Libyan civil war (2011)
 | This article may be too long to read and navigate comfortably. (June 2011) |
| 2011 Libyan civil war Arabic:الحرب الأهليّة في ليبيّا عام 2011 | |||||||
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| Part of the Arab Spring | |||||||
   Cities under Muammar Gaddafi control | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
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UN member states enforcing UNSC Resolution 1973: | |||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
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 Nasr al-Mabrouk | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
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Approximately 30,000+ volunteers by 24 March[27][failed verification] (1,000 trained men by 23 March)[28] International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces (see here) | 20,000[29]–40,000[30] soldiers and militia | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
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2,794–3,498 opposition fighters and supporters killed, 1,618–3,144 missing (see here), 970 wounded (eastern front)[31]  1 airman killed in traffic accident in Italy[32][33] 3 Dutch Marines captured (later released)[34] 1 USN MQ-8 shot down[35][36] 1 Royal Netherlands Navy Lynx captured[34] 1 USAF F-15E crashed[37] 1 UAEAF F-16 damaged upon landing[38] | 1,556–2,875 soldiers killed (see here), 812+ captured[39] | ||||||
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Estimated total killed on both sides including civilians: 13,000[40] | |||||||
The 2011 Libyan civil war (Arabic: الحرب الأهلية في ليبيا عام 2011 / ALA-LC: al-ḥarb al-ahlīyah fī Lībiyā ‘ām 2011) is an ongoing armed conflict in the North African state of Libya being fought between forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi and his regime and those seeking to depose him.[41][42] The situation began on 15 February 2011 as a series of peaceful protests which were met with military force by the Gaddafi regime. The protests escalated into an uprising that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing a government based in Benghazi named the National Transitional Council whose stated goal is to overthrow the Gaddafi-led government and hold democratic elections.[43]
The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle, and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the government to the International Criminal Court for investigation,[44] and an arrest warrant for Gaddafi was issued on 27 June.[45]
In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A further U.N. resolution authorized member states to establish and enforce a no-fly zone over Libya.[46] The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it.[47]
Background
Leadership
Muammar Gaddafi has been the de-facto ruler of Libya since 1969, when he led a military coup that overthrew King Idris I in 1969.[48]
Under Gaddafi, Libya was theoretically a decentralized, democratic state run according to the philosophy of Gaddafi's Green Book, with Gaddafi retaining a ceremonial position. Libya was officially run by a system of people's committees which served as local governments for the country's subdivisions, an indirectly-elected General People's Congress as the legislature, and the General People's Committee, led by a Secretary-General, as the executive branch. In practice, however, these structures were manipulated to ensure the dominance of Gaddafi, who continued to dominate all aspects of government, and the country's political system was widely seen as a rubber-stamp.[49]
WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical maneuvering".[50] While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he skillfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extended even to his own sons, as he repeatedly changed affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.[50]
Gaddafi, fearing a military coup against his government, deliberately kept Libya's military relatively weak. The Libyan Army consisted of about 50,000 personnel. Its most powerful units were four crack brigades of highly equipped and trained soldiers, composed of members of Gaddafi's tribe or members of other tribes loyal to him. One, the Khamis Brigade, was led by his son Khamis. Local militias and Revolutionary Committees across the country were also kept well-armed. By contrast, regular military units were poorly armed and trained, and were armed with largely outdated military equipment.[51][52][53]
Development: successes and corruption
Much of the state's income comes from its oil production, which soared in the 1970s, and was spent on arms purchases and on sponsoring militancy around the world.[55][56] Its petroleum revenues contributes up to 58% of Libya's GDP.[57] Governments with resource curse revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feel less pressure to develop their middle class. To calm down opposition, they can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters.[58] Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small population has allowed for a relatively high living standard compared to neighbouring states.[59] Gaddafi amassed a vast personal fortune during his 42-year rule.[60]
Libya's purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP per capita in 2010 was US$14,878, €12,000; its human development index in 2010 was 0.755; and its literacy rate in 2009 was 87%. These numbers were better than in Egypt and Tunisia, whose revolutions preceded the outbreak of protests in Libya.[61] Libyan citizens were considered to be well-educated and to have a high standard of living.[62] The average income among Libyan citizens was US$12,000, €7,500 per year.[63] This specific situation creates a wider contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).[61]
Libya's corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, which was worse than that of Egypt and Tunisia, two neighbouring states that had uprisings preceding Libya's.[64]
According to The Economist, the eastern parts of the state, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, fared badly.[65][66]
An estimated 20.74% of Libyan citizens were unemployed, and about one-third lived below the national poverty line. More than 16% of families had none of its members earning a stable income, while 43.3% had just one. Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region, there was a consistent labor shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market.[67] These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities.
The civil war is viewed as a part of the Arab Spring, which has already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt, with the initial protests all using similar slogans.[68] Social media played an important role in organizing the opposition.[69]
Human rights and violations in Libya
Italian colonial repression left 50,000 Libyans dead.[70] This deeply traumatised the now-older generation of Libyan leaders, especially those in the east. In the 1970s, the regime executed opposition activists publicly and rebroadcast the executions on state television channels.[71][72]
During late 1980s and early 1990s western languages were removed from the school curriculum.[73][74] The country suffered from a lack of qualified Libyan teachers, female attendance at the secondary level and above was low, and attempts in the late 1970s to close private schools and to integrate religious and secular instruction had led to confusion.[75] Up to the mid 1980s, Libya's intelligence service conducted assassinations of Libyan dissidents around the world, and the government placed bounties for the killings of its critics.[71][76][77][78] According to the US State Department, ten to twenty per cent of Libyans were involved in domestic surveillance committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong-il's North Korea.[71] Dissent is illegal under Law 75 of 1973 and Gaddafi has asserted that anyone guilty of founding a political party would be executed.[71]
According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya is the most-censored state in the Middle East and North Africa.[79] In 2010, Libya gave financial compensation to the families of 1,200 prisoners, killed by the regime in the 1990s, and it allowed much more public critique of corruption and repression. A public struggle was going on to control the lawless security forces.[80]
Anti-Gaddafi movement, beginnings of National Transitional Council
Beginnings of open protest
Between 13 and 16 January, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Al Bayda, Darnah, Benghazi, Bani Walid and other cities broke into and occupied housing that the government was building,and protesters also clashed with police in Al Bayda and attacked government offices.[83][84] By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a US$24 billion, €20 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.[85][86][87]
In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations.[88] In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, met with political activists, journalists, and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.[89]
Uprising and civil war
The protests, unrest and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. On the evening of 15 February, between 500 and 600 demonstrators protested in front of the police headquarters in Benghazi after the arrest of human rights lawyer Fathi Terbil. The protest was broken up violently by police, resulting in clashes in which 38 people were injured, among them ten security personnel.[90][91] The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests.[90] In Al Bayda and Az Zintan, hundreds of protesters in each town called for an end of the Gaddafi regime and set fire to police and security buildings.[90] In Az Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre.[90] The armed protests continued the following day in Benghazi, Darnah and Al Bayda. Libyan security forces allegedly responded with lethal force. Four demonstrators were killed and at least three wounded.[92] Hundreds gathered at Maydan al-Shajara in Benghazi, and authorities tried to disperse protesters with water cannons.[93][94]
A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile was planned for 17 February.[89][95][96] The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to the Gaddafi regime protest on 17 February, in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi five years earlier.[89] The plans to protest were inspired by the 2010–2011 Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings.[89] Protests took place in Benghazi, Ajdabiya, Darnah, Az Zintan, and Al Bayda. Libyan security forces fired live ammunition into the armed protests. Protesters torched a number of government buildings, including a police station.[97][98] In Tripoli, protesters managed to burn security buildings and the People's Hall.
According to Amnesty International, "much Western media coverage has from the outset presented a very one-sided view of the logic of events, portraying the protest movement as entirely peaceful and repeatedly suggesting that the regime's security forces were unaccountably massacring unarmed demonstrators who presented no security challenge".[94]
Organization
Many opposition participants have called for a return to the 1952 constitution and a transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil.[99] In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the regime into a centre for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guard the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers have set up a committee to collect weapons.[66]
The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي, al-Majlis al-Waṭanī al-'intiqālī) was established on 27 February in an effort to consolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya.[100] The main objectives of the group did not include forming an interim government, but instead to coordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world.[101] The Benghazi-based opposition government has called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya.[102] The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website.[103] Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdel Jalil said in February that the new government will prepare for elections and they could be held in three months.[104] On 29 March, the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for Libya in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a national constitution.[41][42]
An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations.[105] Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism".[66] Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.[106]
Composition of rebel forces
The rebels are composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Army and joined the rebels.[107][108] The Islamist group Libyan Islamic Fighting Group is considered part of the rebel movement,[109] as is the Obaida Ibn Jarrah Brigade which has been held responsible for the assassination of top rebel commander Gen Abdel Fattah Younes.[110] Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebels included al-Qaeda fighters.[111] NATO commander Admiral James G. Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity were present among the rebels, but also added that there is not sufficient information to confirm there is any significant al-Qaeda or terrorist presence.[112][113] Denials of al-Qaeda membership were issued by the rebels.[114]
Withdrawal of NATO allies
In early August, Norway withdrew completely from the NATO-led operation. Norwegian F-16 jets have carried out around 10 percent of the NATO airstrikes in Libya.[115]
After Italy withdrew the aircraft carrier Garibaldi in July, France's only aircraft carrier and the biggest European warship Charles de Gaulle has returned to port as of 12 August 2011, in order to undergo several months of maintenance.[116]
Gaddafi's response
Gaddafi has accused his opponents as those who have been influenced by hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He has specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee and Nescafé. Gaddafi has claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda are distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He has also blamed alcohol.[117][118][119][120] Gaddafi later also claimed that the revolt against his rule is the result of a colonialist plot by foreign states, particularly blaming France, the US and the UK, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. He referred to the protesters as "cockroaches" and "rats", and vowed not to step down and to cleanse Libya house by house until the insurrection was crushed.[121][122][123][124][125]
Gaddafi declared that people who don't "love" him "do not deserve to live".[122][124] He called himself a "warrior", and vowed to fight on and die a "martyr", and urged his supporters to leave their homes and attack protesters "in their lairs". Gaddafi claimed that he had not yet ordered the use of force, and threatened that "everything will burn" when he did. Responding to demands that he step down, he claimed that he could not step down, as he held a purely symbolic position like Queen Elizabeth, and that the people were in power.[126]
A Swedish arms-trafficking watchdog organization observed flights between Tripoli and Belarus, including visits to a dedicated Belorussian military base that only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment.[127] Pro-Gaddafi forces have allegedly used civilians to protect key sites, like the Bab al-Azizia compound in Tripoli, from air strikes.[128]
Military crackdown
Inital reports suggested that the Libyan military employed snipers, artillery, helicopter gunships, warplanes and anti-aircraft weaponry against protests and funeral processions.[129] Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, said that shooting at protesters was "systematic".[130] According to Human Rights Watch, and Amnesty International, there is no evidence that mercenaries, aircraft or heavy anti-aircraft machine guns were used against crowds, and it also found indications that on several occasions the rebels in Benghazi appeared to have knowingly made false claims or manufactured evidence.[94]
During the first days of the uprising in Benghazi, some 100 to 110 people were killed, most of these were probably protesters, though some may have obtained weapons. Captured Gaddafi supporters reportedly being shot dead.[94]
Course of the war
Active resistance to the government began in Benghazi on 18 February, after three days of protests. Security forces had killed fourteen protesters the previous day, and a funeral procession for one of those killed passed the Katiba compound, where clashes erupted. Demonstrators threw rocks at security forces, who used live ammunition, killing twenty-four protesters. Two of the policemen who had participated in the clash were caught and hanged by protesters.[131] Protesters around the city and in nearby al-Baida and Darnah attacked and overwhelmed government forces, and some police and army units defected and joined the protesters. Security forces were overwhelmed and forced to withdraw. By the end of the day, the area was almost entirely in opposition hands, with the only place still housing a significant number of Gaddafi loyalists being the Katiba compound in Benghazi. On 19 February, another funeral procession passed the compound, and were again fired on. By this time, the Libyan government airlifted 325 African mercenaries to Benghazi and other eastern towns, but were met with retaliatory attacks by opposition forces. Fifty mercenaries were killed by protesters in al-Baida, with some being locked up in a police station which was then burned down, while fifteen were lynched in front of the al-Baida courthouse.[132] At least 236 others were captured alive. A captured mercenary told a British journalist that more than a hundred protesters were also killed.[133] Meanwhile, opposition forces commandeered bulldozers and tried to breach the walls of the Katiba compound, but were met with withering fire. Protesters also used stones and crude bombs made of tin cans stuffed with gunpowder. As the fighting continued, a mob attacked an army base on the outskirts of Benghazi and disarmed the soldiers. Among the equipment confiscated was three small tanks, which were rammed into the compound. The fighting stopped on 20 February, and another thirty people had been killed during the previous twenty-four hours of fighting. By this time, violent clashes also broke out in Misrata between government forces and demonstrators. A third funeral procession passed the compound, and under the cover of the funeral, a man sacrificed himself by blowing up his car and destroying the compound's gates. Opposition fighters resumed their assault, bolstered by reinforcements from al-Baida and Derna. During the final assault, forty-two people were killed. Libyan Interior Minister Abdul Fatah Younis showed up with a special forces squad to relieve the compound, but Younis defected to the opposition and announced safe passage for loyalists out of the city. Gaddafi's troops retreated after executing 130 soldiers who had refused to fire on the rebels.[134] On 23 February, after five days of fighting, rebels also drove out government forces from Misrata. The following day, Gaddafi loyalists attempted to retake Misrata Airport, but were driven back. Officers from a nearby Air Force Academy also mutinied and helped the opposition attack an adjacent military airbase, then disabled fighter jets at the base.
By 23 February, headlines in online news services were reporting a range of themes underlining the precarious state of the regime – former justice minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil alleged that Gaddafi personally ordered the 1988 Lockerbie bombing,[135] resignations and defections of close allies,[136] the loss of Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya, reported to be "alive with celebration"[137] and other cities including Tobruk and Misrata reportedly falling[138] with some reports that the government retained control of just a few pockets,[136] mounting international isolation and pressure,[136][139] and reports that Middle East media consider the end of his regime all but inevitable.[140] By the end of February, Gaddafi's government had lost control of a significant part of Libya, including the major cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harbors at Ra's Lanuf and Brega.[141][142] On the same day, rebels in Darnah killed 13 loyalists, and lost 2 dead.[143]
In Tripoli, clashes between demonstrators and security forces took place in the center of the city, according to Al Jazeera. A doctor claimed that government forces had fired on protesters in the city. Crowds of protesters threw rocks at billboards of Gaddafi, and troops attacked them with tear gas and live fire. A resident claimed that armed security forces were positioned on rooftops surrounding Green Square, and about 200 lawyers and judges demonstrated inside a Tripoli courthouse, which was surrounded by security forces.[144]
On 24 February, loyalist forces in Az Zawiyah fired on a mosque where protesters were holding a sit-in, and were fired on with automatic weapons and an anti-aircraft gun. Afterward's, thousands of people rallied in Martyr's Square. The same day, government forces, including tanks, launched a counterattack on Misrata airbase, engaging in battles with local residents and defecting military units, and managed to retake part of it.[145] On 26 February, government forces fired on rebels and Egyptian migrant workers. By this point, security forces still controlled the outskirts, while rebels controlled the city. 24 rebels had been killed during the previous days of fighting. On 28 February, Gaddafi forces attacked the outskirts of the city, but were repelled, and lost 10 dead and 12–14 captured, of which eight joined the rebels. The town of Nalut, on the Tunisian border, also fell to the opposition forces. On 2 March, government forces attempted to recapture the oil port town of Brega, but the attack failed and they retreated to Ra's Lanuf. On the night on 2 March, rebels attacked government lines outside Az Zawiyah, killing two soldiers. Rebel forces advanced following their victory and on 4 March, the opposition captured Ra's Lanuf. On the same day, government troops started a full-scale assault on Zawiyah, beginning with airstrikes and a fierce mortar, artillery, rocket, anti-aircraft, and heavy machine gun barrage, and attacked the city from two sides, and managed to push into the city towards the city center. The rebels lost 50 dead and about 300 wounded, while the loyalists lost 2 dead.[146] On 5 March, government forces were beaten back when they attempted to take the city center. Loyalist forces launched a fresh assault starting with a mortar barrage, and then attacked the city with infantry and 20 tanks. Soldiers stormed numerous buildings and killed the people inside to secure the rooftops for snipers.[147] The loyalists initially managed to take the central square, but were forced back by a rebel counterattack several hours later. During the battle, twenty-five rebels and eight loyalists were killed. In the late afternoon, another government attack supported by an artillery barrage was stopped, but loyalists managed to secure the hospital. 10 loyalist soldiers were captured during the battle and later executed.
On 6 March, the rebel advance along the coastline was stopped by government forces in Bin Jawad. Government troops ambushed the rebel column and dozens of rebels were killed or wounded. The rebels were forced into a chaotic retreat, leaving some of their troops behind, and a rescue force was repulsed by artillery fire. As the rebels retreated, they were hit by airstrikes. When they regrouped, they moved up several multiple rocket launchers from Ra's Lanuf and engaged in an artillery duel. At least one government soldier was killed during the battle, and a helicopter was shot down.[148] At the same time, loyalist airstrikes hit a rebel-held airbase in Ra's Lanuf, killing at least two and injuring forty. The rebels managed to establish their front line three kilometers from Bin Jawad. At the same time, Gaddafi's forces attempted an attack on Misrata and managed to get as far as the centre of the city before their attack was halted by rebel forces, and they retreated to the city's outskirts.[149] A fourth attack against the Az Zawiyah city center was launched by government troops, but it too was repulsed. Three rebels and 26 loyalists were killed, and 11 loyalists were captured. On 9 March, rebels attempted to retake Bin Jawad, but were forced back by artillery and airstrikes.
Gaddafi counteroffensive
On 6 March, the Gaddafi regime launched a counteroffensive, retaking Ra's Lanuf as well as Brega, pushing towards Ajdabiya and again in Benghazi. Government forces also attempted to take Misrata, sending infantry and armor into the city. The loyalist forces fell into a rebel ambush after they reached the city center. In the subsequent battle, twenty-one rebels and civilians and twenty-two government soldiers were killed.[150] A fifth government attack against rebels in Az Zawiyah produced gains, and by 8 March, most of the city had been destroyed. During the night, rebels managed to retake the square, but the following day, they were met with a fifth counterattack. During the evening, a force of 60 rebels slipped out of the city to assault a military base, but none returned. Gaddafi remained in continuous control of Tripoli,[151] Sirt,[152] Zliten[153] and Sabha,[154] as well as several other cities.
On 9 March, Az Zawiyah was almost completely under control, but rebels managed to drive them from the square during fighting in which 40 rebels and several loyalists were killed. On 10 March, government forces retook Az Zawiyah and Ra's Lanuf, supported by tanks, artillery, warplanes, and warships. Witnesses claimed that dozens of rebels were killed.[155][156][157] Thousands of residents were subsequently questioned, with Gaddafi forces reportedly arresting anyone on the slightest suspicion of sympathy for the rebels. However, small teams of rebels continued to operate in Az Zawiyah, launching hit-and-run attacks against loyalists, reportedly killing dozens of soldiers.[158] On 12 March, loyalist forces launched another attack against Misrata, and were led by the elite Khamis Brigade. The force reportedly managed to fight to within 10–15 kilometers from the city center. The attack stalled, however, after thirty-two soldiers, reportedly including a general, defected and joined the rebels.[159]
The next day, loyalist forces were still advancing fighting rebels on the outskirts, while tank shelling hit the city. On 13 March, regime forces attacked Brega and managed to retake most of the city. By 14 March, loyalists held the oil facilities and rebels held the residential districts. By 15 March, rebel forces had been cleared out and were retreating towards Ajdabiya. The rebels lost seven killed during the battle, and claimed that loyalist casualties stood at twenty-five killed and seventy-one captured. On 14 March, loyalist forces also retook Zuwarah. Four rebels were killed during the battle.[160]
Ajdabiya, the last rebel-held city before Benghazi, had been subjected to loyalist airstrikes for three days. On 15 March, government forces launched a rolling artillery barrage coupled with airstrikes and naval shelling against the city, after which they attacked and broke through rebel defenses through a flanking maneuver. Most rebels had by then retreated from the city. After encircling the city, tanks were sent into the city center, and battled the remnants of rebel forces. Meanwhile, two Free Libyan Air Force jets attacked loyalist warships. According to independent sources, one ship was hit, but the rebels claimed that three warships were hit, two of which sank. After a few hours, the city was under government control, but armored forces pulled back to the outskirts to avoid surprise attacks, although the shelling continued.[161][162]
On 16 March, fighting continued, and government troops returning from the front said that rebel resistance was fierce. Rebel reinforcements from Benghazi managed to create a small corridor through the government blockade despite resistance by loyalist forces, while rebels also managed to take the southern entrance to the city. Three Free Libyan Air Force attack helicopters attacked government reinforcements from Sirt on the highway at the western entrance. The same day, a new artillery attack and round of fighting commenced in Misrata, during which rebels claimed to have captured sixteen tanks and twenty soldiers. During the fighting, eighteen rebels were killed and 20 wounded, and from sixty to eighty government soldiers were killed.[163] On 17 March, however, loyalists recaptured the southern entrance, and closed the corridor on the eastern side of the city. The city was once again firmly surrounded.
Meanwhile, government forces launched an amphibious operation against Az Zuwaytinah, along the Ajdabiya-Benghazi road. Loyalist troops landing on the town's coastline quickly captured it. According to the rebels, the government forces were then surrounded by the rebels, and the next day, the rebels claimed that several of their fighters and a number of civilians were killed, and twenty government soldiers captured. On the night of 17 March, loyalist forces launched an artillery and tank attack against Misrata, and the attack continued well into the next day.
United Nations intervention
On 17 March, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to impose a no-fly zone in Libyan airspace.[165] As a result of the UN resolution, on 18 March, Gaddafi's government declared an immediate ceasefire, but a few hours later, Al Jazeera reported that government forces were still battling rebels.[166] Even after the government-declared ceasefire, artillery and sniper attacks on Misrata and Ajdabiya continued, and government forces continued approaching Benghazi.[167][168]
Government forces entered Benghazi with tanks on 19 March from the west and south while hundreds fled the fighting.[169] Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.[170] Opposition forces managed to beat back the assault after several hours of fighting, claiming to have inflicted losses, including on heavy armor, but confirmed that they suffered 27 casualties. The same day, a Mig-23BN belonging to the Free Libyan Air Force was shot down over Benghazi, after being engaged by rebel ground forces in error.[171] The Libyan government subsequently argued that the rebels had violated the no-fly-zone resolution by using a helicopter and a fighter jet to bomb Libyan armed forces.[172] At the same time, loyalist forces bombarded Az Zintan, and tanks continued advancing towards the city.[173]
The Libyan government was widely reported to have cut off water, electricity and communications in the rebel-held city of Misrata, forcing residents to rely on wells and a desalination plant. The government denied the claims, stating supplies were disrupted due to the fighting.[174]
NATO operations begin
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On 19 March, nineteen French Air Force aircraft entered Libyan airspace to begin reconnaissance missions, and flew over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city.[175] Italian Air Force planes reportedly also began surveillance operations over Libya. In the evening, a French jet destroyed a government vehicle. Shortly afterward, a French airstrike destroyed four tanks southwest of Benghazi.[176] US and British ships and submarines fired at least 114 Tomahawk cruise missiles at twenty Libyan integrated air and ground defense systems.[177] Three US B-2 Spirit stealth bombers flew non-stop from the US to drop forty bombs on a major Libyan airfield, while other US aircraft searched for Libyan ground forces to attack.[178][179] Twenty-five coalition naval vessels, including three US submarines, began operating in the area.[180] The warships began enforcing a blockade of the Libyan coastline.
Libyan State TV reported that government forces had shot down a French warplane over Tripoli on 19 March, a claim denied by France.[181]
On 20 March, several Storm Shadow missiles were launched against Libyan targets by British jets.[182] Nineteen U.S. jets also conducted strikes against Libyan government forces. A loyalist convoy south of Benghazi was targeted. At least seventy vehicles were destroyed, and loyalist ground troops sustained multiple casualties.[183] Strikes also took place on the Bab al-Aziziya compound in Tripoli from late 20 March to early 21 March.
By 21 March 2011, the Libyan government's SA-2, SA-3, and SA-5 air defense systems had been completely neutralized, while further strikes took place on targets Tripoli, and according to the Libyan government, in Sabha and Sirt.[184]
On 22 March, Coalition strikes continued, and a Libyan aircraft flying towards Benghazi was attacked. An American F-15E Strike Eagle fighter jet on a bombing mission crashed after experiencing equipment failure. The pilot and weapons officer ejected and were recovered by a US rescue team inserted by helicopter. Six civilians were shot during the evacuation as they rushed to greet the troops.[185][186]
By 23 March, the Libyan Air Force had been largely destroyed, with most of its aircraft destroyed or rendered inoperable. The Libyan government's integrated air defense system was also degraded to a point where Coalition aircraft could operate over Libya with almost total impunity.[187] On that same day, Coalition aircraft flew at least two sorties against government forces in Misrata. Later in the day, it was announced that all government forces and equipment, with the exception of individual snipers, had retreated from the city or were destroyed. In the early morning hours, four Canadian CF-18 jets supported by two CC-150 Polaris tankers bombed a government ammunition depot in Misrata, marking the first time Canadian jets bombed Libya since the campaign began.[188]
On 24 March, a loyalist Soko G-2 Galeb that violated the no-fly zone was shot down by a French Dassault Rafale as it attempted to land near Misrata. Another five Galebs in the area were destroyed on the ground by a French airstrike the following day. The same day, a British submarine fired multiple Tomahawk Land Attack cruise missiles at Libyan air defenses.[189] Coalition aircraft also bombed Sabha Air Base.[citation needed]
On 25 March, NATO announced that it would be taking over the command of the no-fly-zone operations, after several days of heated debate over who should control operations in Libya. The US had continuously reiterated that it wished to hand over command to an international organization.[190] Airstrikes continued during the day. Two Royal Norwegian Air Force F-16s destroyed a number of Libyan government tanks. French Air Force jets destroyed a government artillery battery outside Ajdabiya, and British and French jets carried out a joint mission outside Ajdabiya, destroying seven government tanks.[191] On that day, the Libyan Health Ministry reported that 114 people had been killed and 445 wounded since the bombing campaign started.[192] However, a Vatican official in Tripoli reported on 31 March that Coalition airstrikes had killed at least 40 civilians in Tripoli.[193]
On 26 March, Norwegian F-16s bombed an airfield in Libya during the night. Canadian CF-18s bombed government electronic warfare sites near Misrata.[194] French aircraft destroyed at least seven loyalist aircraft, including two military helicopters. British jets destroyed five armored vehicles with Brimstone missiles, and Royal Danish Air Force F-16s destroyed numerous loyalist self-propelled rocket launchers and tanks.
On 27 March, Danish aircraft destroyed government artillery south of Tripoli, while Canadian jets destroyed ammunition bunkers south of Misrata. French jets knocked out a command center south of Tripoli, and conducted joint patrols with Qatari aircraft.[195]
On 28 March, Coalition forces fought their first naval engagement when the USS Barry, supported by a P-3 Orion patrol aircraft and A-10 Thunderbolt attack aircraft, engaged the Libyan Coast Guard vessel Vittoria and two smaller craft, after the vessels began firing indiscriminately at merchant vessels in the port of Misrata. The Vittoria was disabled and forced to beach, another vessel was sunk, and the third abandoned.[196] The same day, British jets destroyed two tanks and two armored vehicles near Misrata, and ammunition bunkers in the Sabha area.
On 29 March, U.S. aircraft fired on another Libyan Coast Guard vessel after it opened fire on merchant ships in the port of Misrata, forcing it to limp to shore. Coalition airstrikes continued to hit loyalist ground forces and military targets throughout Libya, with U.S. aircraft employing tankbuster missiles.[197] The following day, French and British jets conducted strikes on loyalist armor and air defenses.
On 31 March, NATO took command of Coalition air operations in Libya. Subsequent operations were carried out as part of Operation Unified Protector. Daily Coalition strikes continued to target Libyan government ground forces, air defenses, artillery, rocket launchers, command-and-control centers, radars, military bases, bunkers, ammunition storage sites, logistical targets, and missile storage sites. These strikes took place all over the country, many of them in Tripoli, where the Bab al-Aziziya compound was also targeted. The strikes caused numerous material losses and casualties among government forces.[198]
On 6 April, an attack against the Sarir oil field, killing three guards and injuring other employees, and causing damage to a pipeline connecting the field to a Mediterranean port. The Libyan government claimed that NATO aircraft carried out the attack.[199] Both the rebels and the information manager at the Arabian Gulf Oil Company denied the Libyan government's claims, and attributed the attack to loyalist forces.[200]
On 23 April, the US carried out its first UAV strike, when two RQ-1 Predator drones destroyed a Multiple rocket launcher near Misrata.[201]
On 4 May, NATO Secretary-General Anders Fogh Rasmussen claimed that the Libyan government's military capabilities had been significantly degraded since the operation started, stating that "every week, every day we make new progress, hit important targets. But I'm not able to quantify the degree to which we have degraded Muammar Gaddafi's military capabilities, but definitely it is much weaker now than when our operation started".[202] On April 5, NATO claimed that nearly a third of the Libyan government's military capabilities had been destroyed.[203]
NATO claimed that it was enforcing the no-fly zone on rebels as well as on government forces. However, an unidentified rebel pilot and an air traffic controller claimed that NATO agreed to let them attack government targets after approving a request by the rebel military council. On 8 May, NATO claimed to have carried out its first interception when it escorted a Free Libyan Air Force MiG-23 back to base, while the unidentified pilot claimed that he had been allowed to take off and destroyed a fuel truck and two other vehicles.[204][205]
Intelligence operations in Libya
The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) inserted small groups of clandestine operatives into Libya to gather intelligence on loyalist military targets and troop positions for airstrikes. The agents also met with rebels to fill in gaps in understanding their leaders and allegiances. US officials denied, however, that they were assisting rebels. In addition, dozens of British MI6 operatives and special forces soldiers were inserted into Libya to direct RAF airstrikes and gather intelligence on the whereabouts of Libyan government tank columns, artillery positions, and missile installations. Stratfor claimed that other states may have also sent intelligence and special forces operatives to Libya. Stratfor reported that foreign operatives also met with rebels to prepare them for upcoming events, create channels of communications and logistics, and create a post-war political framework. In addition, the US Air Force utilized U-2 spy planes, JSTARS aircraft, and a high-altitude Global Hawk drone to monitor government forces. Satellites were also used for surveillance operations against Libya.[206][207]
Aid to rebels
On 19 April, the UK announced that it was sending military advisors to Libya to help the rebels improve their organization and communications, but not to train or arm them. The British government also supplied the rebels with telecommunications equipment and body armor.[208]
On 20 April, the US announced a $25 million, €20 million aid package to the Libyan rebels, which consisted of fuel trucks and fuel containers, ambulances, medical equipment, protective vests, binoculars, food, and non-secure radios.[209] The first aid shipment arrived in Benghazi on 10 May. In addition, Italy and France were reported to be sending military advisors to aid Libyan rebels.[210]
Qatar supplied MILAN anti-tank missiles, pickup trucks, and uniforms to the rebels. The Libyan government claimed that Qatar also sent 20 military trainers to Benghazi to train over 700 rebel fighters. In addition, Qatar assisted a rebel satellite television operation in broadcasting from Doha. On 27 March, Qatar and the Libyan opposition signed an oil export deal, which would see the National Transitional Council exporting oil to Qatar from rebel-held areas in exchange for money to finance the rebel cause. Qatar also supplied petroleum products to the rebels.[211][212]
On 9 June, Turkey donated $100 million to the National Transitional Council for humanitarian assistance.[213]
On 19 June, rebel oil chief Ali Tarhouni said that rebels were running out of money and blamed Western countries for not living up to their promises of financial aids.[214]
On 29 June, France acknowledged that it had airdropped arms supplies to rebels in the Nafusa Mountains in early June. The French military claimed to have supplied only light arms and ammunition to help Libyan civilians defend themselves from attacks by government forces. However, a report in Le Figaro claimed that rocket launchers and anti-tank missiles were among the weapons dropped. Meanwhile, the British government offered the rebels 5,000 sets of body armor, 6,650 uniforms, 5,000 high-visibility vests, and communications equipment for the National Transitional Council's police force.[215][216][217]
Second opposition advance
On 20 March, Free Libyan Air Force pilot Muhammad Mukhtar Osman carried out a suicide attack by crashing his plane into the Bab al-Aziziya barracks in Tripoli. Khamis al-Gaddafi was allegedly killed in the attack although the Gaddafi regime denied the reports.[218]
The same day, as airstrikes were being carried out on loyalist armored and supply columns, rebel forces began a renewed offensive from Benghazi towards Tripoli. They advanced 240 kilometres (150 mi) along the coast of the Gulf of Sidra. The first objective was Ajdabiya, which the rebels reached on 21 March after taking Zuteinia along the way. Rebel forces attempted to attack Ajdabiya and relieve rebels inside the city, but were repulsed by government troops using tanks and multiple rocket launchers, and retreated to a checkpoint twelve miles from the city.[219] That night, US airstrikes hit loyalist positions reportedly shelling the city. On 22 March, loyalist shelling of rebel positions and Coalition airstrikes against loyalist forces continued. Hussein El Warfali, the commander of a Libyan Army Brigade stationed near Tripoli, was reportedly killed during the strikes. Rebel in Ajdabiya claimed that three government tanks were destroyed. On 24 March, government troops still held the main east and west gate areas and most of the city, except the city center, and managed to hold off advancing rebels with the help of mortar and artillery fire. Some rebel reinforcements managed to slip inside the city, and the situation became fluid, with large parts of Ajdabiya changing sides. During the night, British jets attacked government armor.[220] By the following day, Gaddafi forces controlled the western and central parts of the city, while rebels controlled the eastern part. During the afternoon, four rebel multiple rocket launchers shelled loyalist positions as part of a counteroffensive, and government artillery returned fire. The rebel attack was halted after loyalist armored units repelled an advance by rebel forward units. During the night, some rebel reinforcements managed to slip into Ajdabiya, and battled dug-in government troops throughout the night, hitting their positions with RPGs and rockets, while NATO aircraft attacked loyalist tanks and armored vehicles, artillery, rocket launchers, and a military barracks. On 26 March, the rebels were in full control after loyalist forces withdrew from the city. During their retreat, government forces left behind large amounts of weapons and munitions, as well as intact armor and artillery. Loyalist forces also left their dead behind. Rebels seized military equipment abandoned by loyalist forces.[221]
Rebels subsequently took Brega, Ra's Lanuf, and Bin Jawad with Coalition air support. According to a doctor in Ra's Lanuf who treated government casualties from Ajdabiya and the road from Benghazi, the airstrikes caused hundreds of casualties among government forces, morale dropped, and soldiers were faking injuries to escape the fighting. According to the doctor, "the first day, we had 56 seriously wounded. To the head, to the brain, lost arms and legs. Soldiers with a lot of shrapnel in them. It was like that every day after". The doctor said that he did not know how many soldiers were killed, but that soldiers who came to the hospital said that there were 150 dead on the first day of airstrikes, and that there were less after that, as they hid.[222]
Throughout the offensive, fighting also took place in Misrata. Despite continuous strikes on loyalist vehicles by aircraft and Tomahawk cruise missiles, Gaddafi forces regained control of much of the city, using tanks, artillery, mortars, and snipers. The attacks caused civilian casualties, including among children, and a hospital being used by rebels to treat their injured was overrun and used as a sniper position.[223] Regime warships took the city's port. A non-violent demonstration by unarmed rebel supporters was broken up by snipers, artillery, and tanks. On 28 March, heavy fighting took place near Sirte, where government troops managed to halt the rebel advance. One captured rebel was subsequently executed.[224] Meanwhile, government troops again bombarded Misrata, and managed to capture more of the city. Although NATO airstrikes continued to target loyalist vehicles, Gaddafi forces adapted to airstrikes by replacing armor with civilian vehicles fitted with weapons. Government forces launched a counteroffensive on 29 March, forcing the rebels into a retreat from Bin Jawad toward Ra's Lanuf. The same day, loyalist forces led by the Khamis Brigade captured the western and northwestern parts of Misrata. According to witnesses and rebels, civilians were forced from their homes and killed indiscriminately. During the night, heavy fighting occurred in the Az-Zawaabi district, in which nine rebels were killed and five wounded. On 30 March, the rebels said that they were pulling out of Ra's Lanuf due to heavy tank and artillery fire from loyalist forces. Following a government counter-offensive, Gaddafi forces took control of Brega.[225] Clashes continued between rebel and government troops in the area between Brega and Ajdabiya.[226]
Stalemate in the east, rebel progress in the west
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Rebels attempted a counter-attack to retake Brega. For eight days, loyalists and rebels battled for Brega. In the end, government troops repelled numerous rebel attacks on the city and managed to force the rebels out of Brega by 7 April, despite continued NATO strikes. During the battles, a NATO airstrike accidently hit rebel forces, destroying three tanks, damaging five, and killing 27 rebels. NATO claimed that it did not know the rebels were using tanks.[227] During the battle, 46–49 rebels and 28 loyalists were killed. Rebel forces retreated, fleeing in several different directions. The rebels regrouped in Ajdabiya. Following the rebel retreat, government troops consolidated their control over Brega and prepared to advance on Ajdabiya.[228] On 9 April, rebel forces attacked Brega, but only managed to reach the University before being forced back by intense shelling by loyalist forces. The Libyan government claimed that its forces had shot down two rebel helicopters near the eastern oil facilities in Brega. The rebels confirmed that they had sent two helicopters into combat, and journalists claimed to have seen at least one helicopter apparently fighting for the rebels in action.[229]
Following the failed attack on Brega, government forces shelled Ajdabiya and invaded the city from the north, west and south and managed to reach the heart of the town by the following afternoon. They were later forced back by a rebel counterattack that came after rebel reinforcements arrived.[230][231][232] Government troops managed to retain control of the western part of the city. During the night, street battles took place along the city's main street, and in the southern part of Ajdabiya. On 10 April, loyalist forces managed to push closer the city center, although they continued to be hit by NATO air attacks.[233] The following day, rebels managed to completely push loyalist forces out of the city, but fighting continued west of Ajdabiya. The front line then stagnated outside of the city, 40 km down the road to Brega.[234] There were exchanges of artillery and mortar fire throughout the following days. On 15 April, a rebel column tried to advance on Brega from Ajdabiya following a rocket barrage, but were stopped when Gaddafi forces carried out a hit-and-run attack one kilometer outside Brega, killing one rebel and wounding two.[235]
Street battles broke out in Misrata in mid-April with loyalist forces repeatedly shelling the city. Migrant workers trapped in Misrata began protesting their conditions, demanding repatriation from the city, which led to several cases of rebels opening fire on them, causing deaths.[236] By 22 April, rebels managed to drive loyalist forces from several locations near the city center with NATO air support. The Deputy Foreign Minister of Libya subsequently pledged that the Libyan Army would withdraw from Misrata.[237] On 23 April, government forces withdrew from Misrata, but continued to shell the city. On 26 April, a loyalist force attempted to retake Misrata, but was stopped by a NATO airstrike.[238]
Government troops launched an artillery bombardment against rebel-held areas in the Al Jabal al Gharbi district in the Nafusa Mountains, leaving 110 rebels and civilians dead.[239]
On 21 April, a convoy of nine loyalist vehicles attacked the rebel-held al-Boster oil facility in the eastern Libyan desert, southwest of Tobruk, deep inside rebel-held territory. Eight of the nine rebels stationed there were killed, while the remaining rebel escaped wounded. The facility was damaged during the attack. Loyalists set a tire on fire to burn the remains of a senior rebel guard. Rebel spokesman Ahmed Bani said that the attack was carried out to disrupt oil sales by rebels.[240]
On 24 April, loyalist forces shelled the border crossing at Wazzin, and fired Grad rockets into Zintan, causing casualties. The following day, two rebels were killed and three wounded in fighting near Nalut. The rebels claimed to have killed 45 government troops and captured 17.[241]
Rebel forces captured Wazzin after overcoming fierce resistance from government troops. Gaddafi's forces became trapped between the town and the border with Tunisia and as a result 105 government soldiers crossed the border and surrendered to Tunisian officials. On 28 April, loyalist forces recaptured the Wazzin border crossing with Tunisia after a swift advance during which they pushed the rebels into Tunisia. Fighting continued on the edge of the Tunisian border town of Dehiba, which included a failed rebel counterattack. On 28 April, loyalist forces captured Al Jawf with minimal resistance, and the rebels quickly retreated. Three people were reportedly killed during the assault.[242] On 29 April, elements of the Tunisian army and border police clashed with loyalist forces.[243]
On 30 April, a NATO airstrike hit the home of Saif al-Arab al-Gaddafi, Gaddafi's youngest son. Libyan officials reported that Saif and three of Muammar Gaddafi's grandchildren were killed in the strike. The government also claimed Gaddafi was there, but "escaped".[244][245][246] On 26 April, British Defence Minister Liam Fox and US Defense Secretary Robert Gates, had told reporters at the Pentagon that NATO planes were not targeting Gaddafi specifically but would continue to attack his command centers. Within the United Nations Security Council, Russia and China voiced concerns that NATO has gone beyond the UN resolution's authorisation to take "all necessary measures" to protect civilians.[247] Russia expressed "increasing concern" regarding reports of civilian casualties, and doubted claims that the attacks did not deliberately target Gadaffi and his family. Following the attacks, angry mobs of Gaddafi loyalists burned and vandalized the British and Italian embassies, a US consulate, and a UN office, prompting the UN to pull its staff out of Tripoli.[248]
The strike came shortly after Muammar Gaddafi called for a mutual cease-fire and negotiations with NATO. A NATO official said before Saturday's strike that the alliance would keep up pressure until the U.N. Security Council mandate on Libya was fulfilled. The NATO official noted that Gaddafi's forces had attacked Misrata hours before his speech. Opposition leaders called the cease-fire offers publicity stunts. "We don't believe that there is a solution that includes him or any member of his family. So it is well past any discussions. The only solution is for him to depart," said rebel spokesperson Jalal al-Galal.[249]
On the same day of the attack, government troops entered Jalu and engaged in a battle with rebels, in which five rebels, five civilians, and three soldiers were killed.
Following the strike, loyalist forces stepped up their artillery attacks on Misrata, and continued to shell Wazzin. Government troops in Misrata were reported to be seen wearing gas masks, sparking fears that Gaddafi would use chemical weapons to retaliate for his son's death.[250]
On 1 May, NATO carried out 60 airstrikes throughout Libya, targeting ammunition storage sites, military vehicles, a communications facility, and an anti-aircraft gun. Rebels claimed that a NATO airstrike destroyed 45 military vehicles in an attack on a loyalist convoy leaving Jalu. The following day, government tanks tried to enter the city from the al-Ghiran suburb. Six people were killed and several dozen wounded. Misrata was still subjected to continuous rocket fire from government forces, with a spokesperson claiming that the shelling had not stopped for 36 hours. Government forces halted their shelling of Misrata at about midday following NATO strikes, but the port remained closed, having been bombarded earlier in the day. Meanwhile, two of the three mines that were laid by loyalist forces in the port of Misrata that were preventing aid from being shipped in were destroyed, with NATO minesweepers searching for the third.[251]
On 3 May, loyalist forces started shelling Misrata. The attack stopped briefly when a NATO plane flew overhead, but resumed shortly afterward. NATO aircraft conducted 62 airstrikes against loyalist targets near Misrata, Ra's Lanuf, Sirt, Brega, and Zintan.[252]
On 4 May, a ship chartered to deliver humanitarian aid and evacuate migrant workers, journalists, and wounded Libyans was able to dock in the port of Misrata after being guided in by tugboat to avoid hitting a mine. Gaddafi forces shelled the area, hitting a camp for stranded migrant workers and causing deaths and injuries. Loyalists also stepped up their attacks in the Nafusa Mountains, shelling two towns and a key supply route.
On 5 May, the Royal Navy mine clearance vessel HMS Brocklesby located and destroyed the final mine at the entrance to the port of Misrata. NATO aircraft conducted numerous airstrikes against loyalist forces near Misrata and Ajdabiya, and military targets in Tripoli.[253]
On 6 May, NATO conducted 57 airstrikes against loyalist military targets throughout Libya, while opposition forces gained full control of Al Kufra and Abu Rawayah after Gaddafi forces stationed there surrendered. Loyalists attacked the town of Jalu, but were repulsed by rebel resistance and a Coalition airstrike.[254] Loyalist soldiers launched an attack on a rebel checkpoint between Jalu and Al Jawf, killing six rebels. A rebel scouting pickup truck was also hit by loyalist artillery during fighting alon the Brega-Ajdabiya road, killing another three rebels.[255]
On 7 May, Gaddafi forces continued shelling the port of Misrata, hitting a large fuel tank. Government forces also used small crop-dusters to bomb four fuel tanks. The attacks started a fire, which spread to four more fuel tanks. Loyalist artillery and mortar fire also hit Tunisia after renewed clashes broke out at the Wazzin border crossing. Clashes also took place in Zintan and Yefren, and in the area between. The area between Zintan and Yefren was being secured, but Yefren was still under siege. Rebel casualties were 11 killed and at least 50 wounded.[256] Loyalists also conducted hit-and-run attacks against Jalu and Ojla. The rebels also claimed to have retaken Al Jawf, but government troops were still in the surrounding area.
On 8 May, heavy fighting took place near Misrata Airport, and the city came under renewed attack by Gaddafi forces. Meanwhile, NATO strikes hit numerous government targets in the vicinity of Misrata, Zintan, Ajdabiya, Houn, and Brega.[257]
On 9 May, the shelling of Misrata by Gaddafi forces continued to choke off humanitarian supplies to the city, while fighting continued near Misrata Airport. Meanwhile, Coalition strikes hit two targets in Tripoli.[258] Fighting also took place along the Brega-Ajdabiya road. The rebels claimed to have killed 36 loyalist soldiers and lost 6 fighters.
On 10 May, rebels from Misrata and Zlitan joined up and engaged in close combat that rendered loyalist long-range rockets useless. The rebels managed to drive loyalist forces on the west side of Misrata out of rocket range, and to push loyalist troops from Misrata Airport, burning their tanks as they retreated. Rebels also claimed to have made gains near Jalu, and the area between Ajdabiya and Brega in fierce fighting. The same day, a NATO strike hit a government command center in Tripoli.[259] Rebels subsequently began an advance towards Zliten.
NATO attacks intensify
On 11 May, NATO aircraft fired four rockets at Gaddafi's compound in Tripoli, killing at least two people. Strikes also hit government military targets throughout the country.[260]
On 12 May, NATO carried out 52 strikes against loyalist targets. Loyalist forces fired at least three rockets into Ajdabiya. Loyalist forces also launched an attack on Misrata port, using a number of small boats, but were forced to abandon their attack after NATO warships intervened. Regime forces onshore covered their retreat with artillery and anti-aircraft fire directed at the warships. The warships HMCS Charlottetown and HMS Liverpool responded with machine gun fire.[261]
On 13 May, NATO carried out 44 airstrikes. According to the Libyan government, a strike in the vicinity of Brega killed 11 Islamic clerics and wounded 45 civilians. In Tripoli, shortages of food and fuel were worsening, along with increasing NATO attacks. According to an activist, a wave of anti-government protests took place in several Tripoli neighborhoods throughout the week.[262] Italian Foreign Minister Franco Frattini said that Gaddafi was probably wounded in a NATO airstrike, and had left Tripoli. The Libyan government dismissed the claim as "nonsense", and state television broadcast a brief audio recording of what it said was Gaddafi, taunting NATO as a cowardly crusader, and claiming to be in a place where NATO could not reach him.
On 15 May, NATO conducted 48 airstrikes against loyalist targets. British jets and missiles hit two intelligence facilities. NATO also hacked into Libyan Army frequencies, and broadcast claims of atrocities and appeals to stop fighting, telling them to either "build a peaceful Libya for the benefit of your family and a better future for your country" or face continued airstrikes.[263]
On 16 May, NATO conducted 46 airstrikes on loyalist targets. Among the targets hit was a training base used by the bodyguards of members of Gaddafi's inner circle, which was hit by British jets. At least four Grad rockets fired from Libya landed in Tunisian territory.[264] Libyan government forces used two rigid-hull inflatable boats laden with explosives in an attempt to hinder aid shipments to the port of Misrata, but the vessels were intercepted by NATO warships and helicopters. One boat escaped at high speed, but the second was captured, and destroyed by a NATO warship using small-arms fire.[265] The following day, NATO carried out 53 strikes.
Throughout the following days, NATO continued to carry out dozens of airstrikes on government military capabilities, a large percentage of the targets being in Tripoli. Meanwhile, government forces continued artillery attacks on rebel areas. On 19 May, British jets carried out a massive strike against the Libyan Navy, hitting naval facilities in the harbors Tripoli, Khoms, and Sirt. Eight warships were sunk or severely damaged. A dockyard for launching rigid-hull inflatable speedboats was also hit, and the attacks caused damage to naval infrastructure.[266] The same day, increased rebel activity was reported between Brega and Ajdabiya, with new recruits and ammunition arriving in large numbers at the front lines. Meanwhile, loyalist forces again started shelling Misrata, killing one rebel and wounding ten. The next day, another sixty strikes were carried out. In Brega, a relatively small rebel unit with artillery support launched an attack against Gaddafi troops at Brega University, an area in which rebels had trouble engaging in before due to the extensive use of artillery by loyalists. The university was attacked from multiple angles, but government troops managed to retain their positions at the university by the end of the day.
On 21 May, NATO naval forces intercepted a fuel tanker destined for Libya, carrying fuel alleged to be for government use.[267] In addition, the harbor of Tripoli was again one of the targets bombed in NATO attacks.[268] Also on the same day a ship loaded with food and medical supplies docked in Misrata and unloaded its cargo, while two ships loaded with humanitarian aid departed from Benghazi and docked in Zarzis, Tunisia, where their aid was unloaded to be taken by truck to the Nafusa Mountains region. A French military spokesman announced that the French Navy amphibious assault ship Le Tonnerre had departed Toulon the previous week, and was sailing towards the Libyan coast with a load of twelve Tiger helicopters. Later, the British military said that it was also deploying four Apache helicopters. Meanwhile, clashes took place in Nalut, in which one rebel and ten government soldiers were killed. Rebels also attacked New Brega from six directions to outflank loyalists entrenched there. Two rebels were killed and twelve wounded, along with an unknown number of loyalists. Two loyalist vehicles mounted with heavy weapons were destroyed and another three captured. Loyalist forces counterattacked later during the evening. One rebel was killed and four wounded during fighting at the Arbaein checkpoint between Brega and Ajdabiya.
On 25 May, rebels carried out an attack against government forces near Kufra, destroying a weapons-laden vehicle. The same day, rebels clashed with Sudanese mercenaries near the Sudanese border.[269]
On 26 May, NATO warplanes bombed more than twenty targets in Tripoli. All of the strikes were conducted within less than half an hour. It was widely described as the heaviest attack on the city since the campaign began. According to Libyan government spokesman Moussa Ibrahim, the strikes targeted buildings used by volunteer units of the Libyan Army. NATO claimed that a vehicle storage facility near the Bab al-Aziziya compound was hit. At least three people were killed and dozens injured.[270] NATO strikes continued to target Gaddafi's forces with an increasing frequency, attacking dozens of targets all around the country daily, many of them in Tripoli. The Bab al-Aziziya compound continued to be targeted. Gaddafi forces continued their artillery and rocket attacks, and laid a minefield in the Misrata area. Water continued to be cut off in Misrata, and loyalists also re-routed sewage to flow directly into wells.
On 27 May, they attempted to advance on Misrata, but the rebels drove them back, losing 5 dead and 8–9 wounded. Clashes took place in Bani Walid, and a high-ranking loyalist officer was reportedly killed. Clashes also reportedly took place between security forces and protesters in four areas of Tripoli.
On 29 May, 120 government soldiers and eight officers defected from the government and left Libya. The eight officers included five generals, two colonels, and a major. One of the defectors, General Melud Massoud Halasa, said that Gaddafi's forces were weakening daily, and were only twenty percent as effective as they were before the war began. Halasa estimated that only ten generals remained loyal to Gaddafi.[271] On the same day, an anti-government protest broke out in Tripoli, when about 1,000 people gathered for the funeral of two opposition members killed in a clash with security forces. The demonstration was broken up by loyalist militia, who used live ammunition to disperse it, killing two people. The protest was the largest that took place in Tripoli in nearly three months.[272]
Gaddafi operations in rebel areas
Following the withdrawal of government forces from cities as they fell, members of Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees remained, and launched a series of shootings and bombings against civilians and spied on local rebel activity. They also assassinated a military commander who defected to the rebels and a journalist, both of them in Benghazi. On 1 June, suspected Gaddafi loyalists blew up a car in front of a Benghazi hotel where foreign journalists and diplomats were staying. Rebels claimed that pro-Gaddafi agents in Benghazi may be acting as spies for the regime, seeking to corrode the uprising on the inside. According to a Benghazi resident, Gaddafi's supporters were in hiding, organizing themselves for when the government retook Benghazi. Estimates of the number of Gaddafi sympathizers in Benghazi ranged from 300 to 6,000. Rebel Information Minister Mahmud Shammam told journalists that small sleeper cells of Gaddafi's agents existed in Benghazi, allegedly receiving coded messages delivered by government spokesmen in Tripoli.[273][274]
Rebel forces responded with a security crackdown, arresting hundreds of suspects over a several-week period. Many arrests were carried out by civilian "protection squads" not sanctioned by the National Transitional Council. Some of the suspects targeted by the rebels were armed and engaged in shootouts, resulting in casualties on both sides. Rebels often arrested suspects based on criteria such as the regime loyalty of their hometown, a photograph of Gaddafi in their wallet, and family ties. However, the rebels also used other methods to discover Gaddafi supporters, such as sending women into the homes of suspects to pretend to be in need of something while searching for guns. Some suspects were arrested after their friends reported that they were loyal to Gaddafi. One detainee died of torture while in custody. Some suspects were summarily executed rather than being arrested. An official in the rebel security agency stated that six of Gaddafi's former internal security agents were found dead in one week. He claimed that they had been on a closely guarded list of suspects, but that each time that an arrest was ordered, it was discovered that they had already been killed.[275][276] Rebel death squads were suspected to be behind the killings.[277][278]
June helicopter strikes
British and French forces began employing helicopter attacks against Libyan targets on 3 June as part of Operation Unified Protector.[279][280] The attack helicopters were used to attack communications and control facilities, and were able to target Gaddafi forces in populated areas while minimizing risks to civilians.[281][282] According to UK Defense Secretary Liam Fox, the employment of helicopters was an extension of the way in which fast jets had been used in ground attacks and did not signify a change in tactics.[283]
British AH1 Apache attack helicopters armed with Hellfire missiles and heavy chainguns disabled a military checkpoint and a radar station near Brega.[279][284] The helicopters received return fire from government soldiers in the back of a pickup truck and anti-aircraft gun. The Apaches destroyed the anti-aircraft position with six Hellfire missiles and destroyed the pickup truck with a chain gun, killing a number of soldiers.[285] British attack aircraft supported the helicopters by destroying one military installation. Meanwhile, two munition storage depots were destroyed in a separate mission in central Libya.[284] The operation was concluded successfully and the two helicopters returned to HMS Ocean.[281]
French Gazelle and Tiger attack helicopters targeted fifteen military vehicles and five command posts at unknown locations.[279][286] In all, twelve French helicopters are being used in the campaign.[281]
NATO jets launched a series of fresh airstrikes against targets around the country. According to an anonymous Libyan government official, an educational institute in eastern Tripoli where military officials and civilians studied engineering, computers, and communications was among the targets hit.[287]
Rebel offensives
On 3 June, rebels captured four towns from government forces in the Nafusa Mountains Campaign in the western part of Libya. On the following day fighting continued in another part of the mountain range, near the Tunisian border, with government forces reportedly using Grad rockets.[288] Clashes also took place between government and opposition forces in Al Khums.
NATO attacks continued to hit government targets around the country with increasing frequency, especially in and around Tripoli. Rebel forces in the Nafusa Mountains advanced somewhat closer to Tripoli, taking the strategically important town of Yafran on 7 June, which strengthened their control of the mountains area.[289] This left the rebels less than 100 miles from Tripoli. The same day, NATO launched at least forty airstrikes against government targets in Tripoli. The Bab al-Azizia compound was heavily bombed, with a government soldier claiming that it was subjected to eight airstrikes.[290] On 8 June, Gaddafi forces again advanced on Misrata, with renewed shelling killing 10 rebels and injuring 24. In Tripoli, NATO attacks briefly ceased during the day, but resumed in the evening.[291] On 9 June, NATO launched another series of airstrikes, hitting targets on the outskirts of Tripoli.[292]
The following day, Gaddafi forces shelled the outskirts of Misrata, and launched ground attacks on the city which were repelled by rebel resistance, while NATO aircraft attacked government vehicles and a rocket launcher. Rebels claimed that 16 rebels and 50 loyalists were killed, and that at least 40 rebels were wounded, in addition to civilian casualties. Another 61 were wounded when loyalist forces shelled Dafniya with tanks, artillery, and incendiary rockets.[293] However, a subsequent attack by loyalist infantry and armor was repulsed. Loyalist forces also surrounded Zlitan. According to rebel military spokesman Ahmed Bani, the troops were equipped artillery and Grad rockets. Residents were allegedly threatened with shelling and rape by mercenaries if they did not surrender.[294] Clashes between rebel and government forces broke out in Zlitan, with regime forces shelling the city, while NATO aircraft attacked government forces in the area. NATO airstrikes hit Tripoli the same day, hitting either the Bab al-Azizia compound or a nearby military barracks. Libyan state television also reported that airstrikes hit targets in the Ain Zara neighborhood.[295]
On 11 June, rebel forces fought their way into Az Zawiyah, and continued advancing from the west. London-based National Transitional Council spokesman Guma el-Gamaty announced that the rebels had captured a large part of the western side of the city. NATO airstrikes also hit mobile radar units in Metiga, weapons depots in Jufrah, Widdan, and Houn, and targets in Tripoli. Government commander Khweldi Al-Hmeldi was allegedly wounded. Government forces set up checkpoints to the west of Az Zawiyah, and closed the coastal road.[296] Government soldiers continued shelling Misrata, and clashes continued around Zliten.
On 12 June, Libyan government spokesman Moussa Ibrahim announced that the rebels were defeated in Az Zawiyah. Reporters taken to Az Zawiyah saw secure streets and Gaddafi's national flag in the central square. Government forces also continued to shell Misrata, and attack rebel forces massed in Dafniya with tanks, artillery, and incendiary rockets. Clashes also took place in Misrata, and Zlitan. In an attack on Brega, four rebels were killed and dozens injured. NATO aircraft bombed the Bab al-Azizia compound and a military airport. Meanwhile, protests were reported to be occurring in Sabha, with youth and members of an anti-Gaddafi tribe protesting against the government and preparing weapons.[297]
On 13 June, opposition forces launched an offensive in the Misrata area, and managed to push Gaddafi forces out of the area in fierce fighting, despite heavy shelling by government troops. The rebels fought their way to within six miles of Zlitan. The Misrata refinery was hit by six rockets which damaged its generators. However, government forces ambushed rebels in Brega, killing 23 and wounding 26.[298] The same day, NATO conducted 62 airstrikes against targets in Tripoli and four other cities. NATO helicopters attacked two Libyan Navy boats off the coast of Misrata, and military equipment and vehicles concealed beneath trees in Zlitan.
On 14 June, government bombardments in the Nafusa Mountains continued, while clashes continued as the rebels attacked towns under Gaddafi control. NATO jets bombed the Bab al-Azizia compound and two other targets in Tripoli. NATO aircraft also dropped propaganda leaflets urging government soldiers to abandon Zlitan.[299] Throughout the following days, NATO jets and helicopters continued to target the Bab al-Azizia compound and military targets across Libya. However, on 18 June, a NATO airstrike mistakenly hit a rebel column, and expressed regret for any casualties that may have resulted. The following day, government forces ambushed a group of rebels near Dafniya, killing five. Meanwhile, rebel forces began conducting a flanking operation against Gaddafi forces to push them from Zlitan.
As the rebel offensive progressed, opposition fighters conducted small-scale attacks against government forces in Tripoli, although few of the attacks were apparently effective. Residents claimed that several significant assaults took place in late May and early June.[300] At night, gunfire was frequently heard in the city, with some residents claiming that it was security forces clashing with opposition fighters, and Libyan authorities claiming it to be celebratory gunfire. In addition, protesters held "flash" protests, chanting anti-Gaddafi slogans for several minutes before melting away, hanged the rebel flag from bridges, and spray-painted anti-Gaddafi graffiti at night. Due to fears of rebels smuggling weapons into the city, authorities set up checkpoints in the city and roadblocks at the entrances, searching cars. According to some media reports, poorly-trained students were given weapons and told to man checkpoints, due to a shortage of regular military forces in the city.[301]
On 19 June, nine civilians were killed in a NATO airstrike on Tripoli. Reporters were taken to the location of the strike and saw bodies being pulled out of the rubble of a destroyed building. NATO said that it was investigating the reports.[302][303] Later in the same day, NATO acknowledged being resonsible for the airstrike and the civilian deaths.[304] NATO claimed that it was targeting a missile site, but that a bomb apparently missed its target due to a weapon systems failure and hit a civilian target instead.[305] On the frontline, the fights continued around Dafniyah near Misrata with artillery fire from both sides.
On 20 June, Gaddafi government officials claimed that NATO killed 19 civilians in the town of Surman, 70 km west of Tripoli. This came only a day after NATO admitted to accidentally killing civilians in a separate airstrike in Tripoli.[306] NATO stated that the target in Surman was a military command and control node.[307]
On 21 June, a NATO MQ-8 unmanned helicopter drone was lost over Libya, with enemy fire being the suspected cause.[308][309] Meanwhile, government shelling of Misrata continued, while six rebels were killed and fifty wounded during clashes in Dafniya. Near Zlitan, more than 150 land mines were discovered and removed.
NATO continued its airstrikes on Gaddafi forces, conducting 44 strikes the following day. Meanwhile, fighting in and near Zlitan continued, while Gaddafi forces continued to bombard rebel-held areas.
On 26 June, rebel forces in the Nafusa Mountains took the initiative and engaged in fierce fighting with forces loyal to Gaddafi around Bir al-Ghanam, 80 kilometres (50 miles) from Tripoli.[310] Meanwhile, NATO increased its airstrikes in western Libya during the week, striking more than 50 military targets. Tripoli and Gharyan were repeatedly hit, along with a network of tunnels storing military equipment about 50 kilometers southeast of Tripoli. NATO strikes also hit government military targets in Brega on 25 June. On 1 July, NATO aircraft attacked two vehicles near Bir al-Ghanam, a town in the Nafusa Mountains along a road leading to Tripoli.[311] Gaddafi forces continued to attack Misrata, reportedly in a bid to keep the rebels pinned down there and prevent an advance on Tripoli.
On 6 July, opposition forces in strongholds in the Misrata and the Nafusa Mountains attacked Gaddafi forces in separate coordinated attacks. The Misrata offensive sought to repel Gaddaffi forces in Zlitan, a town located on the route to the Libyan capital. Rebel fighters came with technicals armed with anti-armor weapons and overwhelmed a military base in the village of al-Qawalish.[312] Clashes between rebels and government forces continued, with Gaddafi forces fighting to recapture al-Qawalish and striking rebel areas and a road linking Kikla to Al-Assaba intermittently with Grad rockets and anti-tank cannons.[313] In response to the advance, the Libyan government reportedly began arming civilians in the areas it held, and formed militias composed entirely of women.[314] On 13 July, Gaddafi forces launched a dawn counterattack and briefly retook al-Qawalish, before being again pushed out by the rebel army.[315] [316]
On 14 July, the rebels claimed to have retaken al-Qawalish. Rebel forces also launched an attack on Brega, with the Libyan government claiming that NATO supported the attack by striking government targets from the sea and air. NATO confirmed that it had hit five targets in the vicinity of Brega, as well as targets in the vicinities of Gharyan, Sirt, Tripoli, Waddan, and Zlitan.[317][318]
On 16 July, 10 rebels were killed and 172 wounded during an advance on Brega, with four government soldiers reportedly captured. Fighting was reported near Bir Ghanam in the Nafusa Mountains. NATO strikes hit a range of military targets near Tripoli and Brega. The following day, rebel forces launched a renewed attack on Brega, claiming to have advanced from the city's outskirts into the streets in the center.[319][320] On 18 July, the rebels claimed to have taken all of Brega after Gaddafi's forces withdrew to Ras Lanuf.[321] This is seen as a major victory since it gives the rebels access to two million barrels of crude oil, as well as complete control over eastern Libya's oil network.[322]
However, on 20 July, a rebel commander said that Gaddafi forces were inside Brega and that most of the rebels were between 5 and 10 km outside the city.[323] The death toll on rebel side for this battle exceeded 50.[324]
Clashes and NATO airstrikes continued in the following days. On 25 July, rebel forces carried out a major hostage-rescue operation behind enemy lines, freeing 105 civilians who had been abducted by government soldiers in Misrata on 24 April.[325]
Stalemate
After several months of conflict and no signs of triumph in favour of Gaddafi nor the rebels, some NATO countries conceded that a powerless Gaddafi could be allowed to stay in Libya, a scenario both Tripoli and Benghazi rejected.[326]
Killing of Abdul Fatah Younis
On 28 July, the rebel army chief Abdul Fatah Younis was put under arrest by the NTC and was being held at an undisclosed garrison in Benghazi. Some of his soldiers returned from the front to ask for his release.[327] The NTC later organized a press conference and announced the death of Younis.[328] NTC minister Ali Tarhouni claimed that rebel fighters dispatched to bring Younis back to Benghazi had killed him on their own initiative.[329] A pro-Gaddafi spokesman suggested that he was killed by his own side as they believed him to have been a double agent.[330] Younis's top deputy, Suleiman Mahmoud, replaced him as head of the National Liberation Army,[331] though the military command and local government in rebel-held Misurata declared that it would not take orders from the NTC to protest its handling of Younis's death.[332]
Rebel offensive accelerates
At dawn on 28 July, rebels in Libya's Western Mountains launched an offensive against Ghezaya, a town near the Tunisian border.[333] After capturing 18 government troops along with weapons and ammunition, the rebels claimed to have captured the small towns of Jawsh, Ghezaya and Takut, while continuing to advance on the town of Badr and two other areas.[334] On 30 July, rebels said they had encircled Gaddafi's last stronghold in the Western Mountains and hoped to seize it by the end of the day. Rebel tanks fired at Tiji, where an estimated 500 government troops are stationed.[335]
On 31 July, rebel units aided by intensive NATO bombing broke through the front line in several places west of Misrata, advanced nine miles and captured abandoned tanks, artillery and truck-mounted grad rocket launchers near the town of Zlitan. In the Nafusa mountains rebels said they captured one town, Hawamid, and surrounded a second, Tiji, 150 miles south west of Tripoli.[336]
On 1 August, the rebels entered the town of Zlitan.[337] On 3 August, they defeated an attempt by Gaddafi's forces to retake the town.[338] Meanwhile, NATO bombed Zlitan and Tajoura, near Tripoli,[339] and the rebels captured a Gaddafi ship laden with 250,000 barrels of oil.[340]
On 6 August, rebels from the mountain town of Yafran launched a major attack on the town of Bir Ghanam, with the aim of then moving on to attack Zawiya and Sabathra on the Mediterranean coast.[341] By midday the rebels claimed to have taken Bir Ghanam after Gaddafi's forces retreated from the town.[342] Meanwhile Qatar supplied the rebels in Misrata with more weapons, and a renewed assault began on Brega.[343] The government in Benghazi announced it had flown $10 million to the rebels in the Nafusa mountain region.[344]
On 7 August, in the area around Zlitan NATO destroyed four command and control nodes, one military facility, a weapons dump, an anti-tank weapon and a multiple-rocket launcher.[345]
On 8 August, reporters in Bir Ghanam confirmed the rebels were in complete control of the town, despite previous denials from the Gaddafi regime.[346] The rebels destroyed a section of a pipeline carrying fuel to the regime's only electricity plant, causing permanent damage to the regime's generating capacity and resulting in widespread blackouts in Tripoli.[347]
On 9 August, NATO bombed a warship in Tripoli's harbour after observing weapons were being removed from it.[348] On 12 August, rebels took most of the town of Tuarga.[349]
As of 13 August the rebels were advancing on nearly every front. The rebels were fighting to consolidate control over the recently conquered territory around Ras Jdir, Zawiya, Gharyan, Zliten, Tawargha, and Brega. [350] On 14 August the rebels had taken most of Zawiya[351]
Humanitarian situation
Medical supplies, fuel and food have run dangerously low in Libya.[352][when?] On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6,400,000 to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in Libya.[353] On 2 March, the ICRC's director general reminded everyone taking part in the violence that health workers must be allowed to do their jobs safely.[354]
At the end of February Al Jazeera reported that African migrant workers were being attacked, injured and perhaps killed by anti-government mobs according to witnesses. "We were being attacked by local people who said that we were mercenaries killing people. Let me say that they did not want to see black people," Julius Kiluu, a sixty-year-old building supervisor, told Reuters. "Our camp was burnt down, and we were assisted by the Kenyan embassy and our company to get to the airport," he said.[355]
On 2 March, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS York had arrived in Benghazi carrying medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the Swedish government. The medical supplies, a donation to the Benghazi Medical Centre, were supposed to have been flown direct to Benghazi airport but when the airport was closed down, they were diverted to Malta. They were transferred from the airport to the frigate at short notice by the Armed Forces of Malta.[356][357] On 8 March, a convoy of trucks from the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP) had entered Libya and was due to arrive in the eastern port city of Benghazi on the same day, the WFP said in a statement. A convoy carrying seventy metric tonnes of high-energy date bars crossed the Egyptian border overnight on its way to the eastern port. On 7 March, U.N. aid coordinator Valerie Amos stated that fighting across Libya meant that more than a million people fleeing or inside the country needed humanitarian aid.[358][359] Islamic Relief and World Food Programme (WFP) are also coordinating a shipment of humanitarian supplies to Misrata.[360]
Turkey sent the ferry Ankara to Libya. The ferry had been converted into a hospital ship to assist wounded victims of the fighting in Misrata. Ankara docked at the Misrata port on 2 April, and was escorted by twelve Turkish Air Force F-16 jets taking off from Bandırma and Dalaman, four tanker aircraft taking off from İncirlik, and the Turkish Navy frigate TCG Yıldırım. 230 wounded people and 60 attendants were taken on board and the ferry left Misrata for Benghazi.[361][362] On 4 April, the ferry sailed from Benghazi to Turkey with additional 190 people, including 90 injured.[363] IHH Humanitarian Relief Foundation (IHH) sent a cargo ship carrying nine containers with 141 tons of humanitarian aid including medication, food packages, infant formula, milk powder, hygiene kits and clothing.[360][364] The ship set sail from Turkey and dropped anchor in Malta.
By 11 April, hundreds of foreign labourers from countries including Bangladesh, Egypt, Sudan, Ghana and Niger who were previously attracted by jobs in a once prosperous town of Misurata had not been evacuated. A labourers' spokesperson said there were 650 trapped workers from Ghana, 750 from Chad and 2,000 from Niger. Another spokesperson also gave a reporter for the British Daily Telegraph newspaper handwritten sheets of names that he said represented hundreds of stranded Sudanese.[365]
For over fifty days, the Libyan city of Misurata has been shelled by artillery and hit by tanks and snipers, and for over twenty days has had its water intentionally shut off by Muammar Gaddafi's forces. Sewage has been intentionally re-routed into water wells by Gaddafi's forces. As supplies run short, hundreds of thousands are at risk of death.[366][367]
A humanitarian ship docked in harbour of the besieged city of Misrata late on the 14th to begin the evacuation of nearly 8,300 stranded migrants living around the port in temporary accommodation in tents and shelters made from tarpaulins. The Red Cross also released a statement that it expected one of its medical supply shipments to arrive at Misrata in the near future.[368]
11 May 2011 the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland Radoslaw Sikorski paid a visit to Benghazi. During the visit, Poland provided its medical aid transport for those who sustained injuries during the clashes in Misrata and other Libyan cities.[369]
Following the 2011 rebellions in Tunisia and Libya, the Italian island Lampedusa saw a boom in illegal immigration from those countries.[370] More than 45,000 boat people have arrived on Lampedusa in the first five months of 2011.[371]
Plight of migrant workers in Libya
Libya is a major destination country in North Africa, with migrants constituting 10.5% of the total Libyan population in 2010.[372] Economic migrants in Libya come from a wide range of countries of origin. In the past most migrants came from Arab countries, mainly Egypt and Tunisia, but the last decade has seen more sub-Saharan African migrants as a result of more relaxed open border policies for southern countries. According to the Word Bank, in 2009 migrant workers sent home an estimated one billion USD in remittances, i.e. 1.7% of Libya's GDP.[372]
Migrants are trying to escape the Libyan crisis as violence continues to escalate in the country. When migrants started to exit the country for the Egyptian and Tunisian borders, the International Organization for Migration began immediate evacuation operations for stranded migrants at international borders. Migrants receive humanitarian assistance, including medical services from IOM, as well as immediate repatriation in coordination with their respective governments to their countries of origin with a window of 5 to 7 days. The operational border points are at Sallum in Egypt, Ra's Ajdir in Tunisia, Dirkou in Niger and Faya in Chad. As of 10 July, the cross-border movement for Third-Country Nationals reached over 290,000 persons.[373] In the context of the Libya Crisis, Third Country National (TCN) comprises migrants who crossed the border from Libya to a country that is not their country of origin. As of July 10, IOM has evacuated over 150,000 migrants to their countries of origin by plane, ship and international buses.[373]
Libya's third-largest city, Misrata is the rebel's main stronghold in the west and has been under constant artillery fire by pro-Gaddafi forces.[374] There is a pressing need for evacuations given the large number of critically ill migrants who are caught in the artillery cross fire and are trapped in Misrata. IOM is chartering ships from Misrata to Benghazi, a city in the rebel-held east to evacuate wounded migrants. The ships have on-board field hospitals run by LibAid that include a fully intensive care unit for head trauma injuries caused by shrapnel from the artillery shelling. Since mid-April, IOM has rescued over 7,500 people in ten sea evacuations.[373] Once in Benghazi, the migrants are taken to Sallum, Egypt by road and are continued to be assisted by IOM in returning to their country of origin.
Migrants are also stranded elsewhere in Libya, such as in the Southern towns of Sebha and Gatroum. Of the two thousand Chadian migrants who are trapped in Sebha and Gatroum, nearly 40% are women, children and the elderly who have been living under difficult conditions in the open Southern Libyan Desert.[375] Evacuations by air organized by IOM began early July.[376] Whilst waiting for evacuation, Chadians are provided with food, water, hygiene materials and medical assistance by IOM and Libyan Red Crescent.[375]
Libyan refugees
Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 refugees were crossing the Libya-Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were native Libyans as well as foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks.[377] In February, the Italian Foerign Minister, Franco Flattini, expressed his concerns, that the amount of Libyan refugees, trying to reach for Italy might reach 200,000–300,000 people.[378] By 1 March, officials from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya.[379] By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp was set up at Ras Ejder with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.[380]
To continue responding to needs of people staying at the Ras Ejdir crossing point in Tunisia, WFP and Secours Islamique-France are upgrading a kitchen that will provide breakfast for families.Separately, the International Committee of the Red Cross ICRC has advised it is handing over its operations at the Choucha Camp to the Tunisian Red Crescent.[381] Since 24 March, WFP has supplied over 42,500 cooked meals for third-country nationals at the Saloum border. A total of 1,650 cartons of fortified date bars (equivalent of 13.2 metric tons) have also been provided to supplement these meals.[360]
Over 500, mostly ethnic Berber Libyans, had fled their homes in Libya's Western Mountains and took shelter in the Dehiba area of south east Tunisia between 5 and 12 April.[382]
Potential military–humanitarian coordination
Whilst the UN sanctioned military intervention has been implemented on humanitarian grounds, UN agencies seeking to ease the humanitarian crisis repeatedly rejected offers of support from the military to carry out the agencies' humanitarian operations.[383] The conditions under which such support may be accepted are outlined in the Guidelines on the Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets to Support United Nations Humanitarian Activities in Complex Emergencies (MCDA), whereby military support can be used but only temporarily and as a last resort.[383] Yet, there remains the concern that aid agencies' neutrality will be brought into question by accepting military support, putting aid staff at risk of being attacked and causing some parties to prevent the agencies accessing all the areas they need to.[383] Furthermore, the military may not always have the technical skills required to assess the need for aid and to ensure its effective distribution.[383] Despite this, offers continue for the creation of an aid corridor and aid agencies have accepted military logistical support in the past, for instance in the 2010 Pakistan floods response.[383]
Casualties
Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied. Conservative estimates have put the death toll at 1,000.[failed verification][384]
On 24 February, the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting reported that the International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 had been killed.[385] The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February.[386]
On 2 March, the International Federation for Human Rights estimated a death toll as high as 3,000[failed verification] and the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed.[387] At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died.[388] The Libyan League for Human Rights estimated 6,000 were killed on 5 March.[failed verification][389] Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000.[390]
Domestic responses
Resignation of government officials
In response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan public officials either renounced the Gaddafi regime or resigned from their positions. Justice Minister Mustafa Mohamed Abud Al Jeleil and Interior Minister Major General Abdul Fatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem and Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa fled Libya, with the latter defecting to the UK.[391][392] Libyan Prosecutor General Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar resigned his position and joined the opposition.[393]
The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemned the action of the Gaddafi regime. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Union and United Nations have either resigned or stated that they no longer support the government.[394][395][396] The ambassadors to Bangladesh, Belgium,[395] France,[397] India,[394] Indonesia,[392] Malaysia, Nigeria, Poland,[398] Portugal,[399] Sweden,[400] and the US[401] also renounced the Gaddafi regime or formally resigned.
Military defections
A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition, including General Abdul Fatah Younis, Major General Suleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier General Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, Brigadier General Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta and requested asylum, after being ordered to carry out airstrikes against anti-government protesters in Benghazi.[402][403] Colonel Nuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base also defected along with senior naval officials.[404]
Economic, religious and tribal
The Libyan economy is mainly based on its oil production. The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second-largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces.[405] Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi.[406][407] The Warfalla, Tuareg and Magarha tribes announced their support of the protesters.[141][408] The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in its part of Libya if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.[408]
Libyan royal family
Muhammad as-Senussi, son of the former Crown Prince and great-nephew of the late King Idris,[410] sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect."[411] as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence.[412] On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre".[413] He dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence.[414] He asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.[415] On 20 April, Mohammed spoke in front of the European Parliament calling for more support for Libya.[416] He also stated that he will support any form of government that Libya will choose after Gaddafi including a constitutional monarchy.[417]
A rival claimant to the throne, Idris bin Abdullah al-Senussi, announced in an interview with Adnkronos that he was ready to return to Libya and "assume leadership" once change had been initiated.[418] On 21 February, he made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising.[419] In March, it was reported Idris bin Abdullah had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington with US government officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudi officials.[420] On 3 March, it was reported that another member of the family, Prince Zouber al-Senussi, had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.[421]
International reactions
Official responses
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A number of states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's use of military and mercenaries against Libyan civilians. However, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, North Korean leader Kim-Jong-il, Cuban political leader Fidel Castro and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez all expressed support for Gaddafi.[422][423][424] Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi initially said he did not want to disturb Gaddafi, but two days later he called the attacks on protesters unacceptable.[425][426] Although Russia had long expressed reservations and dissent regarding the intervention, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev announced during the 37th G8 summit on 27 May that he believed that Gaddafi "should leave", and offered to mediate a deal to oust the Libyan leader.[427]
The Arab League suspended Libya from taking part in council meetings at an emergency meeting on 22 February and issued a statement condemning the "crimes against the current peaceful popular protests and demonstrations in several Libyan cities".[428][429]
Libya was suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council on 1 March, by a unanimous vote of the United Nations General Assembly, citing the Gaddafi government's use of violence against protesters.[430][431] On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council voted unanimously to impose strict sanctions against Gaddafi's government and refer Gaddafi and other members of his government to the International Criminal Court for investigation into allegations of brutality against civilians.[432] Interpol issued a security alert concerning the "possible movement of dangerous individuals and assets" based on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, listing Gaddafi himself and fifteen members of his clan or his regime.[433] A number of governments, including Britain, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Germany and Australia, took action to freeze assets of Gaddafi and his associates.[434]
The Gulf Cooperation Council issued a joint statement on 8 March, calling on the United Nations Security Council to impose an air embargo on Libya to protect civilians.[435] The Arab League did the same on 12 March, with only Algeria and Syria voting against the measure.[436]
On 16 May, the International Criminal Court's chief prosecutor asked judges to issue arrest warrants for Colonel Gaddafi, his son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, and his intelligence chief Abdullah al-Sanoussa. According to the prosecutor, the three had ordered, planned, and participated in illegal attacks against civilians. He stated that under their command, pro-Gaddafi forces had attacked civilians in their homes, shot at demonstrators protesting his 40 years of rule with live ammunition, shelled funeral processions, and deployed snipers to kill people leaving mosques. While compiling a seventy-four-page dossier of evidence that will be presented to judges,[437][438] as many as fifty top Gaddafi insider officials had provided information, seeking to implicate each other in war crimes.[439]
Evacuations
During the uprising, many states evacuated their citizens.[440] China set up its largest evacuation operation ever with over 30,000 Chinese nationals evacuated, as well as 2,100 citizens from twelve other states.[441][442][443] On 25 February 500 passengers, mostly Americans, sailed into Malta after a rough eight-hour journey from Tripoli following a two-day wait for the seas to calm.[444] South Korea evacuated its almost 1,398 nationals in Libya using cars, airplanes, and ships.[445][446][447]
Bulgaria evacuated some of its citizens with planes, along with Romanian and Chinese citizens.[448] The Indian government launched Operation Safe Homecoming and evacuated 15,000 of its nationals through the Indian Navy and Air India.[449] The Turkish government sent three ships to evacuate a reported 25,000 Turkish workers and return them to Istanbul.[450] Ireland sent two Irish Air Corps jets to Libya to evacuate approximately Irish citizens, using Malta as a temporary base. However, an Air Corps Learjet that landed in Tripoli on 23 February was prevented by Libyan authorities from picking up any passengers.[451] The Irish Department of Foreign Affairs assisted over 115 Irish nationals in leaving Libya.[452] Russia sent aircraft and ferries to evacuate its nationals, as well citizens of other countries.[453]
Many international oil companies decided to withdraw their employees from Libya to ensure their safety, including Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, Sinopec, Suncor Energy, Pertamina and BP. Other companies that decided to evacuate their employees included Siemens and Russian Railways.[454][455]
The evacuations often involved assistance from various military forces. The United Kingdom deployed aircraft and the frigate HMS Cumberland to assist in the evacuations.[456][457][458] The Chinese frigate Xuzhou of the People's Liberation Army Navy was ordered to guard the Chinese evacuation efforts.[442][459] The South Korean Navy destroyer ROKS Choi Young arrived off the coast of Tripoli on 1 March to evacuate South Korean citizens.[460] The Royal Navy destroyer HMS York docked in the port of Benghazi on 2 March, evacuated 43 nationals, and delivered medical supplies and other humanitarian aid donated by the government of Sweden.[461][462] Canada deployed the frigate HMCS Charlottetown to aid in the evacuation of Canadian citizens and to provide humanitarian relief operations in conjunction with an US Navy carrier strike group, led by the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise.[463]
Two Royal Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft with British Special Forces onboard evacuated approximately 100 foreign nationals, mainly oil workers, to Malta from the desert south of Benghazi.[464][465] A subsequent joint evacuation operation between the UK and Germany evacuated 22 Germans and about 100 other Europeans, mostly British oil workers, from the airport at Nafurah to Crete.[466][467][468]
On 27 February, the Royal Netherlands Navy frigate HNLMS Tromp sent a helicopter manned by three Marines to evacuate a Dutch civilian and another European from Sirt. After the helicopter landed near Sirt, it was confronted and grounded by a Libyan Army unit, and the three members of the crew were arrested for entering Libyan airspace without clearance.[469][470] The civilians were released soon after and the crew was released twelve days later, but the helicopter was confiscated.[471] A cruise ship arrived to save the 7,913 Filipinos in Libya from the destruction. They stopped in Greece and then safely made it home to the Philippines.[citation needed]
Three months after the conflict started, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and its partners (UNHCR, Donor In-Kind) have conducted life-saving evacuations for almost 144,000 migrants.[472] Tunisia has been the largest exit route of migrants fleeing from Libya; due to its proximity to Tripoli and other major Libyan cities, third country nationals and Libyans have flocked to the main border points of R'as Ajdir and Dehiba. From Tunisia, IOM and its partners evacuated by air about 103,000 migrants to their countries of origin.[473] Repatriation movements organized by IOM from Egypt reached 35,000 passengers.[474] In Niger, about 2,000 migrants received transportation assistance, by bus or by plane, to return to their country of origin.[475] From Algeria, IOM organized the repatriation of about 1,200 migrants that crossed the Libyan-Algerian border to flee the conflict.[476] Bangladeshi nationals represented the largest nationality of migrants repatriated by IOM, with more than 30,000 repatriated by plane. Chadians faced many difficulties while returning home by themselves as many trucks could not cross directly into Chad due to severe hardship along the main road from Libya to Faya. As such, trucks took detours through Niger, thereby lengthening the journey and creating more obstacles (and costs) for the returnees. In three months, about 68,000 Chadian nationals have returned to Chad. Among them, 26,500 have been repatriated by plane by IOM and its partners. The rest have returned in different entry points by trucks.[477]
Mediation proposals
There have been several peace mediation prospects during the crisis. Early in the conflict, Gaddafi's son reportedly requested that former British Prime Minister Tony Blair mediate the crisis but he bluntly refused.[478]
South Africa proposed an African Union led mediation effort to prevent civil war.[479] Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez also put himself forward as a mediator. Although Gaddafi accepted in principle a proposal by Chávez to negotiate a settlement between the opposition and the Libyan government, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi later said there was no need for any foreign mediation.[480] The proposal has also been under consideration by the Arab League, according to its Secretary-General Amr Moussa.[481]
The Libyan opposition stated any deal would have to involve Gaddafi stepping down. The US and French governments also dismissed any initiative that would allow Gaddafi to remain in power.[482] Turkish Prime Minister Tayyip Erdogan, the 2010 winner of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights, offered to mediate the crisis, and proposed that Gaddafi appoint a President acceptable to all Libyans as means of overcoming the crisis.[483]
Indirect talks allegedly took place between Gaddafi's government and the National Transitional Council. In early March, Gaddafi reportedly proposed that he step down and hand power over the General People's Congress, in exchange for immunity from criminal prosecution, safe exit for him and his family, and a guarantee from the United Nations that he be allowed to keep his money. Gaddafi allegedly sent Libyan UN delegate and former Prime Minister Jadallah Azzuz at-Talhi to negotiate a deal.[484][485] On 8 March, the National Transitional Council announced that if Gaddafi called off the fighting and left Libya with his family within the next seventy-two hours, the council would not prosecute him.[486]
The African Union's special committee on Libya has been attempting to broker a ceasefire agreement.[487] On 29 May, South African President Jacob Zuma flew to Libya to arrange a cease-fire, and NATO temporarily lifted its no-fly zone to allow his presidential plane to land at the main military airbase next to Tripoli. Zuma met with Gaddafi in the Bab al-Azizia compound, and said that Gaddafi was ready to accept an AU initiative for a complete cease-fire that would stop all ground fighting and NATO airstrikes, and that Gaddafi insisted that "all Libyans be given a chance to talk among themselves". Gaddafi did not make any mention of stepping down, and the offer was rejected by the rebels. However, opposition leaders remained skeptical that mediation would end the conflict in a way that would satisfy their goals, which include seeing Gaddafi removed from power.[487] Fathi Baja, The National Transitional Council's Foreign Minister, said that "we refuse completely, we don't consider it a political initiative, it is only some stuff that Gaddafi wants to announce to stay in power", adding that the rebels would soon launch an offensive.[488] On 31 May, Zuma said that Gaddafi had told him he would not step down or leave Libya, and was "emphathetic" about this position.[489]
Russian Presidential Envoy to Africa Mikhail Margelov itineraried a visit to Tripoli to present a roadmap to resolve the conflict once NATO clears the transportation corridor, assuming a mediatory role requested at the G8 Summit in May.[490]
It is rumored that Gaddafi's son, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, is talking with the rebels to end the war.
In July 2011, it was revealed that National Transitional Council chairman Mustafa Abdul Jalil had previously offered Gaddafi the option of being allowed to remain in Libya on condition that he steps down and orders soldiers to withdraw to their barracks and positions. Under the deal, the rebels would decide where Gaddafi could live, and he would be under international supervision at all times. Jalil suggested that Gaddafi could spend his retirement under guard in a military barracks.[491][492][493]
Sanctions
On 26 February, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970, which imposed an arms embargo on Libya, and travel bans and asset freezes on members of the Gaddafi regime. Asset freezes and travel bans were further extended by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which also tightened the arms embargo by allowing the forcible seizure and inspection of Libyan ships and planes by international forces, and imposed asset freezes and travel bans on additional Libyan individuals and entities. The European Union and United States imposed additional asset freezes on individuals and entities not sanctioned by the UN, particularly entities in the Libyan oil and gas and financial sectors. Major US energy firms cut off trade with Libya in response to the sanctions. Although major European buyers of Libyan oil continued to trade, trade was significantly reduced due the reluctance of banks to finance trade with Libya.[494]
Following the imposition of sanctions, numerous governments seized tens of billions of dollars in Libyan assets, including the assets of Gaddafi and his sons. Before defecting to the rebels, the governor of the Libyan Central Bank, Farhat Bengdara, arranged for the bulk of external Libyan assets to be frozen and unavailable to Gaddafi's government.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973
 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973(no-fly zone and other measures) |
| Countries committed to enforcement: |
 Belgium[495]
|
 Bulgaria[496]
|
 Canada[497]
|
 Denmark[498]
|
 France[499]
|
 Greece
|
 Italy[500]
|
 Jordan[501]
|
| Netherlands[502]
|
 Norway[503]
|
 Qatar
|
 Romania[504]
|
 Spain[505]
|
 Sweden
|
| United Arab Emirates[501]
|
| United Kingdom[506]
|
| United States[507]
|
On 28 February, UK Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from airlifting mercenaries and using military aircraft against civilians.[508] A number of states indicated they would support a no-fly zone if it was backed by the UN.[509]
US Secretary of Defense Robert Gates was initially sceptical of this option, warning the US Congress that a no-fly zone would have to begin with an attack on Libya's air defences.[510] Russia and China, both holding UN Security Council veto power, indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.[511][512][513][514] Romania,[515] India[516] and Turkey[citation needed] also indicated they were opposed to the implementation of a no-fly zone.
On 7 March, a UN diplomat confirmed to Agence France-Presse, on condition of anonymity, that France and the UK were drawing up a resolution for the UN Security Council to authorize a no-fly zone over Libya.[517][518]
The foreign ministers of the Arab League agreed at their 12 March meeting to ask the UN to impose a no-fly zone over Libya. The rebels concurrently stated that a no-fly zone alone would not be sufficient, because the majority of the bombardments were coming from tanks and rockets, not aircraft.[519] The US changed its position, as Gadaffi forces were quickly approaching Benghazi, and voiced support for the no-fly-zone concept.[520]
On 17 March, the UN Security Council approved UN Security Council Resolution 1973 (2011), authorizing a no-fly zone, amongst other measures, by a vote of ten in favour, zero against and five abstentions. Germany was the only NATO or European Union member to abstain; it would also not join the NATO-led air war in Libya.[521] The resolution bans all flights in Libyan airspace in order to protect civilians.[520][522] A collection of states began enforcing the no-fly zone on 19 March.[523]
On 29 March, Libyan Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa wrote to UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, nominating Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann – the former foreign minister of Nicaragua's socialist Sandinista government and one-time president of the UN General Assembly – as Libya's new ambassador to the UN. The letter stated that Brockmann was nominated because their first choice, Ali Abdussalam Treki – also a former UN General Assembly president – was denied a visa to enter the US under UN Security Council Resolution 1973.[524]
The NATO Berlin summit of 14–15 April
NATO, Georgian, Russian, Ukrainian, UAE, Swedish and Qatari officials attended a summit in Berlin, but failed for a second day to find new ground-attack aircraft, despite planning to send more fighters to strengthen the no-fly zone.[525][526] NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen asked other member states to do more in Libya, but Italy signalled its reluctance to contribute more airpower.[527] The British Foreign Minister, William Hague, said he did not regard the meeting as a failure, even though it had not prompted any extra member nations to join the French, British and American led mission.[525] The Russian representative warned that NATO had gone beyond the UN mandate to only protect citizens, by attacking ground targets in Libya.[527]
Reactions to the decision to intervene
The International Federation for Human Rights stated that it welcomed the resolution which finally offers protection to civilians in Libya, who are the targets of crimes which can be considered crimes against humanity.[528] Muslim Brotherhood-linked Egyptian scholar Yusuf al-Qaradawi expressed his support for the no-fly zone put in place by the UN over Libya, saying, "The operation in Libya is to protect the civilians from Gaddafi's tyranny." Qaradawi also slammed Arab League leader and likely presidential candidate Amr Moussa for remarks criticizing the international intervention.[529] Al-Qaeda also stated that they support the uprising against Gaddafi.[530][531] Egypt reportedly has been shipping arms to Libya to arm the rebels.[532]
Kenneth Roth, executive director of the Human Rights Watch, stated that the Security Council at last lived up to its duty to prevent mass atrocities. He further commented the Arab League's role, stating that "the league had watched silently as Sudan's Omar al-Bashir committed crimes against humanity in Darfur – or, less recently, as Iraq's Saddam Hussein massacred Shia and Kurds, and Syria's Hafez al-Asad destroyed the town of Hama. But the league apparently sensed the winds of change wafting through the Middle East and North Africa, and felt compelled to respond."[533]
According to a French Institute of Public Opinion (IFOP) poll, only 36% of the population supported French participation in any military intervention in Libya in the run-up to the intervention. However, an IFOP poll conducted after the intervention began showed 66% supported the intervention, with no difference of opinion between the left-wing and right-wing.[534] In the US, opposition before the intervention was as high as 74%, according to CNN/Opinion Research Corporation,[535] while after the intervention a CBS News poll indicated 66% of Americans support the air and naval strikes, with 70% of Democrats and Republicans, and 65% of independents approving of missile and airstrikes. However, only 20% expect the no-fly zone to be "very effective" in protecting civilians and rebels from Gaddafi's forces.[536]
China, India, Russia and Turkey condemned the strikes by international forces.[537] Amr Moussa, the head of the Arab League, expressed great concern over civilians, clearly defining his position as supporting the UN Security Council resolution but not a bombing campaign.[538] However, Amr Moussa later clarified that his comments were misinterpreted, and that he does in fact support the air strikes, and reiterated his support for protecting civilians.[539] Turkey specifically singled out French leadership for ignoring the NATO alliance, which was left divided and split over the operation.[540][541] NATO members Germany and Poland are not participating in the campaign, and non-NATO member Malta did not offer its airports for use by coalition forces.[542][543]
In Britain the intervention has been broadly supported amongst politicians and the media, though it has also provoked strong opposition from a minority including former MP George Galloway and MPs Jeremy Corbyn and Caroline Lucas.[544] [545] In the US, some politicians have voiced opposition to military action without congressional approval, or have requested clarifications and debate about US goals and how they will be achieved, including Democratic and Republican congressional representatives, Speaker of the House John Boehner,[546] House Armed Services Committee Chairman Buck McKeon,[547] and Democratic House Caucus chair John Larson.[548] Richard Haass, president of the Council on Foreign Relations, has expressed doubts over the possibility of a better regime emerging if the rebels are victorious.[549] However, others have predicted more fortuitous results from the US-led intervention in Libya, especially regarding its long-term ramifications on standing American foreign policy.[550]
On 15 June, lawmakers from both parties announced a lawsuit they had launched a day before against President Obama in federal court to "challenge the commitment of the United States to war in Libya absent the required constitutional legal authority."[551]
See also
| class="col-break " |
- Topple the Tyrants
- Tunisian revolution
- Free speech in the media during the 2011 Libyan civil war
- Moussa Ibrahim, Gaddafi's spokesman
|}
References
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The eastern city of Benghazi... was alive with celebration on Wednesday with thousands out on the streets, setting off fireworks
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- ^ "Rebels to Qaddafi: You May Stay in Libya". Arutz Sheva.
- ^ Farge, Emma. "U.S. Firms Stop Libyan Oil Trade Due to Sanctions". Reuters. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ [clarification needed] Staff (18 March 2011). "Belgische politici unaniem achter militaire interventie – Onrust in het Midden-Oosten" (in Flemish). De Morgen. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Bulgarian Frigate on Its Way to Libyan Coast". The Sofia Echo. 30 March 2011.
- ^ Staff (17 March 2011). "CF-18 Jets To Help Enforce Libya No-Fly Zone". CBC News. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Staff (15 March 2011). "F-16s Readied To Defend Libyan People". The Copenhagen Post. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ [clarification needed] Staff (18 March 2011). "France: Military Action To Take Place 'Swiftly' Against Libya". CNN.
- ^ [dead link] Hussein, Sara (18 March 2011). "Libya Accuses Rebels of Breaching Truce". Agence France-Presse (via Yahoo! News). Retrieved 27 March 2011.
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- ^ Staff (18 March 2011). "Netherlands Willing To Contribute to Libya Intervention – PM". Dow Jones Newswires (via NASDAQ). Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ [clarification needed] Nordberg, Marianne (18 March 2011). "Norge vil delta i angrep i Libya – Norge kommer til å delta hvis utenlandske styrker angriper i Libya. Det sier forsvarsminister Grete Faremo" (in Norwegian). Klar Tale. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ [clarification needed] Galantonu, Dumitrina (22 March 2011). "Traian Basescu: Romania va trimite fregata Regele Ferdinand cu 205 militari in Mediterana pentru operatiuni de blocare a oricarei nave suspecte ca transporta armament" (in Romanian). Hotnews.ro. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Mangasarian, Leon; Fam, Mariam (19 March 2011). "Qaddafi's Forces Defy Cease-Fire, Attack Rebels in Benghazi". Bloomberg (via Bloomberg Businessweek). Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "BBC Live Parliamentary Broadcast, 18 March 2011". BBC News. 31 March 2011. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ Press release (18 March 2011). "Remarks by the President on the Situation in Libya". White House Office of the Press Secretary. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Macdonald, Alistair (1 March 2011). "Cameron Doesn't Rule Out Military Force for Libya" (Abstract; (subscription required) for full article). The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Pullella, Philip (7 March 2011). "Italy Tiptoes on Libya Due to Energy, Trade, Migrants". Reuters (via MSNBC). Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ (registration required) Singer, David E.; Shanker, Thom (2 March 2011). "Gates Warns of Risks of a No-Flight Zone". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ [dead link] Heilprin, John (1 March 2011). "Russian FM Knocks Down No-Fly Zone for Libya". Associated Press (via Yahoo! News). Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Usborne, David (2 March 2011). "Russia Slams 'No-Fly Zone' Plan as Cracks Appear in Libya Strategy". The Independent. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Staff (1 March 2011). "China Voices Misgivings About Libya 'No-Fly' Zone Plan". Reuters (via AlertNet). Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Johnson, Craig (3 March 2011). "Libyan No-Fly Zone Would Be Risky, Provocative". CNN. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Shrivastava, Sanskar (14 March 2011). "Nations Oppose Military Intervention in Libya". The World Reporter. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
- ^ [dead link] [23]. The Hindu.
- ^ Rogin, Josh (7 March 2011). "US Ambassador to NATO: No-Fly Zone Wouldn't Help Much". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
- ^ Donnet, Pierre-Antoine (7 March 2011). "Britain, France Ready Libya No-Fly Zone Resolution". Agence France-Presse (via Google News). Retrieved 15 March 2011.
- ^ McGreal, Chris (14 March 2011). "Libyan Rebels Urge West To Assassinate Gaddafi as His Forces Near Benghazi – Appeal To Be Made as G8 Foreign Ministers Consider Whether To Back French and British Calls for a No-Fly Zone over Libya". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
- ^ a b Lederer, Edith M. (17 March 2011). "Libya No-Fly Zone Approved By UN Security Council". Associated Press (via The Huffington Post). Retrieved 18 March 2011.
{{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) - ^ Staff (19 June 2011). "Germany Rules Out Sending Troops to Syria: Minister. Agence France Presse (via IPOT News). Retrieved 11 August 2011.
- ^ Staff (17 March 2011). "Security Council Authorizes 'All Necessary Measures' To Protect Civilians in Libya". UN News Centre. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
- ^ Staff (19 March 2011). "Libya: 'Ceasefire Has Not Been Broken'". Sky News. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Varner, Bill; Schmidt, Blake (29 March 2011). "Former Nicaragua Sandinista Leader Named Libya's UN Envoy". Reuters (via Bloomberg). Retrieved 30 March 2011.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Pidd, Helen (15 May 2011). "Nato Rejects Russian Claims of Libya Mission Creep". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ [dead link] "NATO Secretary-General Says He's Confident More Planes Soon Available for Libya Mission". The Washington Post. 23 March 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ a b "NATO Asks Other Members to Do More in Libya". Voice of America. 20 August 2009. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ Staff (18 March 2011). "Security Council Resolution 1973 : FIDH Welcomes This Resolution Which Offers Protection to Civilians in Libya". International Federation for Human Rights. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Abuzant, Nour (26 March 2011). "Qaradawi Condemns 'Atrocities' Against Protesters in Syria". Gulf Times. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ Swami, Praveen (25 March 2011). "Libyan Rebel Commander Admits His Fighters Have al-Qaeda Links". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
- ^ Staff (24 February 2011). "Al Qaeda Backs Libyan Protesters and Condemns Gaddafi". Reuters. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
- ^ Levinson, Charles; Rosenberg, Charles (17 March 2011). "Egypt Said To Arm Libya Rebels". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 29 March 2011.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kenneth Roth, executive director of the Human Rights Watch (18 March 2011). "The Security Council Has At Last Lived Up to Its Duty". Foreign Policy.
- ^ Staff (22 March 2011). "Most French Back Libya Military Action – Poll". Reuters. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Rozen, Laura (18 March 2011). "Polls Show American Public Not Sold on Libya Intervention". The Envoy (blog of Yahoo! News). Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Connelly, Marjorie (22 March 2011). "Polls Finds Bipartisan Support for Libya Campaign". The Caucus (blog of The New York Times). Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ [dead link]Golovnina, Maria; Georgy, Michael (21 March 2011). "Russia, China, India and Turkey Condemn Libya Strikes". Reuters (via The Vancouver Sun). Retrieved 21 March 2011.
{{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Beckford, Martin (21 March 2011). "Libya Attacks Criticised by Arab League, China, Russia and India – The Air Strikes Launched by Western Allies Against Libya Have Been Condemned by the Head of a Regional Group for Arab States as Well as China, Russia and India". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
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- ^ Staff (21 March 2011). "Turkey Criticizes France over Libya Operation". turkishpress.com. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ [dead link] Melvin, Don (21 March 2011). "Divisions Strain NATO Push for Libyan Airstrikes". Associated Press (via Houston Chronicle). Retrieved 27 March 2011.
{{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) - ^ Staff (20 March 2011). "Germany Says Poland Backs Its Stand on Libya". Reuters (via Arab News). Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Vella, Francesca (undated). "Gonzi and Muscat Say Priority Is Malta's Security". The Malta Independent. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Hill, Amelia (30 March 2011). "Anti-War Groups Protest Against Anti-Gaddafi Air Strikes". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
- ^ Mulholland, Hélène (18 March 2011). "Libya Conflict Sees Britain Accused of Launching 'New War' in Middle East". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
- ^ Fabian, Jordan (20 March 2011). "Boehner Wants Obama To Explain US Role in Libya". The Hill. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ Bennett, John T. (21 March 2011). "McKeon: What Are US's Goals in Libya?". The Hill. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
- ^ Naiman, Robert (21 March 2011). "War Without Talk: Congress and the Libya 'War' Debate". Pacific Free Press. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
- ^ Haass, Richard (27 March 2011). "Bleak History Lessons for Libya's Future". Financial Times. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
- ^ Choudhury, Atif (4 April 2011). "The Libyan No-Fly Zone: A New Paradigm for Humanitarian Intervention and the Reinforcement of Democracy". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ "Kucinich, Lawmakers Sue Obama To Stop U.S. Operations in Libya". The Blaze.
Further reading
- Morayef, Heba (2009). Truth and Justice Can't Wait – Human Rights Developments in Libya Amid Institutional Obstacles. New York City: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-564-32563-1.
- St. John, Ronald Bruce (2011). Libya – Continuity and Change. New York City: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77977=7.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help)
External links
- "Photos of Air Strikes on Libya". The Atlantic.
- "Libya Uprising". Al Jazeera English.
- "Live Blog". Al Jazeera.
- "Libya Revolt". BBC News.
- "Libya". Der Spiegel.
- News coverage at libyafeb17.com.
- Donadio, Rachel. "Libya – The Protests (2011)". The New York Times.
- "Libya". Reuters.
- Voice of Free LIbya (newsblog)
- Strickly Photos & Videos Libyan Conflict by "militaryphotos.net"
- Quinn, Ben; Haynes, Jonathan (21 February 2011). "Libya in Crisis". The Guardian.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
| Events by country | |
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| UN Resolutions | |
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- Articles that may be too long from June 2011
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- Use dmy dates from June 2011
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