good for the rice) = Careful execution brings better results than hasty actions.

Colloquial expressions

Examples:

  • Ăn nói (lit. eating speaking) = Speaking (chosen in context of care, consideration, courtersy)
  • Ăn ở (lit. eating living) = [one's] behavior and/in dealing with others.
  • Ăn nằm (lit. eating lying down) = A rather polite folksy way of saying having sex.
  • Ăn mặc (lit. eating putting on cloth) = [state of] Dressing [usually in context of comments from others]
  • Ăn xài (lit. eating spending) = Spending money, buying stuff, usually used in context of extravagance.
  • Ăn diện (lit. eating dressing up) = Dressing up, usually used in context of extravagance.
  • Ăn thua (lit. Winning losing) = Various. Không ăn thua (lit. No winning losing) = Having no effect at all. Ăn thua đủ (lit. winning losing full)= Fully committed to protest/argument/action regardless of the outcome whatsovever.
  • Ăn chơi (lit. eating playing) = Extravagant lifestyle, playboy-like lifestyle.

Food in relation to lifestyle

Vietnamese cuisine is reflective of the Vietnamese lifestyle from the preparation to how the food is served.

Going through long phases of war, political conflicts, as well as cultural shifts, the vast majority of the Vietnamese people have been living in poverty. Therefore, the ingredients for Vietnamese food are often very inexpensive but nonetheless, the way they are cooked together to create a yin-yang balance make the food simple in look but rich in flavor.

Due to economic condition, maximizing the use of ingredients to save money has become a tradition in Vietnamese cooking. In earlier decades and even nowadays in rural areas, every part of a cow is used, from the tasty meat to the gamy intestines; nothing is wasted. The same goes for vegetables like scallions: the leafy part is diced into small bits which are used to add flavor to the food while the crunchy stock and roots are re-planted.

Nước Mắm (Fish Sauce) is the most commonly used and symbolic condiment in Vietnamese cooking. It is made from fermented raw fish, and is served with most of the Vietnamese dishes. Vietnamese cuisines are not known for ingredients with top quality, but rather for the very inexpensive and simple scraps that are creatively mixed together to create dishes with bold flavor. A traditional Southern Vietnamese meal usually includes Cơm Trắng (plain white rice), Cá Kho Tộ (catfish in a clay pot), Canh Chua Cá Lóc (sour soup with snakehead fish) and it will not be completed without Nước Mắm (Fish Sauce) as a condiment. Dishes are prepared not for the look, but are served family style to bring everyone together after a long day of work.

Despite being a small country in Southeast Asia, the foods from each region in Vietnam carry their distinctive and unique characteristic that portray the geographical and living condition of the people there. The traditional Southern Vietnamese meal is made up of fresh ingredients that only the fertile Mekong Delta could provide like, Cá Lóc, and a wide range of tropical fruit like Măng Cụt (mangosteen), Hồng Dòn, Xoài Cát (mango), Thanh Long (dragon fruit) etc. To sum it up, the Southern style diet is very 'green' with vegetable, fish and tropical fruits as the main ingredients. Central Vietnam is the region in which food is prepared with the strongest, boldest flavor. This region is constantly under harsh weather condition all throughout the year, so people here do not have as many green ingredients as others do in the North and South of Vietnam. Instead, the coastline around the Central Vietnam area is known for its salt and fish sauce industries, these two condiments are central to their daily diet. Northern Vietnamese cuisine has a strong Chinese influence, and its iconic dish is Phở. While rice is a staple in the Southern Vietnamese diet, the North has a preference for noodles. Due to the drastic differences in climate, lifestyles throughout the three main regions of Vietnam vary and so do their foods. Northern Vietnamese cooking is the least bold in flavor compared to the foods from Central and Southern Vietnam.

Popular dishes

For a longer list of popular dishes, see List of Vietnamese dishes. For a list of popular dishes organized by province, see List of Vietnamese culinary specialities.

When Vietnamese dishes are referred to in English, it is generally by the Vietnamese name without the diacritics. Some dishes have gained descriptive English names as well.

Popular Vietnamese dishes include:[citation needed]

Noodle soups

Main article: Vietnamese noodles

Vietnamese cuisine boasts a huge variety of noodle soups, each with distinct influences, origins and flavours. A common characteristic of many of these soups is a rich broth.[citation needed]

Name Description
Bún bò Huế Spicy beef noodle soup originated from the royal city of Huế in Central Vietnam. Beef bones, fermented shrimp paste, lemongrass, and dried chilies give the broth its distinctive flavors. Often served with mint leaves, bean sprouts, and lime wedges. Pig's feet are also common ingredients at some restaurants.[clarification needed]
Bún măng vịt Bamboo shoots and duck noodle soup.[11]
Bún Ốc Vermicelli with snails (sea snails similar to the snails in French cuisine).
Bánh canh A thick tapioca/rice noodle soup with a simple broth. Often includes pork, crab, chicken, shrimp, spring onions and fresh onions sprinkled on top.
Bún riêu A noodle soup made of thin rice noodles and topped with crab and shrimp paste, served in a tomato-based broth and garnished with bean sprouts, prawn paste, herb leaves, tamarind/lime, tofu,water spinach, and chunks of tomato.
Mì bò viên A Chinese-influenced egg noodle soup with beef meatballs and raw steak, with chives and roasted shallot.
Phở A noodle soup with a rich, clear broth made from a long boiling of meat and spices. There are many varieties of phở made with different meats (most commonly beef or chicken) along with beef meatballs. Phở is typically served in bowls with spring onion, (in phở tai) slices of semi-cooked beef (to be cooked by the boiling hot broth), and broth. In the South, bean sprouts and various herbs are also added.
Phở satế Spicy noodle soup with thinly sliced rare beef steak, satế hot chili sauce, sliced cucumber, tomatoes, and peanut.
Mì vįt tiềm Yellow noodle soup with roasted duck and Chinese broccoli.
Hủ Tiếu A noodle soup with many varied styles including a 'dry' (non-soup but with sauce) version, brought to Vietnam by way of Chinese (Teochew) immigrants. The noodles are usually egg noodles or rice noodles, however, many other types may be used. The soup base is made of pork bones.

Soups and cháos (congees)

Canh chua, sour soup
Name Description
Súp măng cua Asparagus and crab soup typically served as the first dish at banquets.
Lẩu (Vietnamese hot pot) A spicy variation of the Vietnamese sour soup with assorted vegetables, meats, seafood, and spicy herbs.
Cháo A variation of congee. There are also a variety of different broths and meats used, including duck, offal, fish, etc. When chicken is used, it is called Cháo gà.
Cháo lòng Rice porridge with pork intestine, liver, gizzard, heart, and kidney.
Bò kho Beef stew with carrots and usually served with toasted bread or rice noodles.
Lẩu Firepot with a combination of fish, chicken, or seafood cooked in chicken broth and mixed vegetables.
Nhúng dấm Firepot with a combination of sliced rare beef and seafood cooked in sour broth, served with thin rice vermicelli noodles, fresh vegetables, rice spring roll wrapper, and dipping sauce.
Canh chua Vietnamese sour soup – typically include fish, pineapples, tomatoes, herbs, beansprouts, tamarind, and various kinds of vegetables; when made in style of a hotpot, it is called Lẩu Canh Chua.

Rice dishes

Cơm tấm
Name Description
Cơm chiên Dương Châu A Chinese fried rice dish, named after the Yangzhou region in China. It is a well-known dish in Vietnam.
Cơm gà rau thơm (chicken and rice with mint) A dish of rice cooked in chicken stock and topped with chicken that has been fried then shredded, and flavoured with mint and other herbs. The rice has a unique texture and taste that the fried mint garnish enhances. Served with a special herb sauce on the side.
Cơm hến Rice with clams – a popular inexpensive dish in the city of Huế and its vicinity.[not specific enough to verify]
Cơm chiên cá mặn Fried rice with salty fermented fish and chopped snow pea and chicken.
Cá/thịt kho A traditional family dish. Fish or pork cooked in clay pot and served with sweet and sour soup (canh chua).
Gà xào gừng Chicken sauteed with ginger and fish sauce.
Bò lúc lắc Cubed beef sauteed with cucumber, tomatoes, onion, pepper, and soy sauce.
Rau muống xào tỏi Chinese broccoli sauteed with garlic and soy sauce.
Cơm tấm In general, grilled pork (either ribs or shredded) plus bì (thinly shredded pork mixed with cooked and thinly shredded pork skin plus fried ground rice) over com tam ("broken rice" in Vietnamese) and sweet and sour fish sauce. Other types of meat, prepared in various ways, may be served with the broken rice. One can have barbecued beef, pork, or chicken served with the broken rice. The rice and meat are served with various greens and pickled vegetables, along with a prawn paste cake (chả tôm), steamed egg (trứng hấp) and grilled prawns.

Sticky rice dishes

Bánh chưng
Name Description
Bánh chưng Sticky rice wrapped in banana leaves and stuffed with mung bean paste, lean pork and black pepper, traditionally eaten during the Lunar New Year(Tết). Bánh chưng is popular in the North, while its cousin version bánh tét is more popular in the South. Bánh tét has the same content, except cylindrical in shape and lean pork is substituted with fatty pork.
Xôi Sticky rice with coconut milk, cooked the same way as one cooks rice, or steamed for a firmer texture and more flavorful taste. It comes in a great number of varieties.

Dumplings and pancakes

Main article: Bánh
Bánh bao
Bánh xèo
Name
Bánh bao A steamed bun dumpling that can be stuffed with onion, mushrooms, or vegetables. Bánh bao is an adaptation from the Chinese baozi to fit Vietnamese taste. Vegetarian banh bao are also available. Vegetarian bánh bao are popular food in Buddhist temples. Typical stuffings for bánh bao include slices of marinated xá xíu (BBQ pork from Chinese cooking) meat, tiny boiled quail eggs, and pork.
Bánh bèo A central Vietnamese dish consisting of tiny round rice flour pancakes, each served in a similarly shaped dish. They are topped with minced shrimp and other ingredients such as chives, fried shallots, and pork rinds. Eaten with nước chấm.
Bánh bột chiên (fried rice flour cake) A Chinese influenced pastry that exists in many versions all over Asia; the Vietnamese version features a special tangy soy sauce on the side, rice flour cubes with fried eggs (either duck or chicken) and some vegetables. This is a popular after-school snack for young students in the Southern part of Vietnam.
Bánh bột lọc A Huế food, consisting of tiny rice dumplings made in a clear rice flour batter, often in a small flattish tube shape. Stuffed with shrimp and ground pork. It is wrapped and cooked inside a banana leaf, served often as Vietnamese hors d'œuvres at more casual buffet-type parties.
Bánh xèo A type of crêpe made out of rice flour with turmeric, shrimps with shells on, slivers of fatty pork, sliced onions, and sometimes button mushrooms, fried in one or two teaspoons of oil, usually coconut oil, which is the most popular oil used in Vietnam. It is eaten with lettuce and various local herbs and dipped in Nước chấm or sweet fermented peanut butter sauce. Rice papers are sometimes used as wrappers to contain banh xeo and the accompanying vegetables.

Wraps and rolls

Main article: Món cuốn
Name Description
Bánh cuốn Rice flour rolls stuffed with ground pork, prawns, and wood ear mushroom. They are eaten in a variety of ways with many side dishes, including one out of many kinds of chả (sausage).
Bì cuốn Rice paper rolls with the bi (bì) mixture of thinly shredded pork and thinly shredded pork skin tossed with powdered toasted rice, among other ingredients, along with salad. Similar to summer rolls.
Bò bía (Vietnamese-style popiah) Stir-fried jicama and carrots, Chinese sausage, shredded scrambled eggs, all wrapped with vermicelli noodle in a rice paper roll. Dipped into a spicy peanut sauce (with freshly roasted and ground peanuts). It is of Chinese (Hokkien/Chaozhou) origin, having been brought over by the immigrants. In Saigon (particularly in Cholon), it is common to see an old Teochew man or woman selling bò bía at their roadside stand. The name bò bía phonetically resembles its original name popiah in the Teochew language.
Chả giò or Nem rán (Northern) A kind of spring roll (sometimes referred to as egg roll) – deep-fried flour rolls filled with pork, yam, crab, shrimp, rice vermicelli, mushrooms ("wood ear" variety) and other ingredients. The spring roll goes by many names – as many people actually use (falsely) the word "spring roll" while referring to the fresh transparent rice paper rolls (discussed below as "Summer Rolls"), where the rice paper is dipped into water to soften and then rolled up with various ingredients. Traditionally these rolls are made with a rice paper wrapper but in recent years Vietnamese chefs outside of Vietnam have changed the recipe to use a wheat-flour-based wrapper.
Gỏi cuốn (Salad rolls) Also known as Vietnamese fresh rolls, or summer rolls. They are rice paper rolls that often include shrimp, herbs, pork, rice vermicelli and other ingredients wrapped up and dipped in nước chấm or peanut sauce. Spring rolls almost constitute an entire category of Vietnamese foods, as there are numerous different kinds of spring rolls with different ingredients in them.

Bánh tráng can be understood as either of the following:

thin rice flour sheet dried into what is commonly called "rice paper", used in making spring roll (a.k.a. chả giò), and summer rolls (a.k.a. gỏi cuốn) by applying some water to soften the texture.
  • Bánh tráng nướng (in the South), or bánh đa in the North
These are large round flat rice crackers, which, when heated, enlarge into round, easily shattered pieces. They can be eaten separately, although they are most commonly added into the vermicelli noodle dishes like cao lầu and Mì Quảng. Many types of 'bánh tráng' exist, including the clear sesame seed ones, prawn-like cracker with dried spring onions, sweet milk, and so on.

Sandwiches and pastries

Main article: Bánh mì
Bánh mì
Name Description
Bánh mì kẹp thịt Vietnamese baguette or French bread traditionally with pâté, Vietnamese mayonnaise, cold cuts, jalapeños, pickled daikon, pickled carrot, and cucumber slices. While traditional cold cuts include ham, head cheese, and Vietnamese bologna, it is common to see varieties of stuffing such as eggs, canned sardines, shredded pork, fried tofu, and grilled meats. Sandwiches are often garnished with coriander leaves and black pepper.
Bánh Pâté Chaud A French inspired meat-filled pastry. Characterized by flaky crust and either pork or chicken as the filling.

Meat dishes

Sliced chả lụa served over bánh cuốn, and garnished with fried shallots
Name Description
Bò kho (Meat Soup) A beef and vegetable stew, often cooked with warm, spicy herbs and served very hot with French baguettes for dipping. In northern Vietnam, it is known as "bò sốt vang"
Bò lá lốt A dish of spiced beef rolled in a pepper leaf (lá lốt) and grilled.
Bò lúc lắc (Shaking beef) A dish of beef cut into cubes and marinated, served over greens (usually watercress), and sautéed onions and tomatoes. Eaten with rice.
Bò 7 món (Vietnamese seven courses of Beef) A less popular version is the Cá 7 Món, seven courses of fish.
Chả lụa A sausage made with ground lean pork and potato starch. Also available fried; known as chả chiên. There are various kinds of chả (sausage), made of ground chicken (chả gà), ground beef (chả bò), fish (chả cá), or tofu (chả chay, or vegetarian sausage).
Gà nướng sả Grilled chicken with lemon grass(sả). Lemon grass grilled beef and other meats are also popular variations.
Nem nướng Grilled meatballs, usually made of seasoned pork. Often colored reddish with food coloring and with a distinct taste, grilled on skewers like kebabs. Ingredients in the marinade include fish sauce.
Nem Nguội A Huế dish and a variation of the Nem nướng meatballs, these also come from Central Vietnam. They are chilled, small and rectangular in shape, and stuffed with vermicelli. The reddish meat is covered with peppers and typically a chili. Very spicy, eaten almost exclusively as a cocktail snack.

Seafood dishes

Name Description
Cá cuốn A roll with fish and spring onions.
Cá kho tộ Caramelized fish in clay pot.
Chạo tôm Prawn paste/cake on sugarcane.

Salads

Gỏi is Vietnamese salad. Many varieties with the most popular including:

Name Description
Gỏi đu đủ Vietnamese papaya Salad typically with shredded papaya, herbs, various meats such as shrimp, slices of pork, liver, or jerky, herbs, and with a more vinegar-based rendition of nước chấm.
Gỏi Huế rau muống A salad dish originating from Huế (Central Vietnam), including water spinach (Rau Muống).
Gỏi ngó sen Lotus stem salad, with shrimp and pork or chicken.
Gỏi đậu hủ Tofu salad with shredded cabbage, mint, and soy dressing.
Gỏi nhệch Rice paddy eel salad with shredded vegetables
Gỏi sứa Jelly fish salad with carrot, cucumber, and sesame dressing.
Gỏi chân vįt Duck feet salad with shredded cabbage and sweet and sour fish sauce.
Bò tái chanh Shredded salad with thinly sliced rare beef, fresh lemon, onion, fried onions, and fish sauce.
Gỏi gà Chicken and cabbage salad.
Gỏi mit Young jackfruit salad with peanuts, mint, and fish sauce.

Curries

  • Vietnamese curry is also popular, especially in the south due to the adoption of curries from neighboring Laos and Cambodia[12], where curries are common including the optional use of coconut milk. Therefore, curry chicken in Vietnam can be either made with or without coconut milk. It is usually served with bread, rice, or noodles.
  • Another type of well-known Vietnamese curry is beef brisket curry or oxtail curry. The beef curries are often served with French bread for dipping, or with rice.
  • Cà ri gà is a popular Vietnamese curry that is made with chicken, carrots, sweet potatoes, and peas in a coconut curry sauce. It is also served with rice or baguette.

Pickled vegetable dishes

Dưa muối is Vietnamese term for this.

Name Description
Dưa chua, Dưa cải muối chua Made from a kind of mustard green
Cà bát muối xổi Made from Vietnamese eggplant
Dưa kiệu Made from Allium chinense. This is a dish of Tết holiday.
Dưa hành Made from onion bulbs.
Dưa món Made from carrot, daikon, green papaya,...

Fermented fishes or shrimps

Mắm is a Vietnamese term for fermented fish or shrimps. Mắm is used as main course, ingredients or condiments. The types of fish most commonly used to make mắm are catfish, snakeheads, and mackerels. The fish flesh remains intact (this is how it is different from nước mắm), and can be eaten cooked or uncooked, with or without vegetables and condiments.

Name Description
Mắm tôm Made from fermented shrimps.
Mắm cá thu Made from mackerel fish. This is usually made in Bình Định province.
Mắm nêm Usually made from round scad fish. This is a dish of Central Vietnam.
Mắm tôm chua Made from shrimp, green papaya. This is a dish of Huế city.
Mắm ruốc Made from krills. This is a dish from Central Vietnam.
Mắm cá linh Made from a kind of fish that immigrates to Mekong delta every flood season from Tonlé Sap, Cambodia.

Sour fermented meat dishes

Nem chua, a sweet, sour, salty and spice fermented pork or beef sausage, usually served with a slice of garlic, bird's eye chili and a Vietnamese coriander

Nem chua is Vietnamese term for this. Nem chua is served instantly or fried. Nem chua is made from pork meat, coated by fried rice (thính gạo), mixed with pork skin and then wrapped in country gooseberry's leaves (lá chùm ruột) or Erythrina orientalis's leaves (lá vông nem). The preservation process will finish in about 3–5 days.

Nem chua has its variations in many areas: Vĩnh Yên, Ước Lễ village (Hà Đông), Vẽ village (Hà Nội), Quảng Yên (Quảng Ninh), Thanh Hóa, Đông Ba (Huế), Ninh Hòa (Khánh Hòa), Thủ Đức (Ho Chi Minh city), Lai Vung (Đồng Tháp), etc.

Sausages

See also: Giò lụa

The Vietnamese term for sausage is giò, usually made from fresh ground pork and beef. Sausage makers may use their meat, skin or ear. Fish sauce is added before banana leaves are used to wrapped. The last step is boiling. For common sausage, 1 kg meat is boiled for 1-hour. For chả quế, the boiled meat mixture will then be roasted with cinnamon.

Vegetarian dishes

Main article: Buddhist cuisine
Vegetarian dishes at a Buddhist restaurant in Ho Chi Minh city

Desserts

Vietnamese-style donuts
Name Description
Chè A sweet dessert beverage or pudding usually made from beans and sticky rice. Many varieties of chè are available, each with different fruits, beans (for example, mung beans or kidney beans), and other ingredients. Chè can be served hot or cold and often with coconut milk.
Rau câu A popular gelatin dessert cake made with agar and flavored with coconut milk, pandan or other flavors. Because the gelatin is firm in texture compared to American gelatin, Vietnamese gelatin can be layered and shaped into intricate cakes. The gelatin is often called sương sa.
Chuối Chiên Banana deep-fried in a batter and often served hot with cold ice cream, usually vanilla or coconut.
Bánh Flan Influenced by French cuisine and served with caramel or coffee sauce .
Sinh tố A fruit smoothie made with just a few teaspoons of sweetened condensed milk, crushed ice and fresh local fruits. The smoothies come in many varieties including custard apple, sugar apple, avocado, jackfruit, durian, strawberry, passionfruit, dragonfruit, lychee, mango, and banana.
Sữa chua Made with condensed milk and has a sweet, tart flavor. It can be eaten in its cool, soft form or frozen. In Vietnam, it can be seen served frozen in small, clear bags.

There are also various cakes and confections made with any combination of sweet beans, tropical fruit and glutinous rice.

Fruit preserves

Vietnamese use fruits in season. When the season is passing, they made candied fruit, called ô mai and fruit preserves, called mứt in Vietnamese language. The original taste of ô mai is sour, sweet, salty and spicy. The most famous kind of ô mai is ô mai mơ, made from apricot harvested from the forest around Perfume pagoda (chùa Hương), Hà Tây province. This ô mai consists of apricot covered by ginger, sugar, liquorice root slivers.

Tofu

Tofu (đậu hũ) is widely used in Vietnamese cuisine. Tofu is boiled, fried (sprinkled by ground shrimp or oil-dipped minced spring onion) or used as ingredient in a variety of dishes.

Other soybean products ranges from soy sauce (nước tương)- usually light soy sauce, fermented bean paste (tương), fermented bean curd (đậu phụ nhự or chao) to douhua (soft tofu sweet soup- tàu hũ nước đường, or tào phớ).

Pastries

See also: Bánh lá

The Vietnamese name for pastries is bánh. Most Vietnamese pastries is made by leaf-wrapping and boiling. The most famous pair of cake is square cake (bánh chưng) symbolizing the Earth and a round cake (bánh dày) symbolizing the Heaven, which are used in Vietnamese New Year (Tết).

Condiments and sauces

Condiments

Vietnamese usually use raw vegetables as condiments for their dishes. It named rau sống (literally: raw vegetable) or rau ghém (literally: sliced vegetable). It combines properly with each main dish in flavour. For some dishes, rau sống could come into almost all the flavours: sour, bitter, spicy,...Dishes in which rau sống is indispensable are bánh xèo and hot pot. The vegetables principally are herbs and wild edible vegetables gathered from forests and family gardens. Leaves and buds are the most common parts of vegetables used. Most of the vegetables have medicinal value.

Rau sống includes:

  • Lettuce (xà lách)
  • Raw bean sprout (giá sống)
  • Herbs (rau thơm)
  • Shreded banana flower (bắp chuối bào)
  • Green banana (chuối xanh)

Pairing

  • Chicken dishes are combined with lime leaves.
  • Crab and seashell dishes are combined with fishy smell herb and perilla.
  • Dishes reputed as "cold" or "fishy smelled", such as catfish, clams or snails, are combined with ginger or lemongrass.

Sauces

Food colourings

The colour of Vietnamese food comes from natural ingredients.

  • Red: usually from beetroot or by frying annatto seed to make oil (dầu điều)
  • Orange: for sticky rice, comes from Gac
  • Yellow: from turmeric
  • Green: from pandan leaf or katuk
  • Purple: from magenta plant (lá cẩm)
  • Black: of gai cake is from ramie leaf (lá gai)
  • Dark brown: for stew dishes, using nước màu or nước hàng, which is made by heating sugar to the temperature above that of caramel (170 °C).

Colourings can be absorbed by mixing ground colourings or colouring liquid or wraping before boiling to get the extracts. When colouring dishes, the tastes and smells of colourings must also be considered.

Herbs and spices

Vietnamese hot chili peppers are added to most foods, especially in central and southern Vietnam
  • Coriander and green onion leaves can be found in most Vietnamese dishes.
  • A basic technique of stir-frying vegetable is frying garlic or shallot with oil before put vegetable into the pan.
  • In Northern Vietnam, all dishes with fish must be garnished with dill.
  • In Central Vietnam, the mixture of ground lemon grass and chili pepper are frequently used in dishes with beef.
  • In Southern Vietnam, coconut water is used in most stew dishes.
  • The pair culantro (ngò gai) and rice paddy herb (ngò om or ngổ) is indispensable in all kinds of sour soups in the Southern Vietnam.
  • Spearmint is often used with strongly fishy dishes.
  • Perilla is usually used with crab dishes.

Beverages

Cà phê sữa đá
Vietnamese wine
Snake is one of Vietnamese varieties of rượu thuốc. The bottle on the left is a cobra wine (Rượu rắn)
Name Description
Jasmine tea A local tea beverage of Vietnam.
Bia hơi A Vietnamese specialty draft beer produced locally in small batches.
Cà phê sữa đá Strong iced coffee, most often served with sweetened condensed milk at the bottom of the cup to be stirred in. The beverage is very popular among the Vietnamese.
Nước mía Sugar cane juice extracted from squeezing sugar cane plant, served with ice.
Rau má Pennywort juice made from blending fresh pennywort leaves with water and sugar until dissolved. The beverage is a near-transparent green color and served over ice.
(tropical sorbets) N/A
Sữa đậu nành (Soy milk) A soybean drink served either hot or cold, sweetened or unsweetened.
Rượu đế A distilled liquor made of rice.
Trà đá A kind of ice tea popular for its cheap price. Has a faint lime-yellow color and usually doesn't have much taste.
Trà đá chanh Lemon iced-tea.
Chanh muối Sweet and sour salty lemon drink.
Soda xí muội Sweet and salty plum soda.
Soda hột gà Egg soda.
Sinh tố Vietnamese fruit smoothie with green bean, red bean, avocado, pineapple, strawberry, jackfruit, durian, sapota, or mango with sweet condensed milk.
Nước sắn dây hoa bưởi Made of kudzu and pomelo flower extract.

Exotic dishes

Dog meat at a market stall in Ninh Binh

The use of ingredients that are typically uncommon or taboo in most countries is one of the quintessential attributes that make Vietnamese cuisine unique. Television chef Andrew Zimmern visited Vietnam in the twelfth episode of his popular show Bizarre Foods with Andrew Zimmern. Cobra beating heart and dried bones, silk worms and bull penis are some examples of the dishes he sampled.

In some countries, unusual ingredients, most of the time, can be found only in exotic restaurants. What makes the use of these ingredients in Vietnam stand out is that ingredients that are deemed atypical in most countries can play a customary role in daily family dishes, from the poor's to the riches'.

A common and inexpensive breakfast dish that can be found in any wet market, balut (hột vịt lộn) is a fertilized duck egg with a nearly developed embryo inside which is boiled and eaten in the shell. It is typically served with fresh herbs: rau răm or Vietnamese coriander, salt, and pepper; lime juice is another popular additive, when available. A more unusual version of balut dish – Fetus quails (trứng cút lộn)- is a snack favored by many Vietnamese students. Paddy crab and paddy snail are the main ingredients in bún riêu ốc – a popular noodle dish – and in some everyday soup dishes (canh) and braised food (món bung). Family meals with silk worms (nhộng), banana flowers (hoa chuối), sparrows, doves, fermented fish and shrimp (mắm cá, mắm tôm tép) are not rare sights. Seasonal favorites include ragworm (rươi), which are made into many dishes such as fried rươi omelet ( chả rươi), fermented "rươi" sauce (mắm rươi), steamed rươi (rươi hấp), stir-fried rươi with radish or bamboo shoot (rươi xào củ niễng măng tươi hay củ cải).

Northern Vietnamese cuisine is also notable for its wide range of meat choices. Exotic meats such as dog meat, snake, soft-shell turtle, deer and domestic goat are sold in street-side restaurants and generally paired with alcoholic beverages. A taboo in many Western countries, consumption of dog meat is a common sight throughout the northern part of the country and is believed to raise the libido in men. Paddy mouse meat – barbecued, braised, stir- or deep-fried – is a rarer dish that can be found in many Vietnamese rural areas or even high-end city restaurants.

Anthony Bourdain, the host chef of Travel Channel's Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations, wrote in April 2005, for the Financial Times, "...everything is used – and nothing wasted in Vietnam." Animal parts that are often disposed of in many Western countries are utilized fully in Vietnamese cooking. Organs, including lungs, livers, hearts, intestines and bladders of pigs, cows and chickens are sold at an even higher price than their meat. Chicken testicles and undeveloped eggs are stir-fried with vegetables and served as an everyday dish.

Many of the traditional Northern Lunar New Year – Tết – dishes such as thịt đông, giò thủ, canh măng móng giò involve the use of pig heads, tongues, throats and feet. Pig and cow tails as well as chicken heads, necks and feet are Vietnamese favorite beer dishes. Bóng, used as an ingredient in canh bóng – a kind of soup, is pig skin baked until popped. Steamed pig brains can be found anywhere along a Vietnamese street. Also in the northern part of Vietnam, different kinds of animal blood can be made into a dish called tiết canh by whisking the blood with fish sauce and cold water in a shallow dish along with finely chopped cooked duck innards (such as gizzards), sprinkled with crushed peanuts and chopped herbs such as Vietnamese coriander, mint, etc. It is then cooled until the blood coagulates into a soft jelly-like mixture and served raw.

Common ingredients

Further information: List of Vietnamese ingredients

Vegetables

Fruits

Herbs (rau thơm)

Vietnamese utensils

  • Basket, various kinds (rổ or rá)
  • Bowl (small bowl: bát in Northern Vietnam or chén in Southern Vietnam; large bowl: tô)
  • Chopsticks (đũa)
  • Chõ- a kind of steamer to cook glutinous rice
  • Clay pot cooking (thố đất)
  • Cup (cốc or ly)
  • Dipper (gáo)
  • Flat drying basket (nong or nia)
  • Knife (dao)
  • Mill (cối xay gạo)
  • Mortar (cối giã)
  • Pestle (chày)
  • Plate (dĩa or đĩa)
  • Pot, various kinds (nồi and niêu)
  • Spoon (thìa in Northern Vietnam or muỗng in Southern Vietnam)
  • Teacup (tách or chén uống trà)
  • Teapot (ấm pha trà)
  • Tray, various kinds (mâm and khay)

Historical influences

Due to historical contact with China, Vietnam shares many of its characteristics with China. In culinary traditions, the Chinese introduced to Vietnam many dishes, including hoành thánh (wonton), xá xíu (char siu), há cảo (har gow), hủ tiếu (ka tieu), mì (wheat noodles), bò bía (popiah), bánh quẩy (youtiao), mooncake and bánh pía (Suzhou style mooncake), bánh tổ (nian gao), sủi dìn (tang yuan), bánh bò, bánh bao (baozi), cơm chiên Dương Châu (Yangzhou-fried rice), mì xào (chow mein). The Vietnamese adopted these foods and added their own styles and flavors to the foods. Ethnic minorities in the mountainous region near the China–Vietnam border also adopted some foods from China. Ethnic Tày and Nùng in Lạng Sơn province adopted thịt lợn quay (roasted pork) and khau nhục (braised pork belly) from China. Some New World vegetables, such as chilli and maize, also made way to Vietnam from the Ming dynasty.

The French introduced baguettes to Vietnam, which were then combined with Vietnamese stuffing to become a popular fast food in Vietnam called bánh mì and known overseas as “Vietnamese baguettes," though different from the French counterpart in that the baguette is normally made entirely of rice flour. The French also brought to Vietnam onions, cauliflower, lettuce, potatoes, tarragon, carrot, artichoke, asparagus, and coffee. Onions are called hành tây (literally “Western shallots”), asparagus as măng tây (literally “Western bamboo shoots”) and potatoes are called khoai tây (literally “Western yam”) in Vietnamese, which reflect their origin before arriving in Vietnam. French-influenced dishes are numerous and not limited to: sa lát (salad), pâté, patê sô (a Brittany pasty called "pâté chaud"), bánh sừng trâu (croissant), bánh flan, ya ua (yogurt), rôti (rotisserie), bơ (butter), vịt nấu cam (duck à l'orange), ốp lết (omelette), ốp la (œufs au plat), phạc xi (farcies), bít tết (beefsteak), sốt vang (cooking with wine), dăm bông (jambon), xúc xích (saucisse).

Vietnamese cuisine also has influences from its neighbors Laos and Cambodia, in which coconut milk and spices including curries were introduced to Vietnam[13]. Though not common in the north, cà ri is a quite popular dish in central and southern Vietnam. The most common form is the chicken curry and to a lesser extent, the goat curry. The chicken curry is an indispensable dish in many social gathering events such as weddings, funerals and the yearly death anniversary of a loved one. Similar to Laos and Cambodia, curry in Vietnam is eaten either with the French baguettes, steamed rice, or round rice noodles (rice vermicelli). The Vietnamese also adopted green papaya salad from Laos[14] and mắm bồ hóc (prahok) from Cambodia. Mắm bồ hóc is used as a central ingredient of a Vietnamese rice noodle soup called bún nước lèo.

Due to influences from China and France, the French Indochina countries of Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia have similar dishes and beverages including beef noodle soup (“Feu” in Laos, “Phở” in Vietnam, and “Kuy teav” in Cambodia), spring rolls, breads, sandwiches, and coffee.

With the contact with communist countries from Eastern Europe, the Vietnamese adopted dishes such as stuffed cabbage soup, sa lát Nga (Russian salad) and Czech beer.

See also

References

  1. ^ AsianInfo: Article on Vietnamese food
  2. ^ "Vietnamese Ingredients". WokMe. 2011. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
  3. ^ Annie Corapi (2011). "The 10 healthiest ethnic cuisines". CNN Health. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  4. ^ "Gastronomic Tourism". Vietnam Online. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
  5. ^ "Five Element Acupuncture Theory and Clinical Applications". Yin Yang House. 20 June 2006. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  6. ^ "VIETNAMESE FOOD". Vietnam Travel. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  7. ^ "Yin – Yang in Vietnamese culinary art". Viet Nam mon pays natal. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  8. ^ "Typical Vietnamese Foods". ActiveTravelVIetnam.com. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  9. ^ Andrea Nguyen (13 March 2011). "Heaven in a Bowl: The Original Pho". Retrieved 28 December 2011.
  10. ^ Nguyen Vu Hanh Dung and Phan Dieu Linh. "The Food of Vietnam – Vietnamese Food". GuideVietnam.com. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
  11. ^ Dang, Vinh. "Bún 101". Vietnam Talking Points. One Vietnam Network. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
  12. ^ Food in Vietnam
  13. ^ Food in Vietnam
  14. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=soQ-x90jQv0C&pg=PA168&dq=yam+papaya+salad+Laos&hl=en&sa=X&ei=YshPUcK8HozbigLTm4HwAg&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=yam%20papaya%20salad%20Laos&f=false Asian Bites: A feast of flavors from Turkey to India to Japan]

Further reading

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