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|population_density = 1995
|population_density = 1995
|population_density_cite = <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/census01/cen01-3.htm | title = Ranking of Districts by Population Density | publisher = Government of Uttar Pradesh | accessdate = 2007-02-04}}</ref>
|population_density_cite = <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/census01/cen01-3.htm | title = Ranking of Districts by Population Density | publisher = Government of Uttar Pradesh | accessdate = 2007-02-04}}</ref>
|area_magnitude = sq.km
|area_magnitude = 9
|area_total = 1550
|area_total = 1550
|area_telephone = 0542
|area_telephone = 0542

Revision as of 05:47, 7 June 2007

Varanasi
Varanasi
Government
 • Mayor?
Population
 (2001)
 • Total3,147,927

Vārāṇasī pronunciationⓘ (Hindi: वाराणसी, IPA: [βɑrɑɳɐsiː]), also known as Benares, Banaras, or Benaras (Hindi: बनारस, Banāras, IPA: [bɐnɑrɐs]), or Kashi or Kasi (Hindi: काशी, Kāśī), is a famous Hindu holy city situated on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is one of the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world, dating back thousands of years and contemporaneous with the Sumer civilisation.[3] The city is called Kasi, "the luminous" in the Rigveda.[4] It is often also referred to as "city of temples and learning."[5]

The culture of Varanasi is deeply associated with the river Ganga and the river's religious importance. The city has been a cultural and religious center in northern India for thousands of years. Varanasi has its own style of classical Hindustani music, and has produced prominent philosophers, poets, writers and musicians in Indian history, including Kabir, Ravi Das, Munshi Premchand, Jaishankar Prasad, Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Hariprasad Chaurasia and Ustad Bismillah Khan. Varanasi is the home of Banaras Hindu University. Tulsidas wrote his Ramcaritmanas here, and Gautam Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Kashi. The language spoken in Varanasi is Kashika Bhojpuri related to Hindi.

Name

The official name of Varanasi is not a modern name. It is possibly based on the fact that it lies between where the Varuna River, to the north, and the river Assi, to the south, flow into the river Ganga.[6] The name Varanasi was spelt Baranasi in Pali, which gave birth to the name Banaras.[7] The different spellings such as Benares and Benaras were in active use during the British regime in India, but these forms of the name are now lost. The name Banaras is still widely used.

Another theory about the origin of the name suggests that the river Varuna itself was called Varanasi in the old times, thus the name of the city.[8] This is generally disregarded by historians though there may be some earlier texts suggesting it to be so.[9]

Through the ages Varanasi was also known variously as Avimuktaka, Anandakanana, Mahasmasana, Surandhana, Brahma Vardha, Sudarsana, Ramya and Kasi. In literature and scripture, the city is often referred to poetically as Kasi or Kashi, "the luminous"; an allusion to the city's historical status as a centre of learning, literature, and culture. Kasikanda described the glory of the city in 15000 verses in the Skanda Purana, in which Lord Shiva says,

The three worlds form one city of mine and Kasi is my royal palace therein.[10]

The city is very commonly referred to as "city of temples", "holy city of India", "religious capital of India", "city of lights", and "city of learning". It is also called the "cultural capital of India".

History

Painting of Benares in 1890.

The information as to how and by whom the city was founded is still unknown. According to the myth, the city was founded by Hindu deity Shiva, thus making it one of the most important pilgrimage destinations in the country. In fact, it is one of the seven sacred cities of Hindus. It is described in many old Hindu scriptures like Rigveda, Skanda purana, Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Many references to the city of Varanasi are found in many ancient texts, leading to more mystery. It is generally believed that the city is as old as 3000 years old.[11] Another myth is that it is 5000 years old.[12][13][10] It is believed that Varanasi is the oldest continually inhabited city in the world.[3]

Varanasi was a commercial and industrial centre famous for its muslin and silk fabrics, perfumes, ivory works, and sculpture. During the time of Gautama Buddha (born circa 567 BCE), Varanasi was the capital of the kingdom of Kashi. Buddha gave his first sermon at the nearby town of Sarnath. The city remained a centre of religious, educational, and artistic activities as attested by the celebrated Chinese traveller Xuanzang, who also said that the city extended for about 5 km along the western bank of the Ganges.

Successive invasions starting from 1193 CE by Mohammed Ghori and ending with plunder of Benares by Warren Hastings nearly 600 years later saw many temples being built and rebuilt. During the Muslim occupation, Varanasi subsequently declined during the following centuries. A symbol of Hinduism, the city was pillaged and destroyed several times by the Muslims, first by the hordes of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1033 CE, all Hindu temples being destroyed. The material was used to build mosques. Although some relief was brought by Mughal emperor Akbar at the start of the seventeenth century, another destruction was led by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb at the end of the century, who renamed the city Mohammadâbâd. In these years of Muslim rule, learned scholars fled to other parts of the country.

Varanasi (Benares) in 1922.

Varanasi became an independent kingdom in the eighteenth century, and under subsequent British rule it remained a commercial and religious centre. In 1910, the British made Varanasi a new Indian state, with Ramnagar as headquarters but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi. Kashi Naresh (Maharaja of Kashi) still resides in the fort of Ramnagar.

It is also said that Ayurveda originated at Varanasi. References to Varanasi can be found in age-old Indian scriptures and hymns. One such reference is found in one of the hymns written by Sri Veda Vyasa:

Ganga-taranga-ramaneeya-jataakalaapam,
Gauri-nirantara-vibhushita-vaamabhaagam.
Narayanapriyam-Ananga-madaapahaaram,
Varanasi-pura-patim bhaja Vishwanatham.

The famous American writer Mark Twain once wrote, "Benares is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together."[14]

On March 7, 2006, four bombs went off in an act of terrorism at Varanasi. Around 20 people were reported killed, and many were injured. One of the bombs was planted in the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple, a shrine dedicated to Lord Hanuman, while another was planted on a platform of the Varanasi Cantonment Railway Station, the main railway station in the city. An unknown Islamic group called Lashkar-e-Kahab claimed responsibility for the terror attacks.[15]

Geography

Varanasi is closely associated with the Ganges and has many temples along its banks

The city of Varanasi is located in the middle Ganga valley of North India, in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh, along the left crescent-shaped bank of the Ganga river. The Varanasi City is the district headquarters of the Varanasi district. The "Varanasi Urban Agglomeration" — an agglomeration of seven urban sub-units — covers an area of 112.26 km² (approximetely 43 mi²).[16] The urban agglomeration is stretched between 82º 56’E - 83º 03’E and 25º 14’N - 25º 23.5’N.[16] Being located in broad plain of North India, (also called as Gangetic plains), the land can be very much called as plain. Due to yearly low level floods in river, the soil is repeatedly replenished and hence is very productive for agriculture for most of the part of the city.

On a local level though, Varanasi is located on a higher ground between rivers Ganga and Varuna, the mean elevation being 80.71 m.[17] The main land is relatively stony, which with the absence of small distributaries and canals, provides a continuous and relatively dry land, which was perfect for settling down in the ancient times.

It is often difficult to suggest the original geography of Varanasi, due to conflicts between descriptions provided in old texts and city's current status. It is often said that Varanasi is situated between the two confluences: one of Ganga and Varuna and other of Ganga and river Assi. The statement gets its weight from the fact that the distance between these two confluences is around 2.5 miles, and a round trip to between these two places is considered holy by Hindus, and is called Pancha-kroshi Yatra (the five mile journey). At the end of this journey, Sakshi Vinayak Temple is located where devotees go on to complete the circle.

On the contrary, though Varuna and Ganga do exist as rivers, Assi also exists but only as a nullah. Also, there is no evidence that Assi was ever a big river.

Climate

Varanasi has a humid subtropical climate with high variation between summer and winter temperatures. Summers are long, from early April till October, with the monsoon season in between. Cold waves from the Himalayan region dip temperatures across the city in the winter from December to February. The average temperature is 32°C–46°C (90°F–115°F) in the summer; 5°C–15°C (41°F–59°F) in the winter.[17] The average annual rainfall is 1110 mm (44 in).[18] Fog is common in winter while hot dry winds called loo blow in summer. The city is relatively free from the air pollution.[citation needed] Recently due to water pollution, making of dams, and increase in temperature due to global warming etc., the water of river has gone significantly down and small portions of land can be seen in the middle of the river.

People and culture

Situated on the banks of river Ganga, Varanasi attracts thousands of Hindu piligrims every year.

Regions near the banks of river Ganga are extremely crowded and house several Hindu temples, narrow winding lanes and road-side shops. The main residential areas of Varanasi (especially for the middle and upper classes) are situated in regions far from the ghats; they are more spacious and less polluted. Such a place in an Indian city is called a housing colony. Varanasi has nearly 100 ghats, most of which are bathing ghats, while some others are for cremation. According to Hindu belief, dying at Kasi ensures release from the eternal cycle of birth and rebirth. Many of these ghats were built when the Marathas controlled the city and the Scindias, the Peshwas, Holkars and Bhonsles stand out as patrons of present day Varanasi. Even today many of the ghats are privately owned. Shivala or Kali ghat is still owned by the former Maharaja of Kasi.

Various legends are associated with the ghats and it is believed that Dasaswamedh Ghat is where Lord Brahma sacrificed 10 horses in a yajna. Manikarnika Ghat is the place where Lord Vishnu dug a pit with his Chakra and while performing various penances filled it with perspiration. As Lord Shiva watched him, his earring (Manik) fell into the pit, hence the name. According to another legend, in order to keep Lord Shiva moving around with his devotees, Godess Parvati asked him to find her earrings, which she hid, lost on the bank of Ganga and make Lord Shiva stay at the place and search forever. It is said that when the body is cremated at Mani Karnika Ghat Lord Shiva asks every soul whether they have seen the earinging (Mani Karnika). Other interesting ghats are Man Mandinr Ghat built in 1770 CE by Jai Singh of Jaipur, the intrepid astronomer who built his observatories here, Mansarover Ghat built by Man Singh of Amber. Bachraj is used by Jain devotees for it has three river bank Jain temples. Tulsi Ghat is where Tulsidas wrote Ramcharitmanas. Lalita Ghat was built by late King of Nepal.

Holy city

Varanasi is a holy city in Hinduism, one of the most sacred pilgrimage places for Hindus of all denomination. More than 1,000,000 pilgrims visit the city each year. Here is the holy shrine of Lord Kashi Vishwanath, (an aspect of Lord Shiva) and one of the twelve revered Jyotirlingas of the Lord Shiva. Hindus believe that bathing in the river Ganga will remit sins and that dying in the holy city of Kashi (Varanasi) circumvents rebirth. This holy city is worshipped as one of the Shakti Peethas where Divine Mother Sati's earring fell and so devotees believe that on that spot stands the present Vishalakshi Temple.[10] It is here that Shankaracharya wrote his commentaries on Hinduism, leading to the great Hindu revival.

People performing Hindu ceremony at one of the ghats of Varanasi


यस्य क्वापि गतिर्नास्ति
तस्य वाराणसी गति

It is not just the Hindus venerate Varanasi today, for the city has links with Buddhism and Jainism as well. In the residential neighbourhood of the city lies Sarnath, the site of the deer park where Gautama Buddha is said to have given his first sermon about the basic principles of Buddhism. It is one of the four pilgrimage sites designated by Gautama Buddha, the other three being Kushinagar, Bodh Gaya, and Lumbini. The Dhamek Stupa is one of the few pre-Ashokan stupas remaining, although only the foundations remain. Also remaining is the Chaukhandi Stupa commemorating the spot where the Buddha met his first deciples, dating back to the fifth century or earlier amd later enhanced by the addition of an octagonal tower.

Varanasi is also a pilgrimage place for Jains. It is believed to be the birthplace of Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankar. Vaishnavism and Shaivism have co-existed in Varanasi harmoniously. The city has also been influenced by Islamic culture.

This explains the continuous tension between communities in the city and the fact that really ancient monuments are few. However, Varanasi has kept its sacred position as the Holy City of Hinduism.

Temples

Varanasi is a city of temples. Almost every road crossing has a nearby temple. Such small temples form the basis of daily local prayers and other rituals. But there are many large temples too, erected at different times through out the history of Varanasi.

Kashi Vishwanath Temple, also called Golden Temple, which in its present shape was built in 1780 by Maharani Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore, is located on the outskirts of the Ganga. This temple makes Varanasi a place of great religious importance to the Hindus, as Vishweshwara or Vishwanatha, the aforementioned Jyotirlinga of the Lord Shiva is enshrined here. It is said that a single view of Vishwanatha Jyotirlinga is considered to merit more than that of other jyotirlingas. A Naubatkhana was built up in front of the Temple by the collector Mohammed Ibrahim Khan at the instance of Governor General Warren Hastings in 1785. In 1839, Punjab Kesari Maharaja Ranjeet Singh, the ruler of Punjab donated gold to cover the two domes of the temple. On January 28, 1983 the Temple was taken over by the government of Uttar Pradesh and its management was transferred to a trust with Late Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh, then Kashi Naresh, as president and an executive committee with Divisional Commissioner as chairman.[19]

The temple was once destroyed by Aurangzeb who built a mosque on it. It was later resurrected at a location near the mosque, and is many times a cause of local strain among Hindus and Muslims.[20]

File:Monkey Temple Varanasi.jpg
Durga Temple or Monkey Temple

Durga Temple, also called Monkey temple, was built at some point of time in 18th century by a Bengali Maharani. The temple got its name as 'Monkey temple' because of the presence of large number of monkeys in the temple. According to legends, the present statue of Goddess Durga was not made by man but appeared on its own in the temple. Thousands of Hindu devotees visit the Durga temple during Navratri and other auspicious occasions. Non-Hindus can enter the courtyard of the Durga temple but not the inner sanctum.

The architecture is of Nagara Style, which is typical of North India. The temple is accompanied by a rectangular tank of water called Durga Kund. The temple has multi-tiered spires and is stained red with ochre, signifying the red colour of Durga. The Kund was earlier connected to the river itself thus refreshing the water. This tunnel was later closed, leading to locked water which is replenished only by rain or drainage from the Temple. Every year on the occasion of Nag panchami, the act of depicting Lord Vishnu reclining on the coiled-up Shesha is repeated in the Kund.

Sankat Mochan Temple is dedicated to Lord Hanuman and is very popular with the local citizens. It is a place for many yearly religious as well as cultural festivals.

The new Vishwanath Temple, called Birla Mandir, mainly funded by Raja Birla of the Birla family of industrialists, was built as a replica of the old Kashi Vishwanath Temple.[21]. Planned by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, the temple is part of the Banaras Hindu University, and stands for national revival. The temple is open to people of all castes and religions.

Art

A holy city, Varanasi does not take a backseat when it comes to fine arts and literature. Great Indian writers have lived in this city from Kabir, Ravi Das, and Tulsidas to Bharatendu Harishchandra, Jayshankar Prasad, Acharya Ram Chandra Shukla, Munshi Prem Chand, Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar, Devaki Nandan Khatri, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Tegh Ali, Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya, Vagish Shastri, Baldev Upadhyaya, Vidya Niwas Mishra, Kashi Nath Singh, Namvar Singh, Rudra Kashikeya, Nirgun among many other notables.

Art lovers and historians like Rai Krishnadas, his son Prof. Anand Krishna, musicians like Pt. Omkarnath Thakur,P t. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Bismillah Khan, Siddheshwari Devi, Dr. Lalmani Misra and his son Dr. Gopal Shankar Misra, Dr. N. Rajam, Dr.Rajbhan Singh, Pt. Anokhelal, Pt. Samta Prasad, Kanthe Maharaj, Pt. M. V. Kalvint, Sitara Devi, Gopi Krishna, Pt. Kishan Maharaj, Rajan and Sajan, Mahadev Mishra, Girija Devi and numerous others have kept the city alive to the spiritual aspect of fine arts apart from their ability to entertain. Numerous festivals are celebrated that preserve traditional styles of classical and folk culture. All night, open music concerts like ones organised at Sankat Mochan Temple, Hori, Kajri and Chaiti Mela, Budwa Mangal, are annual features that draw connoisseurs from all over.

Economy

Varanasi has several small cottage industries, including Silk sari making, the production of textiles such as hand-woven carpets, and handicrafts. The Banarasi Pan (betel leaves) and Banarasi Khoa (a milk product, somewhat similar to cheese) are popular, and the related small-scale industries employ many people. Indian Railways runs a major diesel locomotive factory in Varanasi, Diesel Locomotive Works (DLW). According to Macaulay, Varanasi was the "city which, in wealth, population, dignity and sanctity was among the foremost in Asia". He described the commercial importance saying "from the looms of Benaras went forth the most delicate silks that adorned the halls of St. James and of Vesailles."[10][22]

Demographics

The population of Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1,371,749; the sex ratio was 879 females every 1000 males.[23] However, the area under Varanasi Municipal Corporation has a population of 1,100,748[24] with the sex ratio being 883 females for every 1000 males.[24] The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 61.5% while that in the municipal corporation area is 61%.[24] Approximately 138,000 people in the municipal area live in slums.[25] The crime rate in the city in 2004 was 128.5 per 100,000 which is higher than Uttar Pradesh rate of 73.2 but lower than the national rate of 168.8.[26]

Transport

A typical rickshaw

Auto Rickshaw and Rickshaw are the most widely available public transport within Varanasi. In outer regions of the city, mini-buses are common. Small boats and small steamers are used to cross the river Ganga.

Varanasi is well connected by air, rail and buses with all the important places of India. Its distance from Delhi is 776 Kms. The Babatpur airport is about 25 km from the city center and it is well connected to Delhi ,KolKatta and Nepal. All the famous Airlines like Jet, Air Deccan, Indian and Alliance Air operate from here.

One of the major factors for sustainment of Varanasi for such a long time as an inhabited city, is its effective transport between different cities. From ancient times the city was connected to cities like Taxila, Gazipur, Pataliputra, Vaishali, Ayodhya, Gorakhpur, Agra etc.

The city was connected through a single road from Taxila going through Pataliputra during Mauryan empire. This road was later renovated and extended by Sher Shah Suri during 16th century, which was later to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road.

Civic administration and utility services

Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies, the prime being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam (Municipal Corporation) and Varanasi Development Authority, which is responsible for the master planning of the city. Water supply and sewage system is maintained by Jal Nigam, a subsidiary of Nagar Nigam. Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited. The city produces about 350 million litres per day[27] of sewer and 425 tonnes per day of solid waste.[28] The solid wastes are disposed in one landfill site.[29] A huge amount of sewer flows into the river Ganga daily. Nagar Nigam also runs a bus service in the city and suburban areas. The city is within the Varanasi range of Varanasi zone of Uttar Pradesh Police. A Special Superintendent of Police is the highest ranking police officer in the city.[30] The city constitutes one parliamentary constituency. Indian National Congress won the constituency in Indian general election, 2004.

Varanasi was one the five cities where Ganga Action Plan was launched.

Education

Main article: Education in India

University education

Varanasi is the site of three public universities. Banaras Hindu University, which includes Institute of Technology and Institute of Medical Sciences, is among the top 3 largest residential universities in the world having more than 128 independent teaching departments.[31] Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapeeth University and Sampurnanand Sanskrit University are the other two universities.

Banaras Hindu University (1916) was founded by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya with the cooperation of Dr Annie Besant. Its 1350 acre (5.5 km²) campus was built on land donated by the then Maharaja of Kashi.

Governor General Lord Cornwallis establish the Sanskrit College (1791), which was the first college in Varanasi. The first principal of Sanskrit College was Sanskrit Professor J. Myor, ICS followed by Dr. J.R. Ballentien, RTH Griffith, Dr. G. Thevo, Dr. Aurthor Venice, Dr. Ganganath Jha, and Gopinath Kaviraj among others. After independence this college turned to in Sampurnanand Sanskrit University.[32].

Central Institute for Higher Tibetan Studies at Sarnath is a deemed university with a preference for the traditional Tibetan method of teaching within a framework of modern universities.[33] Uday Pratap College, another rdeemed university, is the center of sports and science study for the suburban students of modern Benares. Varanasi is also noted for many private and public institutes that provide Hindu religious teaching. Since ancient times people have been coming to Varanasi to learn philosophy, Sanskrit, astrology, social science and religious teachings. In Indian tradition, Varanasi is often called "Sarva Vidya Ki Rajdhani" (capital of knowledge).[34] The city also has the Jamiah Salafiah, a Salafi Islamic institution.[35]

Basic and special education

Varanasi's schools are either run by the state government or by private (many of which are religious) organizations. Schools mainly use English or Hindi as the medium of instruction. The schools are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), or the U.P. Board of High School & Intermediate Education. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing their secondary education, students typically enroll in a 2 year junior college (also known as a pre-university) or in schools with a higher secondary facility. Students usually choose from one of three streams — liberal arts, commerce, or science, though vocational streams are also available. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.

Tourism

Probably due to its unique culture, Varanasi is a major tourist destination for foreign tourists in India. A number of 3, 4 and 5 star hotels are present in the city. All sort of cuisines are available mostly as street food due to rich and hospitable culture of Varanasi.

Varanasi is a noted centre for silk weaving and brassware. Fine silks and brocaded fabrics, exquisite saris, brassware, jewellery, woodcraft, carpets, wall hangings, lamp shades and masks of Hindu and Buddhist deities are some of Varanasi's shopping attractions. The main shopping areas include the Chowk, Godaulia, Vishwanath Lane, Lahurabir and Thatheri Bazaar.[10]

  • In Kurt Weill's "Benares Song" from the album Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny.
  • In Dan Simmons' Hyperion Cantos the barge, transporting the pilgrims to the Sea of Grass, was called Benares.
  • Ian McDonald's novel River of Gods is partly set in Varanasi.
  • In a song by Krishna Das entitled "Kashi Vishwanath Gange" on the CD Breath of the heart.[36]
  • In a song by Waterjuice entitled "Varanasi Space Station" on the CD World Fusion.
  • Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay's seminal novel 'Aparajito' was partly set in Benaras. It was further immortalized by Satyajit Ray in his 'Apu Trilogy'. A part of the film was shot in Varanasi (Benaras)

See also

Template:IndicText

Notes

  1. ^ "Ranking of Districts by Population Size in 1991 and 2001". Government of Uttar Pradesh. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  2. ^ "Ranking of Districts by Population Density". Government of Uttar Pradesh. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  3. ^ a b Lannoy, Richard (October 1999). Benares Seen from Within. University of Washington Press. pp. Back Flap. ISBN 029597835X. OCLC 42919796.
  4. ^ Talageri, Shrikant G. "The Geography of the Rigveda". Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  5. ^ "Varanasi : The eternal city". Banaras Hindu University. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  6. ^ Cunningham, Alexander (2002) [1924]. Ancient Geography of India. Munshiram Manoharlal. pp. 131–140. ISBN 8121510643. OCLC 54827171. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ "History of India". EVaranasiTourism.com. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  8. ^ M. Julian, Life and Pilgrimage of Hsuan Tsang, 6, 133, 2, 354.
  9. ^ "Varanasi Vaibhav ya Kaashi Vaibhav - Kashi Ki Rajdhani Varanasi Ka Namkaran" (in Hindi). Department of Information Technology, Government of India. 2003. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  10. ^ a b c d e "Varanasi - Explore India Millennium Year" (Press release). Ministry of Tourism, Government of India. March, 2007. {{cite press release}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ "The religious capital of Hinduism". BBC. 2006-03-07. Retrieved 2007-02-04. {{cite news}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |second= ignored (help)
  12. ^ "Varanasi". FreeIndia.org. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  13. ^ "Immersed in Varanasi (Salon Wanderlust)]". XeNT.com. 1997-06-06. Retrieved 2007-02-04. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |second= ignored (help)
  14. ^ Twain, Mark (1898) [1897]. "L". Following the Equator: A journey around the world. Hartford, Connecticut, American Pub. Co. ISBN 0404015778. OCLC 577051. Retrieved 2007-02-07. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Bhatt, Sheela (2006-03-09). "Little known group owns up Varanasi blasts". Rediff.com. Retrieved 2006-02-04. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ a b Singh, Rana P.B. "Varanasi as Heritage City (India) on the scale the UNESCO World Heritage List: From Contestation to Conservation" (PDF). EASAS papers. Swedish South Asian Studies Network. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  17. ^ a b "Varanasi". India-cities. Atrip4india.com. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  18. ^ "Varanasi tourism". DelhiTourism.com. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  19. ^ "Shri Kashi Vishwanath Mandir Varanasi". National Informatics Centre, Government of India. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  20. ^ "Countrywide alert on Masjid demolition anniversary". The Tribune. 1998-12-06. Retrieved 2007-02-05]]. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  21. ^ "Birla Temple (new Vishwanath Temple)". Retrieved 2007-02-04.
  22. ^ "Varanasi". Tourism of India. HinduNet Inc. 2003. p. 2. Retrieved 2007-03-07. all along the shore lay great fleets of vessels laden with rich merchandise. From the looms of Benaras went forth the most delicate silks, that adorned the halls of St. James and of Versailles, and in the bazaars, the muslins of Bengal and sabres of Oude were mingled with the jewels of Golconda and the shawls of Cashmere
  23. ^ "Urban Agglomerations/Cities having population of more than one million in 2001". Census of India 2001 (Provisional). Office of the Registrar General, India. 2001-07-25. Retrieved 2006-08-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ a b c "Population, Population in the age group 0–6 and literates by sex - Urban Agglomeration/Town: 2001" (PDF). Census of India 2001 (Provisional). Office of the Registrar General, India. pp. 53–54. Retrieved 2006-08-17.
  25. ^ "Slum Population in Million Plus Cities (Municipal Corporations): Part A". Census of India 2001 (Provisional). Office of the Registrar General, India. 2002-01-22. Retrieved 2006-08-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ National Crime Records Bureau (2004). "Crimes in Mega Cities". Crime in India-2004. Ministry of Home Affairs. p. 158. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |format= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Bhargava, Gopal. "Scheme for Varanasi". The Tribune.
  28. ^ "Waste Generation and Composition". Management of municipal solid wastes. Planning Division, Central Pollution Control Board. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  29. ^ "Status of landfill sites in 59 cities". Management of municipal solid wastes. Planning Division, Central Pollution Control Board. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  30. ^ "UP Police Is divided into following zines consisting ranges & districts". UP Police. NIC. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  31. ^ "Banaras Hindu University". SurfIndia. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  32. ^ Acharya Baldeva Upadhyay, Kashi ki Panditya Parampara, Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Varanasi, 1983.
  33. ^ "Central Institute for Higher Tibetan Studies". Varanasi City. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  34. ^ "Educational Institutes in Varanasi". Varanasi City. Retrieved 2006-08-18.
  35. ^ "Darul Uloom Jamia Rasheedia". Tipu Sultan Advanced Study & Research Centre (TSASRC). Retrieved 2007-03-07.
  36. ^ Text and Information

References

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