Mangalorean Catholics

Mangalorean Catholics
Kodialche Katholik

Blasius D'SouzaTemplate:•wGenelia D'Souza George FernandesTemplate:•wFreida Pinto
Regions with significant populations
→Mangalore Diocese (2001)	~360,000
→Mangalore City (1970s)	~60,000
→Bombay (1960s)	~29,500
→Madras (1871)	3,604
→Calcutta (2004)	~200
Languages
Konkani
Religion
Christianity (Roman Catholicism)
Related ethnic groups
Konkani people, Goan Catholics, Karwari Catholics, Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins, Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmins, Daivadnya Brahmins, Indo-Aryans

Mangalorean Catholics (Konkani: Kodialche Katholik) are an ethno-religious community of Roman Catholics from the Mangalore Diocese (erstwhile South Canara district) on the southwestern coast of India, and their descendants. They are Konkani people and speak the Konkani language.

Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from the Goan Catholic settlers, who had migrated to South Canara from Goa, a state north of Canara, between 1560 and 1763 throughout the course of the Goa Inquisition, Portuguese-Adil Shahi wars and the Portuguese-Maratha wars. Gradually they learned the languages of South Canara but retained Konkani as their mother tongue and preserved their lifestyle. Although most of the converts came from Goa, a considerable number of Mangalorean Catholics were converted by the Portuguese in South Canara.

The most disconsolate memory in the community's history was a 15-year captivity imposed by Tipu Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, from February 24, 1784, to May 4, 1799, at Seringapatam. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, the community resettled in South Canara, and gradually prospered under the British.

Although early assertions of being Mangalorean Catholics date from the migration period, a developed Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity emerged following the captivity. The culture of Mangalorean Catholics is a blend of Mangalorean and Goan cultures. After migration, they adopted the local Mangalorean culture but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions. The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is globally concentrated in the Persian Gulf Arab states and the Anglosphere.

Ethnic identity

File:Fernandes Prabhu.JPG

A modern Mangalorean Catholic family from Mangalore

The Roman Catholics from the Mangalore Diocese (erstwhile South Canara district) and their descendents are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics. The diocese falls on the southwestern coast of India. At present, it comprises the whole civil districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in Karnataka state, and Kasaragod taluk of Kerala state. This region was collectively referred to as South Canara during the British regime, prior to the States Reorganisation Act (1956).

In 1526, after Portuguese shipping arrived in Mangalore, while the number of local converts slowly increased, an immigration of Christians from Goa to South Canara started on a large scale, in the second half of the 16th century. These Goan immigrants were reluctant to learn the local languages of South Canara. They continued to speak Konkani, the language which they brought from Goa, and the local Christians had to learn Konkani if they wanted to converse with these people. After migration, the skilled Goan Catholic agriculturists were offered various land grants by the native Bednore rulers of South Canara. They observed their traditional Hindu customs in conjunction with the new found Catholic practises, and preserved their lifestyle.

Most migrants came from the lower economic strata, who had been left out of Government and economic jobs, and their lands confiscated due to heavy taxation, under the Portuguese in Goa. As a consequence of the wealth and privileges which these Goan migrants enjoyed in Mangalore, they began feeling superior to their landless brethren in Goa. They no longer identified with their caste-based community in Goa. Their captivity at Seringapatam (1784–1799), where many died, were killed, or forcibly converted to Islam, further led to the formation of a separate and common Mangalorean Catholic cultural identity among them, who hitherto had considered themselves an extension of the larger Goan Catholic community.

After the captivity, employment on British ships, prosperity under the British and Italian Jesuit regimes, and migration for employment to Bombay, Persian Gulf Arab states, and the Anglosphere, enabled the community to restore their identity. The overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics are of Pancha Gauda Saraswat Brahmin lineage. Historian Alan Machado Prabhu, author of Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians (1999), estimates that almost 95% of Mangalorean Catholics have Goan origins.

History

Main article: History of Mangalorean Catholics

Pre-migration era

St Mary's Islands in South Canara, where the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama landed in 1498

All records of an early existence of Christians in South Canara were lost at the time of their deportation by Tipu Sultan in 1784. Hence, it is not known when exactly Christianity was introduced in South Canara, although it is possible that Syrian Christians settled in South Canara just as they did in Kerala, a state south of Canara. The Italian traveler Marco Polo recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea and the Canara coast in the 13th century. It can be surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce and possibly some Christian priests might have accompanied them for evangelistic work.

In April 1321, the French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac (in south-western France), with four other friars; landed at Thana. He then travelled to Bhatkal in North Canara, a port town on the coastal route from Thana to Quilon. Being the first bishop of India and the Quilon Diocese, he was entrusted the spiritual nourishment of Christian community in Mangalore and other parts of India by Pope John XXII. According to historian Severine Silva, the author of History of Christianity in Canara (1961), no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century. It was only after the advent of the Portuguese in the region that Christianity began to be propagated.

Pedro Álvares Cabral converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region in 1500.

In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco Da Gama landed on a group of islands in South Canara on his voyage from Portugal to India. He named them El Padron de Santa Maria, which later came to be known as St Mary's Islands. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral, a Portuguese explorer, arrived at Anjediva in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries. These missionaries under the leadership of Henrique Soares de Coimbra converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region. During the early part of the 16th century, Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529), the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire of Deccan, granted commercial privileges to the Portuguese on the Canara coast and there was complete freedom of worship, belief, and propagation of religious tenets in the Vijaynagara Empire. In 1526, under the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio, the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore.

The Portuguese Franciscans slowly started propagating Christianity in Mangalore. Perhaps, the most prominent of these local converts was the Brahmin Mahant Shankaracharya who in 1751, traveled to Goa with his wife from Kallianpur and was baptized, with the Portuguese viceroy assuming the role of his godfather. The honored Shankaracharya took the name of "Fransisco de Tavora", after the Viceroy Marques de Tavora. In 1534, Canara was placed under the ecclesiastic jurisdiction of the Bishop of Goa, where the Portuguese had a strong presence. Missionaries soon arrived and gained converts. The number of local converts in South Canara continually increased until 1546. During the mid–16th century, the Portuguese faced resistance from Abbakka Rani of Ullal, the Queen of the Bednore dynasty. This put a halt to conversions. The first battle between Abbakka Rani and the Portuguese was fought in 1546, where she emerged victorious, and succeeded in driving the Portuguese out of South Canara.

Migration era

See also: Christianization of Goa

The path of migration of Goan Catholics towards South Canara

In 1510, the Portuguese fleet under Alfonso de Albuquerque, sent by King Manuel I of Portugal, wrested the Island of Goa from Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur. In 1534, the Diocese of Goa was established. Soon the missionaries were sent to Goa, which led to conversion of a sizeable population to Roman Catholicism. Apart from a minority which migrated due to economic compulsions, famines and plague epidemics in Goa, the bulk of Christian settlers came in three major migration waves towards South Canara. These migrations occurred in periods of great unrest, including the Goa Inquisition from 1560 onwards, Portuguese-Adil Shahi wars between 1570–79 and the Portuguese-Maratha wars between 1667–83 and 1737-40.

In 1542, the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier, co-founder of the Society of Jesus, arrived in Goa. He discovered that the newly converted Christians were practicing their old Hindu customs and traditions. He requested John III of Portugal in 1545 to install an Inquisition in Goa. Many of the Goan ancestors of the present Mangalorean Catholics fled Goa when the Inquisition began in 1560. King Sebastian of Portugal decreed that every trace of Indian customs be eradicated through the Inquisition. But many Christians of Goa were tenaciously attached to some of their ancient Indian customs, especially their traditional Hindu marriage costumes, and refused to abandon them. Those who refused to comply with the rules laid down by the Inquisition were forced to leave Goa and to settle outside the Portuguese dominion, which resulted in the first major wave of migrations towards South Canara.

The Catholic saint Francis Xavier requested John III of Portugal to install an Inquisition in Goa, which became the cause of the first great wave of migrations towards South Canara

The Christians who left Goa were skilled cultivators who abandoned their irrigated fields in Goa to achieve freedom. At the time of migration, Canara was ruled by the Keladi king, Shivappa Nayaka (1540–60). He evinced great interest in the development of agriculture in his empire and welcomed these farmers to his kingdom, giving them fertile lands to cultivate. They were also recruited into the armies of the Bednore dynasty. This was confirmed by Francis Buchanan, a Scottish physician, when he visited Canara in 1801. In his book, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (1807), he stated that "The princes of the house of Ikkeri had given great encouragement to the Christians, and had induced 80,000 of them to settle in Tuluva." Later, this was identified as a probable mistake and should have read "8,000". However even this figure included the second emigration of Christians from Goa. The taxation policies of the Keladi Nayakas during 1598–1763, enabled the Goan Catholic migrants to emerge as prominent land owning gentry in South Canara.

Under the provisional treaties between the Portuguese and the Bednore rulers, and the Paradox (Protectorate privileges) the Christians were allowed to build churches and help the growth of Christianity in South Canara. The arrival of the English and the Dutch halted the activity of the Portuguese and gradually the Portuguese were unable to send the required number of missionaries to Mangalore. Shivappa Nayaka had previously expelled the Portuguese from their forts a little before 1660, which brought about considerable changed in the ecclesiastical situation. The appointment of the Vicar Apostolic of Mangalore was felt by the Holy See to be the need of the hour. Nayaka pressurized the church authorities to appoint a native priest as the Vicar Apostolic, which resulted in the appointment of Fr. Andrew Gomez to the post; however, he died before the nomination papers could reach Mangalore.

The Milagres Church, one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680

At the recommendation of the Vicar General of Verapoly, Msgr Joseph Sebastiani, Pope Clement X appointed Fr. Thomas de Castro, a Goan Catholic Theatine priest, as the Vicar Apostolic of Canara on August 30, 1675, for the purpose of providing spiritual leadership to the Canara Christians. After his consecration, he came first to Calicut and then moved to Mangalore, where he served from 1677 to 1684. In 1680, Bishop de Castro entered into a conflict with the Holy See for disregarding the Padroado, as a result of which, they did not cede the jurisdiction to him despite the Pope's letter of appointment. Instead, the Holy See appointed Fr. Joseph Vaz, a Goan priest, as the Vicar Forane of Canara; he was asked not to submit to Bishop Castro unless he showed the letter of appointment. However, after being convinced of its legitimacy, Fr. Vaz submitted to Bishop de Castro and brought about a truce. He further managed to persuade the bishop to delegate his jurisdiction to him, while retaining the post.

The Milagres Church, one of the oldest churches in South Canara, was built in 1680 by Bishop Thomas De Castro, a Goan theatine priest who was appointed by Pope Clement X as the Vicar Apostolic of Canara. In 1568, the Church of Nossa Senhora do Rosário de Mangalore (Our Lady of the Rosary of Mangalore) was erected by the Portuguese at Bolar in Mangalore. The Churches of Nossa Senhora de Mercês de Velala (Our Lady of Mercy of Ullal) and São Francisco de Assis Igreja (St. Francis of Assisi) at Farangipet were also erected by the Portuguese during the same time in South Canara. These three churches were mentioned by the Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle, who visited Mangalore in 1623.

Ali Adil Shah I's attack on Goa in 1571 precipitated the second wave of Goan Catholic migrations towards South Canara

In 1570, the Sultan of Bijapur, Ali Adil Shah I entered into an alliance with the Sultan of Ahmadnagar, Murtaza Nizam Shah and the Zamorin of Kozhikode for a simultaneous attack on the Portuguese territories of Goa, Chaul and Mangalore. He attacked Goa in 1571 and ended Portuguese influence in the region. The Bijapur Sultans were especially renowned for their loathing of Christianity. Fearing persecution, many Goan Catholics fled to South Canara during this second wave of migrations, and settled down in Barkur, Kallianpur, Kundapura and Basrur. For the next century, there was a continual migration of Goan Catholics southwards, so that by 1650, a considerable number of Catholics were settled around Mangalore, Mulki, Shirva, Pezar, Bantval, Kundapura, Kallianpur and Kirem. The Christian Goud Saraswat Brahmins who came during this wave belonged mostly to the Shenvi sub-section.

The attacks of the Maratha Empire on Goa, during the mid 16th century, precipitated the third major wave of migrations. In 1664, Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire, attacked Kudal, a town north of Goa, and began his campaign for Goa. After Shivaji's death on April 3, 1680, his son Sambhaji ascended to the throne. The onslaught of Sambahji, along the northern territories of Goa drove nearly all the Christians from their homelands, and most of them migrated to South Canara. It increased with the fall of the Portuguese "Province of the North" (which included Bassein, Chaul and Salsette) and a direct threat to the very existence of Goa in 1738–1740.

The Maratha ruler Sambhaji's onslaught was responsible for the third and final great wave of migrations to South Canara

From the Salcete district of Goa, according to one estimate, emigrations were around at the rate of 2,000 annually. From the Bardez district of Goa, Jesuit priests estimated that 12,000 Christians emigrated from Goa between 1710–1712, most of them going southward. A Goa Government report of 1747 presently in the Panjim archives recorded that around 5,000 Christians fled from the Bardez and Tiswadi districts of Goa during the invasion of the Marathas. It was estimated that during the Maratha raids on Goa, about 60,000 Christians migrated to South Canara. These new migrants were given lands at Shirva, Kirem, Mundkur, Pezar and Hosabettu by the Chowta king of Moodbidri and at Milagres, Bondel and Cordel by the Banghel king of Mangalore. During the later years, the migration slowed because of the Maratha-Mughal wars, which kept Sambhaji busy, and some 10,000 Christians returned to Goa. According to Alan Machado Prabhu, the Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58,000 by 1765.

Subsequent to this steady rise in South Canara's Catholic population, the Portuguese took advantage of every opportunity to extend their control over the Mangalorean Catholics who came to be identified with Portuguese interests. The Portuguese also sought to expand the power of the priests, as from the very beginning priests had accompanied Portuguese delegations on diplomatic missions and on occasions were the principal negotiatiors. As such, the treaties they signed with the Ikkeris progressively incorporated clauses which increased the authority of the priests over the local Catholic population, making them obedient to the priests in matters of Christian laws as well as granting priests the authority to punish violations. The Portuguese on their part promised to refrain from cow slaughter and forcible conversions in their factories. However, the terms of these treaties were not always honored by the Portuguese, with the result that whenever hostilities broke out between the Ikkeris and the Portuguese, the Catholic settlers were often harassed or arrested by the Nayakas.

Post-migration era and captivity

Main article: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam

Tipu Sultan (1750–1799), the architect of the Seringapatam Captivity

In 1686, Seringapatam, the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore had a community of more than 400 Catholics. However, the community was severely harassed in the following two decades, with the churches destroyed and the priest's house confiscated. The destruction was undertaken under the name of the Wodeyar king, Kanthirava Narasaraja I by his finance minister. The priest's house was eventually returned to the church in 1709. The relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved, until 1717, when there was an anti-Christian outburst and the resident priest was expelled and forbidden to preach. Several more anti-Christian outbursts followed. However, by 1736, there were better relations between the two groups.

From 1761 onwards, Hyder Ali, a distinguished soldier in the Mysore army, took de facto control of the throne of the Kingdom of Mysore through the Wodeyar dynasty. Hyder occupied Mangalore in 1763. The Mangalorean Catholics numbered 80,000 in 1767. In February 1768, the British captured Mangalore from Hyder. Toward the end of 1768, Hyder along with his son Tipu Sultan defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore fort. After the conquest, Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore. Hyder believed that this behaviour of the Christians amounted to treachery against the sovereign.

The Jamalabad fort passage, where Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort

The Christians were alleged to have helped General Mathews with a sum of Rs. 3,30,000/-. Hyder summoned a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore to suggest the punishment for the Mangalorean Catholics for treachery. The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who helped the British, because it was a fitting punishment for people who betrayed the sovereign. But Hyder exhibited a diplomatic stance and imprisoned the Christians who were condemned for treachery, rather than killing them.

Later, he opened negotiations with the Portuguese. As a result of the agreement, the suspicion against the clergy and the Christians was removed. During Hyder's regime, the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish. After Hyder's death in the Second Anglo-Mysore War on December 7, 1782, the British captured the fort again. Hyder was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu laid several assaults on the Mangalore fort until January 1784, all of which resulted in failure. The fort was finally delivered to Tipu when the British capitulated on January 30, 1784.

A dungeon at Seringapatam. Many Mangalorean Catholics who refused to embrace Islam were imprisoned into such dungeons

Tipu received highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Mangalorean Catholics and their help to the British in the Second Anglo-Mysore War. To minimize the threat from the British to his kingdom and in his own words, due to "the rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast", Tipu decided to banish the Mangalorean Catholic community from their lands, and imprison them at Seringapatam, the capital of his empire. The captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on February 24, 1784 and ended on May 4, 1799, remains the most disconsolate memory in their history.

Soon after the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tipu gained control of Canara. He issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara, confiscate their estates, and deport them to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the Jamalabad fort route. All this was accomplished in a secret and well-planned move on Ash Wednesday (February 24, 1784). Accounts of the number of captives differ, ranging from 30000 to 80,000. However, the generally accepted figure is 60,000, as per Tipu's own records. They were forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat mountain ranges along two routes, one along the Bantwal-Belthangadi-Kulshekar-Virajpet-Coorg-Mysore route, and the other along the Gersoppa falls (Shimoga) route. It was 200 miles (320 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam, and the journey took six weeks.

The Igreja da Santa Cruz (Portuguese: Church of Holy Cross) at Hosabettu was saved at the intercession of the local Jain chiefs

According to the Barkur Manuscript, written in Kannada by a Mangalorean Catholic from Barkur after his return from Seringapatam, 20,000 of them (one-third) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger, disease and ill treatment by the soldiers. At the camp at Jamalabad fort, Mangalorean Catholic leaders were thrown down from the fort. All Christian churches in South Canara, except the Hospet Church at Hosabettu and the Monte Mariano Church at Firangipet, were razed to the ground and all land owned by the captured Christians was taken over by Tipu and distributed among his favorites. After they were freed, all their belongings had disappeared and their deserted lands were cultivated by the Bunts.

After arriving at Seringapatam, the Christian captives were made to forcibly embrace Islam, were tortured or sentenced to death. The young men who refused to embrace Islam were disfigured by cutting their noses, upper lips, and ears. They were seated on asses, paraded through the city, and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam. Historian Praxy Fernandes, author of Storm over Seringapatam: the incredible story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan, states that contrary to popular belief, 40,000 Christians were not kept manacled in the dungeons of Seringapatam.

A map of Seringapatam and its environs, circa 1792. The Mangalorean Catholics were held captive in this fortress for 15 years, from February 24, 1784 until their liberation by the British on May 4, 1799.

Ludwig von Pastor, a German historian, author of The History of the Popes, from the Close of the Middle Ages. Volume 39 emphasizes saying "countless" Mangalorean Catholics were hanged, including women with their children clinging around their necks. Others were trampled down, or dragged by elephants. The able-bodied young men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam. The young women and girls were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living there. The future Christian progeny of these women were permanently lost, and their descendants are fully Islamic as of today and speak Konkani in a mixture of Urdu in parts of Mysore, Coorg and Seringapatam. According to Mr. Silva of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found, the punishment under the orders of Tipu was the cutting off of the ears, nose, the feet and one hand. The persecutions continued till 1792. This was followed by a brief relaxation period from 1792–1797, during which a few Catholic families managed to escape to Coorg, Cannanore and Tellicherry. The persecutions, however, resumed in 1797.

British and modern era

See also: Participation of Mangalorean Catholics in the Indian Independence Movement

The Last Effort and Fall of Tippoo Sultan by Henry Singleton

In the Battle of Seringapatam on May 4, 1799, the British army under officers George Harris, David Baird, and Arthur Wellesley stormed the fortress, breached the town of Seringapatam, and killed Tipu. After his death in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from his captivity. Of the 60,000–80,000 Mangalorean Catholics taken captive, only 15,000–20,000 made it out as Christians.

Historian Alan Machado Prabhu, in his book Sarasvati's Children:A history of Mangalorean Christians mentions that only 11,000 made it out as Christians. British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 of them return to South Canara and resettle on their lands. Of the remaining Christians freed, about a thousand went to Malabar, and some hundreds settled in Coorg. According to Francis Buchanan, 15,000 of them returned to Mangalore and its vicinity, while 10,000 of them migrated to Malabar. The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency (1883) mentions that 15,000 persons returned, of which 12,000 were from South Canara, and 3,000 from North Canara. According to the Mangalorean genealogist Michael Lobo, the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from this small group of survivors.

Arthur Wellesley helped 10,000 Mangalorean Catholics to return to South Canara and resettle on their lands

Later, the British took over South Canara. In 1800, they took a census of the region. Of the 396,672 people living in South Canara, 10,877 were Christians. Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector of Canara in June 1799. He passed three orders in respect of the estates of the Christians, which were taken over by non-Christians during the captivity. Through the assistance of the church, and with the support of Munro, the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates.

Padre José Miguel Luis de Mendes, a Goan Catholic priest, was appointed Vicar of Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on December 7, 1799. He took a great interest in the re-establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808. Later, British general John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara. He took active part in the restoration of the Catholic community's former possessions and the recovery of its estates. In 1800, there were 2,545 Catholic household with a population of 10,877. He constructed a church for them, which was completed in 1806.

Their population almost doubled in 1818. According to various parish books existing that time, Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19,068 in South Canara (12,877 in Mangalore and Bantwal, 3,918 in Mulki, 2,273 in Kundapura and Barkur). Most of the churches which were earlier destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt, by 1815. After relocation, the community prospered under the British, and the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa commenced again.

Thomas Munro helped the Mangalorean Catholics recover their lands after their return from captivity

The opening of the Protestant German Basel Mission of 1834 in Mangalore brought many handicraft industries, such as cotton weaving and tile-manufacturing to the region and led to a large-scale rise in employment. In 1836-37, when the political situation in Portugal was in turmoil, Antonio Feliciano de Santa Rita Carvalho, a Portuguese priest, was appointed Archbishop-elect of Goa in September 1836 without authorization from the Pope. Many Mangalorean Catholics did not accept the leadership of Carvalho but instead submitted to the Vicar Apostolic of Verapoly in Travancore, while some of them continued to be under the jurisdiction of Goa. The parishes in South Canara were divided into two groups—one under Goa and the other under Verapoly.

Under the leadership of Joachim Pius Noronha, a Mangalorean Catholic priest, and John Joseph Saldanha, a Mangalorean Catholic judge, the Mangalorean Catholics sent a petition to the Holy See in 1840 to establish Mangalore as a separate vicariate; to ward off the differences. Conceding to their request, Pope Gregory XVI established Mangalore as a separate vicariate on February 17, 1845 under the Verapoly Carmelites. The Mangalore Mission was then transferred to the French Carmelites by a bull dated January 3, 1870. During the regime of Carmelites, the Mangalorean Catholics constantly sent memorandums to the Holy See to send Jesuits to Mangalore to start institutions for higher education, since the youth frequently had to go to Bombay and Madras for educational purposes. The Roman Catholic Church studied the situation and Pope Leo XIII by the Brief of 27 September 1878 handed over the Mangalore mission to the Italian Jesuit of Naples, who reached Mangalore on December 31, 1878.

The St. Aloysius Chapel in Mangalore, built by Antonio Moscheni in 1884, when Mangalore was transferred to the Italian Jesuits in 1878

The Italian Jesuits played an important role in education, health, and social welfare of the community and built the St. Aloysius College in 1880, St Aloysius Chapel in 1884, St. Joseph's Seminary and many other institutions and churches. On January 25, 1887, Pope Leo XIII established the Diocese of Mangalore, which is considered to be an important landmark in the community's history. By the later half of the 19th century, many Mangalorean Catholics were involved in the Mangalore tile industry, coffee plantations and trade in plantation products. They prospered under the British and also competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the services of the British. However, the overwhelming majority of Mangalorean Catholics continued to remain agriculturists.

During the later 19th century, they started migrating to other urban areas, especially Bombay, Bangalore, Calcutta, Karachi, Madras, Mysore and Poona. The Mangalorean Catholics came to Bombay due to economic necessities. The first permanent settlement of Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay was recorded in the 1890s. The first Mangalorean Catholic settlement in Madras was recorded in the 1940s. Joachim Alva, a Mangalorean Catholic politician, actively participated in uniting the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British during the Indian Independence Movement.

File:Joachim Alva.jpg

Joachim Alva, a Mangalorean Catholic politician, actively strove to unite the Mangalorean Catholic community against the British

In 1901, Mangalorean Catholics accounted for 76,000 of the total 84,103 Christians in South Canara., while in 1962, they numbered 186,741. During the mid-20th century, Victor Fernandes, Bishop of Mangalore (1931–1955), erected a large cross at Nanthoor, near Padav hills, on the former outskirts of Mangalore, in honor of the memory of Mangalorean Catholic martyrs who died on the march and during their 15-year captivity at Seringapatam.

During the 1970s, coastal communication increased between Bombay and Mangalore with the introduction of ships by the London based trade firm Shepherd. These ships facilitated the entry of Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay. In 1993, the Mangalore Diocese estimates the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be 325,510 out of a total South Canara population of 3,528,540. This amounts to 9.23 percent of the population. A post-independence era notable event pertaining to the Mangalorean Catholics that occurred in Mangalore, and made national headlines were the attacks on Christian churches in September 2008.

Geographical distribution

A Monti Fest celebration by Mangalorean Catholics in Pune, Maharashtra

According to the 2001 census, the Mangalore Diocese estimates the population of Mangalorean Catholics to be 360,000 out of a total South Canara population of 3,957,071. This amounts to 9.5 percent of the population. Many Mangalorean Catholics live in Bombay and Bangalore. In the 1960s, there were around 29,500 Mangalorean Catholics in Bombay, of which 25,000 were in urban Bombay, and 4,500 in rural Bombay.

Other regions of India having a significant proportion of Mangalorean Catholics, characterized by the presence of Mangalorean Catholic organizations or celebration of the unique Mangalorean Catholic Monti Fest festival, are Bangalore, Delhi, Pune, Hyderabad, Chikmagalur, Hassan, and Ranchi. In 1871, there were around 3,704 Mangalorean Catholics in Madras, while in 2004, there were around 200 Mangalorean Catholics in Calcutta. A few Mangalorean Catholics are found in Coorg and Kerala, where there are tiny pockets concentrated in Thalassery, Kasargod, Kannur and Cochin. They are mainly descended from those Catholics who fled the persecution and roundup by Tipu Sultan.

File:Adrian Marena.jpg

A second-generation Mangalorean Catholic family in Sydney, Australia. Like many Sydneysider families of Mangalorean Catholic origin, this family is multi-racial, with the wife being of Spanish-Uruguayan descent

The Mangalorean Catholic diaspora is scattered across the globe. Many Mangalorean Catholics are found in Persian Gulf Arab states in the Middle East. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) has estimated that around 300 Mangalorean Catholic families live in Sydney, Australia, with quite a number of second generation families. Many of these are multi-racial being married into Anglo-Saxon, Spanish, Italian, Greek, and other ethnicities.

The Mangalorean genealogist Michael Lobo has estimated that approximately half of the Mangalorean Catholics still reside in Mangalore and the other towns in the South Canara district. Of the remaining half, about 15% reside in other parts of Karnataka (mainly Bangalore), another 15% in Bombay and its surrounding areas, another 10% in the Gulf countries, another 5% in other parts of India, and the remaining 5% in other parts of the world.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Mangalorean Catholics

Architecture and cuisine

Main articles: Architecture of Mangalorean Catholics and Mangalorean Catholic cuisine

Mangalore tiles are a unique Mangalorean Catholic invention

A German missionary Plebot set up the first tile factory at Mangalore in 1860. It was called the Basel Mission tile factory. In the course of time, Mangalorean Catholics learnt the technique of preparing Mangalore tiles and the Albuquerque tile factory, the first Indian Mangalore tile manufacturing factory was started in South Canara by Pascal Albuquerque, a Mangalorean Catholic, at Pane Mangalore in 1868. Since then, Mangalorean Catholics have been actively involved in manufacturing these red Mangalore tiles. After the opening of the Albuquerque tile factory, the Alvares tile factory was established in Mangalore by Simon Alvares, a Mangalorean Catholic from Bombay, in 1878.

As of 1991—92, out of 12 tile manufacturing factories in Mangalore, 6 were owned by Christians. These tiles, prepared from hard clay, were in great demand throughout India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, and were even shipped to East Africa, the Middle-East, Europe, and Australia. These were the only tiles to be recommended for Government buildings in India, and still define Mangalore's skyline and characterize its urban setting. Urban and rural housing follows the old traditional variety of laterite-brick structures with Mangalore tile roofing with steep slopes. Inside the house, a spacious hall is present while a large verandah is present in front of the house.

Historically, the Mangalorean Catholic diet was completely vegetarian. However, this changed during the 20th century, when with the advent of Westernization, meat came to be consumed increasingly in the community, especially amongst the elite.

Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas, and include around 22 varieties of sweets.

Coconut and curry leaves are common ingredients to most curries. Sanna-Dukra Maas (Sanna – idli fluffed with toddy or yeast; Dukra Maas – Pork) is one of the most popular dish of the Mangalorean Catholic community. Rosachi Kadi (Ros Curry), a fish curry made with coconut milk (ros), is a traditional curry served during the Ros ceremony. Patrode, a dish of colocasia leaves stuffed with rice, dal, jaggery, coconut, and spices is also popular. Kuswar are sweet delicacies prepared during Christmas and include around 22 varieties of sweets. Fish and rice form the staple diet of most Mangalorean Catholics. Par-boiled rice, also known as red rice, is the traditional rice eaten and preferred over raw rice.

Names and surnames

Main article: Mangalorean Catholic names and surnames

Maxwell Pereira-Kamath, popularly known as Maxwell Pereira, is the former Joint Police Commissioner in Delhi. Like Pereira-Kamath, some Mangalorean Catholics also use their ancestral Brahmin surnames in conjunction with their post-conversion surnames

Bilingual names, having variants in both Konkani and English, like Zuãuñ (from Portuguese João, meaning John) and Mornel (Magdalene) are common among Mangalorean Catholics. Most Mangalorean Catholic names for males follow the second declension. Among women, the names follow the first declension, while among young girls, the names follow the second declension.

Portuguese surnames like D'Souza, Coelho and Pinto are abundant among Mangalorean Catholics, and generally follow the second declension. Other European surnames are also found. Mangalorean Catholics also use their native language Konkani forms of their surnames in Konkani-language contexts, along with their English forms in English-language contexts, such as Soz, Kuel and Pint, instead of Sousa, Coelho and Pinto.

Some families use their original Konkani Brahmin surnames such as Prabhu, Kamat, Naik, Shet and Shenoy. These original surnames are actually the names of five classes of persons and originally mean "lord, cultivator, merchant, warrior, writer". Four of these are Goud Saraswat Brahmin surnames, with the exception of Shet that is used by a few who trace their origins to the Daivadnya Brahmins of Goa. Other common pre-Christianity surnames of Goud Saraswat Brahmin origin are Bhat, Pai, Desai and Kini. These ancestral pre-conversion surnames of the Mangalorean Catholics are called paik in Konkani. To capture their tradition, many have reverted to their original family surnames, or use hyphenated-names of their post-conversion surnames in conjunction with their ancestral ones. Mudartha is a unique Mangalorean Catholic surname to be found among some Catholics that hail from Udupi.

Mangalorean Catholic variant	English variant	Portuguese variant	Meaning	Sex
Mâri	Mary	Maria	Beloved	Female
Monku	Monica	Mónica	To advise	Female
Motes	Matthew	Mateus	Gift from God	Male
Nâtu	Natalia	Natalia	Birthday	Female
Pedru	Peter	Pedro	Stone	Male
Šila	Sylvester	Silva	Wooded	Male
Zâbel	Elizabeth	Isabel	My God is my oath	Female
Zoze	Joseph	José	The Lord will add	Male
Source: An English-Konkani Dictionary (1882) and A Konkani Grammar (1882)

Language and literature

Michael Lobo published the first genealogical encyclopedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999

Main articles: Konkani language and Literature of Mangalorean Catholics

Mangalorean Catholics speak the Konkani language, which they retained as their mother tongue despite the migration. The Konkani language is central to the community's identity. They speak a dialect of Konkani, known as Mangalorean Catholic Konkani, which the Ethnologue broadly identifies as the Mangalore dialect.

The Mangalorean Catholic dialect has retained its Sanskrit influences, and preserves many features of Maharashtri, Shauraseni and Magadhi dialects of Prakrit. In addition, this dialect also shows local influences, in that it liberally uses loanwords from the Tulu and Kannada languages. It is written in the Kannada script. Additionally, the dialect does not distinguish between the nouns of Kannada and Konkani and has developed a very business practical language. Some Kannada rootwords which have disappeared from the Goan dialects due to the influence of Portuguese, have re-entered the Mangalorean lexicon. 350–400 Portuguese lexical items are found in the Mangalorean Catholic dialect, of which, more than half are related to religious terminology. The influence of Portuguese syntax is only found in some sets of phrases and prayers which have come down from the pre-migration era.

File:VJP Saldanha.jpg

The main theme of most of V.J.P. Saldanha's novels dealt with the 18th-century captivity of 60,000 Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam

The Mangalorean Catholic dialect is largely derived from the Bardeskaar (North Goan) dialect and bears a good degree of intelligibility with the modern Bardeskaar dialect (spoken by North Goan Christians, North Goan Hindus and South Goan Hindus) and to a slightly lesser extent with the standard Konkani dialect. It consequently differs from the dialect spoken by the Goud Saraswat Brahmins in South Canara, which on the other hand, is copiously derived and bears a good degree of legibility with the modern Sashtikaar (South Goan) dialect spoken by South Goan Christians and North Canara Konkani Hindus. It is much closer to the dialects of the Goan Hindus than to that of the Goan Catholics.

The origin of their literature dates to 1883, when Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei, an Italian Jesuit, published the first English-Konkani Dictionary in Mangalore. He also published a book on Konkani grammar in 1882, with a revised version in 1893. In 1912, the first Konkani periodical, Konknni Dirvem (Konkani Treasure), was published in Mangalore by Louis Mascarenhas. Popular Konkani periodicals published in Mangalore include Raknno (Guardian) (1938) by Mons Sylvester Menezes, Konkan Daiz (Heritage of Konkani) (1958), and Kannik (Donation) (1965) by Raymond Miranda.

The twentieth century literature focused on themes like the sufferings of the Mangalorean Catholics during their 15 year captivity at Seringapatam and the oppression of Goan Catholics during the Goa Inquisition. In Bombay, periodicals like Sukh-Dukh (Ups and Downs) (1948) by G.M.B. Rodrigues, Konknni Yuvak (Konkani Youth) (1949) by George Fernandes, Poinnari (Traveller) (1950) by V.J.P. Saldanha, and Divo (Lamp) (1995) by J.B. Moraes were published.

Richard Crasta is best known for his work The Revised Kamasutra, a novel on sexual desires

Modern literature is diverse and includes themes such as Indian Politics in books like What Ails the Socialists by George Fernandes, historical awakening, in books such as Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians by Alan Machado Prabhu, and sexual desires, in The Revised Kama Sutra: A Novel of Colonialism and Desire by Richard Crasta. The Mangalorean genealogist Michael Lobo published the first genealogical Encyclopaedia of the Mangalorean Catholic community in 1999. This genealogical Encyclopaedia, currently exceeding 6000 pages, covers over a thousand families, each of which is researched as far as its ancestry can be traced. Three offshoots have thus far been launched, which include Mangaloreans Worldwide — An International Directory (1999), Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics (2000), and The Mangalorean Catholic Community — A Professional History / Directory (2002). In 2000, the Diocese of Mangalore released the first Konkani Bible in Kannada script, which was made available online on July 26, 2007.

Traditions and festivals

File:Vivian Ros.JPG

The Ros Ceremony of a Mangalorean Catholic bridegroom

Mangalorean Catholics have retained many Indian customs and traditions and reveal their existence especially during the celebration of a marriage. Their culture is more traditional and Indian. Though the Portuguese traded quite frequently in Mangalore, and most of the priests arriving in the region were Portuguese, there did not develop a community identified with Portugal and Portuguese culture.

The Mangalorean Catholics have no uniform rituals since they belong to both the patrilineal Brahmin stock and to the matrilineal non-Brahmin stock. Their marriage rites share many similarities with the Shenvi sub-caste of the Goud Saraswat Brahmins. It was mainly these Pagan marriage rites which the Portuguese (during the Goan Inquisition) found objectionable and prohibited.

A Monti Fest celebration near the Church of Our Lady of Miracles in Hampankatta, Mangalore

The Ros^[e] (anointing) ceremony, conducted one or two days before a wedding, celebrates the last day of virginity of the bride and bridegroom and involves the parents' blessing of the bride and groom, who are anointed with ros, a mixture of coconut milk and coconut oil, while a cross is inscribed on the bride's forehead.

The marriage traditions include Soirik (betrothal), exchange of Paan Pod^[a] (betel leaves) during the marriage ceremony, which known as badalchen. (changing hands; formal acceptance of the promise made by the bride's father to the bridegroom's father that he will give his daughter in marriage)^[b] The bride is adorned with the Sado (wedding sari) and Pirduk^[d] (wedding necklace). Other rites include: the Onpnni (giving away the bride formally by the father or the guardian of the bride), Porthoponn (re-invitation to the bride's house), and singing of Honvious (hymns). Some non-marriage traditions, include Novemjeevon (partaking of the food prepared from new corn) and Novem (blessing of new harvests).

The St. Lawrence Church in Karkala, where the Attur festival is celebrated

In addition to common Christian festivals like Christmas, Good Friday, and Easter, the community celebrates many other festivals of religious and historical significance. Monti Fest is one of the major festivals, celebrated on September 8. It combines the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary and blessing of Novem (new crops). The festival derives its name from the Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet in South Canara, and was initiated by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest at Farangipet in 1763. Although Tipu Sultan destroyed the churches of Canara, he spared Monte Mariano Church in deference to the friendship of his father Hyder Ali with Father Miranda. Attur Jatre or Attur Fest (Attur festival) is the feast of St. Lawrence, celebrated in the St. Lawrence Shrine on the outskirts of Karkala in South Canara. This shrine, in existence since 1759, is said to have a history of miracles. Eucharistic Procession (Evkaristic Purshanv in Konkani) is an annual religious procession led by the Bishop of Mangalore from Milagres Church to Rosario Cathedral. The procession, held on the first Sunday of the New Year of the Gregorian calendar, seeks blessings for the new year.

Costumes and Ornaments

Main article: Attire of Mangalorean Catholics

A Mangalorean Catholic couple dressed in traditional wedding costumes. The bride is wearing a wedding Sari (Sado), while the groom is wearing a Todop (golden hem), Kutanv (coat), Pudvem (Dhoti) and Urmaal (turban)

Mangalorean Catholic men used to wear long, loose frilled, white or black coats known as kutav (similar to the Maratha loose coats with buttons), over a loose shirt (zibbo), while the dhoti (pudvem), a piece of unstitched cloth, usually around 7 yards long, was wrapped around the waist and the legs, and knotted at the waist. The turbans were usually flattened like the Coorgi turbans (Mundaas or Urmal). The Mundaas or Urmal or is a long white piece of cloth with a golden hem (todop) and is tied around the head like a turban, in a peculiar manner by which they could easily be recognized as Catholics. In modern times, this mode has changed. Only a few older people can be seen wearing this traditional dress on church going occasions.

Before marriage, women used to wear a Kirgi (sari) and Baju (blouse). The kirgi is a piece of cloth, not longer than four feet and about three feet wide. It was wrapped around the body from the waist down. A jacket called a baju with long sleeves was used to cover the upper part of the body. This dress was a sign of the brides virginity and was worn during the Ros ceremony. The kirgi was wrapped around the waist, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder. To wear the sari with its end thrown over the shoulder, known as worl, is the exclusive right of a married woman. Married women used to wear sarees the general way. The Salwar kameez is another form of popular dress for females.

A typical Mangalorean Catholic wedding sari (sado)

The Mangalorean Catholic bride's wedding sari is known as a Sado.^[c] It is usually a red coloured Banarasi sari, which is made of finely woven silk and is decorated with elaborate engravings. In olden days, the bride wore on her head, a red cloth, three feet long and as many wide. Gold ornaments in those days were absent. The bride went to the church dressed as a virgin girl. In modern times, the bride wears (in place of the kirgi) a red sari, but the end of the sari is not thrown over the shoulder, it is wrapped around the waist. Only married women cover the shoulder with the end of the sari. The bride wears a few gold ornaments, some rings on the fingers, earrings, and at least two of the golden combs (dantoni). Ornaments worn by the bride in the olden days, included kanti, chakrasar, kap, karap, mugud, kanto, dantoni.

File:Avil Linet.jpg

A Mangalorean Catholic couple dressed in modern wedding attire. The groom is wearing a suit, while the bride is wearing a white gown. In stark contrast to the traditional weddings, many Mangalorean Catholics opt for a western-style white wedding instead

Dantoni consist of two ordinary combs and the upper part of each one is plated with gold, they are worn in the hair, on both sides of the head, over the ears. On the way to church the bride wears some white and red flowers stuck in the hair. In the centre of the forehead, a bang (gold chain) was placed with a pendant. The Pirduk (Mangalsutra)^[d] is a necklace made of black beads, strung on gold wire as either as a single chain or double chain; with a connecting pendent. This necklace is worn as long as the husband is alive; a widow is expected to take it off. It is highly prized by women as the symbol of their married state. A widow is expected to wear a black sari all her life, and is not allowed to wear ornaments.

The bridegroom's dress in the early times consisted of a short loincloth of hand-woven cloth (Dhoti), a shawl to cover his shoulders and a red handkerchief on the head (leis). The groom's dress was gradually improved. Later, his dress consisted of a white loincloth with a red and gold hem (todop), a shirt with gold buttons and a coat (kutav), a shawl on the shoulders and a towel (Urmal) on the head. The bridegroom wore a chakrasar (neck chain) around his neck. He wore a pair of sandals or at least a pair of socks. In modern times however, Mangalorean Catholic couples opt for a White wedding instead, where the bridegroom wears a suit, while the bride wears a white gown. The traditional style of wedding is becoming exceedingly rare.

Historical Society

A traditional house of a Mangalorean Catholic family, constructed using olden-style architecture

Mangalorean Catholics retained the same caste system as their ancestors in Goa. They were divided into four castes: Bāmaṇs, Charodis, Sudirs, and Gaudis.

The biggest group were the Bāmaṇs, who were converts from the priestly Brahmin class. All Brahmin sub-castes such as the Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Padyes, Daivadnyas, etc., especially the goldsmiths and a few merchants, were lumped into the Christian caste of Bāmaṇs. The Goud Saraswat converts, however, comprised the majority of this caste. The Bāmaṇs were further divided into the following castes according to rank. In Mangalore, they were sub-divided into Sirudhegars (the highest class), Alhdhengars, Cutdhnangars, Dhivodegars, Nathnolegars, Sashragars, Puruvargars and Maidhegars. These names are taken from the villages to which they once belonged.

The Charodis, the second largest group, were converts from the Kshatriya (warrior class) and Vaishya (merchant class) castes. The artisan converts formed the third biggest group and were known as Sudirs (the Konkani word for Shudras which were the labour class). The converts from the fisher-caste residing around Ullal, Kuloor and other places around the sea coast were called Gaudis, and formed the fourth group. Other minor castes, included the Padvals, who the historian Severine Silva, in his book The Marriage Customs of the Christians in South Canara, India, assumes to be local Jain converts.

An extended Catholic family in Mangalore, belonging to the Bāmaṇ caste. Circa. 1929

The Mangalorean Catholics constituted a small community widely scattered across the South Canara district. Rather than being a closely knit and united group, the Konkani Catholics did not associate with the native Catholics on account of caste, origin and language, and even among themselves, were strongly divided by caste. The Hindus on the other hand, including the indigenous Brahmins (mostly belonging to the Shivalli, Havyaka and Kota sub-groups) and Bunts did not associate with the Catholics and would not admit them into their houses; on account of their change of religion. However, a close contact was kept by the Catholics with the Hindus of the same caste, who were also refugees from Goa. The Catholics would invite their Hindu cousins to festivities, such as birth celebrations, weddings and funeral feasts. The Hindus accepted such invitations.

Marriage between members of the various castes was not permitted, and such matches were strictly discouraged by the elders. For instance, a Bāmaṇ boy would only marry a Bāmaṇ girl, a Charodi boy would only marry a Charodi girl, etc. The Bāmaṇs and Charodis would invite to special occasions such as weddings, baptism, etc.—neighbors and friends belonging to the Sudir and Gaudi castes, although the latter would have to observe certain restrictions with regards to sitting and eating. The lower castes felt honored if they were invited and usually accepted such invitations. On the contrary, the upper castes usually did not attend the ceremonies of the lower castes, even if expressly invited.

The Sacristan of St. Lawrence Church, Moodubelle gives his blessings to his granddaughter during her Ros ceremony. Circa 1975

It was difficult for the few priests who had accompanied the Christian emigrants to South Canara to look after them properly. Thus, the gurkar system came into existence. Gurkars were Mangalorean Catholic men of good moral character who were selected as headmen in Christian settlements. They were entrusted with the social and religious supervision of the community. After migration, the only possible occupation of a Mangalorean Catholic was agriculture, since they were skilled farmers. Every farmer practised carpentry, but it was quite primitive and unskilled, and other crafts and industries were non-existent. The mass was celebrated in Latin; but the sermon, the catechism, and the explication of the mysteries were delivered to the congregation in Konkani.

The parishes were grouped in deaneries called Varados. Every parish was divided into wards, while Parish Councils were present in most parishes. About 15 percent of the households in the parishes would be literate. A widow had to remain indoors, practically for the rest of her life. Since high-caste Hindu widows cannot remarry after the death of their husbands, the Christians too considered the remarriage of a widow as something unnatural. Canon law did allow remarriage for widows and therefore there was no direct prohibition for widows to remarry in the society of the Christians of South Canara. Therefore few women had the courage to go against the strict conventions of their community. A widow who remarried was looked down upon, pitied, and shunned as unlucky. But she was not ill-treated or made an outcast, and no stigma was attached to her husband.

Songs and music

Konkani Nirantari, a Konkani cultural event, entered the Guinness Book of World Records for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns

On January 26 & 27, 2008, a Konkani cultural event, Konkani Nirantari, held in Mangalore by a Mangalorean Catholic organization, Mandd Sobhann, entered the Guinness Book of World Records for non-stop singing of Konkani hymns. Mandd Sobhann members sang for 40 hours, surpassing the old record of 36 hours held by a Brazilian musical troupe, Communidade Evangelica Luterana São Paulo (Lutheran Evangelical Community of São Paulo) of Universidade Luterana do Brasil (Lutheran University of Brazil).

The Silver Band, started in 1906 by Lawrence D'Souza in Mangalore, is the one of the oldest and most popular brass bands in Mangalore. The well known Konkani hymn Riglo Jezu Molliant (Jesus entered the Garden of Gethsemene) was written by Joachim Miranda, a Goan Catholic priest, during the 18th century, when he was held captive by Tippu Sultan, on his Canara mission. Mgr Minguel Placid Colaco wrote the devotional hymn Jezucho Mog during 1905, and also translated the Latin hym Stabat Mater into Konkani entitled Khursa mullim. Joseph Saldanha's Shembor Cantigo and Raimundo Mascarenhas' Deva Daia Kakultichea (O Compassionate Master) were popular. Other popular Konkani hymns composed by Mangalorean Catholics as of today are: Aika Cristanv Jana, Utha Utha Praniya, and Sorgim Thaun.

File:Wilfy Rebimbus.jpg

Konkani singer, Wilfy Rebimbus, also known as the Konkan Kogul ("the nightingale of Konkani") is credited for taking modern Konkani music to new heights with his unique compositions and singing style

Konkani pop music became popular after the Indian Independence. Henry D'Souza and Helen D'Cruz are known for the Konkani love duet Cathrina in 1971 and the love Ballad Garacho Divo (Lamp of the house) in the 1970s, while Wilfy Rebimbus' sonnet Mog Tuzo Kithlo Axelom (How I Have Loved Thee) in 1977 is also popular. Konkani Plays, especially religious plays, were written and staged in Mangalore since the twentieth century with prominent playwrights such as Pedru John D'Souza, Pascal Sequeira and Bonaventure Tauro. The Ghumat was a popular musical instrument played especially during weddings. The instrument has the form of an earthen pot but is open at both sides. One end is covered with the skin of some wild animal, and the other is left open.

The tradition Of Voviyo (wedding songs), sung by women during a Ros, is important to this community. The procedure is that an elderly lady, usually the yejman (wife of the master of ceremonies, who is known as yejmani) who knows the voviyos, leads the song while the rest of the women sing along with her. Only women whose husbands are still living may sing. In ancient times, the wedding songs expressed very lofty sentiments and gave vent to the feelings of the people about the marriage partners and their families; invoking the blessing of God on them.

Aprosachi vatli, kasgran petli, ruzai mai betli, hea rosalagim.
The Ros brass plate is made by brass smith, our Lady of Rosary is here at this ros ceremony.

Dimbi ami galeam, santa kuru kadeam, kurpa ami magieam amchea Jezulagim.
Let us kneel, make sign of the cross, and pray for God’s grace.

Akashim mod, narl kubear telacho kuris hokleachea kopalar.
Clouds in the sky, coconut on the tree, oily sign of cross on the forehead of the bride.

— Voviyos taken from The Tradition of Voviyo article by Maurice D’Mello,

Organizations

Many organizations cater to the community in South Canara. The most notable are Mandd Sobhann, which broke the Guinness record for non-stop singing, and the Catholic Association of South Kanara (CASK). The first session of the Canara Konkani Catholic World Convention took place on December 26, 2004 in Mangalore. The convention aimed to establish institutions to conduct research on the history of Mangalorean Catholics. In India, the Kanara Catholic Association, Bangalore (KCA Bangalore) (established in 1955) and Mangalore Catholic Association (MCA) (established on February 10, 1996 in Pune) are well known.

In the United Kingdom, Mangalorean United Konkani Association (MUKA) in Nottingham is popular. The Mangalorean Catholic Association of Victoria (MCAV) established in Melbourne was the first organization for the community in Australia. In 2006, the Mangalorean Catholic Association of Sydney (MCAS) was established in Australia. In North America, the Mangalorean Association of Canada and the Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA) in Chicago are well known. In the Middle East, the Mangalore Cultural Association (MCA) in Doha (Qatar) was established on March 2008.

Notable Mangalorean Catholics

Notable Mangalorean Catholics	Achievements
Joachim Alva	Member of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament, from April 3, 1968 to April 2, 1974.
Margaret Alva	Member of Rajya Sabha from 1972 to 1998 – appointed Governor of Uttaranchal in 2009.
Richard Crasta	American novelist.
Blasius D'Souza	Politician in the Indian National Congress and first Roman Catholic minister in the Karnataka state government.
Genelia D'Souza	Indian actress.
Tony D'Souza	American novelist of mixed Mangalorean Catholic and Caucasian descent.
George Fernandes	Defence minister of India from March 19, 1998 to May 22, 2004
Oscar Fernandes	Member of Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian Parliament, from 1980 to 1998.
Michael Lobo	Indian writer, scientist and genealogist.
Maxwell Pereira	IPS Officer – Joint Police Commissioner, Delhi.
Diana Pinto	Miss India America 2009.
Freida Pinto	Hollywood actress known for her role in Slumdog Millionaire.
Pius Fidelis Pinto	Indian historian, researcher and scholar on Christianity.
Viren Rasquinha	Captain of India's national field hockey team.
Wilfy Rebimbus	Konkani singer and lyricist.
Victor Rodrigues	Konkani litterateur and novelist.
Lawrence Saldanha	Catholic Archbishop of Lahore, Pakistan.
V. J. P. Saldanha	Konkani litterateur, dramatist, musician, and poet.

See also

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• Roman Catholicism in Mangalore
• Goan Catholics
• Karwari Catholics
• East Indian Catholics
• Mangalorean Protestants
• Mangaloreans
• Konkani people
• Roman Catholic Brahmin
• Roman Catholic Kshatriya
• Roman Catholic Diocese of Mangalore

Notes

a ^{^} Bido is the small packet of pieces of areca nut wrapped into a betel leaf with the addition of several spices, as it is sold in the shops. Pan-pod is the same, but loosely placed on a plate, so that each guest can prepare his own pan. The areca nut, uncut, is called popal, cut into small pieces it is pod.

b ^{^} In the past Canara was famous for its spices. And so, paan (betel leaf) and pod (areca nut cut into small pieces), the seed of the tropical palm Areca catechu were generously supplied on all festive occasions. The spices were not mixed with chuno (Quick lime). In fact, in every house a copper or brass plate was always kept ready for a pan-pod party. Whenever a guest arrived at the house it was customary to offer him this plate with a fresh betel leaf just picked from the vine. Also a betel nut known as known as tobak or dumti (Tobacco) was prepared and placed on the brass plate.

c ^{^} After the wedding was over, the Sado was well preserved and worn only on high feast-days or for weddings. Sometimes a particularly precious sado was handed down from mother to daughter and considered a valuable heirloom. The cost of a sado was reckoned in varahas. Saris are known for their variety by special names, such as Katari, Shilari, Gulabi, etc. Both the Sado and Dharma sado were costly saris, while the Sado was the most expensive, the Dharma Sado was the second most expensive.

d ^{a b} The Hindus call it mangalsutra or mangala-sutra (the auspicious necklace). It is the symbol of the married state. In the olden days, the Mangalsutra was made of black glass beads strung on a thread made of the fibres of dried pineapple leaves. The ordinary crude pattern of the pirduk was improved in the course of time. Later longish beads of gold were inserted between the black glass beads and a pendant was added. The earliest pendant was a round disk of silver. It was called thali. Later it was changed into a golden pendant.

e ^{^} The Ros is a ceremony similar to the Tel ceremony performed by the Goan Hindus. The Tel is an auspicious ceremony during which the Hindu bride wears a yellow sari, while ladies from the family would rubb the body with turmeric and oil. They would apply it with the help of two leaves of a mango tree over the forehead, neck, chest, shoulder arms and legs of the bride. A similar pattern was followed wherein the Christian bride was smeared with turmeric paste, coconut milk, rice flour with the leaves of ambolim to make the skin smooth, fair and prepare the bride for marriage. In 1736, this practice was banned by the Holy Inquisition in Goa.

Bibliography

References

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• Pai, C. C. A.; Supriya (1981). Konknni Huminnyom (Konkani Riddles): an Anthropological Analysis of the Konkany Riddles of Mangalore Catholics. Satabdi Prakasan.
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• Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Bombay: Government Central Press. 1883..
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Further reading

• Lobo, Michael (2000). Distinguished Mangalorean Catholics 1800–2000 – A Historico-Biographical Survey of the Mangalorean Catholic Community. Camelot Publishers. ISBN 9788187609018.
• Lobo, Michael (2000). The Mangalorean Catholic Community — A Professional History / Directory.
• Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). The captivity of 1784: re-appraising causes & conclusions. I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 9788186778302.
• Pinto, Pius Fidelis (2004). Canaranthle Konknni Catholic (The Konkani Catholics of Canara) (in Konkani). Mangalore: Samanvaya Prakashan.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• Pinto, Pius Fidelis (1999). Desaantar Thaun Bandhadek — Karavali Karnatakantle Konkani Kristanv (From Migration to Captivity – The Konkani Christians of Canara) (in Konkani). Mangalore: Samanvaya Prakashan.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
• D'Souza, A.B. (1993). Popular Christianity: A Case Study among the Catholics of Mangalore. Ph.D. thesis. University of Delhi. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help).
• D'Souza, A. L. P. (1983). History of the Catholic Community of South Kanara. Desco Publishers.
• Pinto, Pius Fidelis (1999). Konkani Christians of Coastal Karnataka in Anglo-Mysore Relations 1761–1799. Mangalore: Samanvaya Prakashan.
• Prabhu, Mohan. Ancient and pre-modern History of the Mangalorean Catholic Community.

External links

• Sarasvati's Children by Joe Lobo
• Origins of Christianity in South Kanara by Diocese of Mangalore
• How Catholics settled in Mangalore by M. V. Kamath
• Mangalorean Catholic Association Of Sydney (MCAS)
• Mangalorean Konkan Christian Association (MKCA), USA
• Mangalorean Association of Canada (MAC)
• Mangalore Cultural Association, Doha, Qatar (MCA Qatar)
• Online Manglorean Konkani Dictionary Project