Madagascar

Republic of Madagascar Repoblikan'i Madagasikara République de Madagascar
Flag Seal
Motto: Fitiavana, Tanindrazana, Fandrosoana  (Malagasy) Amour, patrie, progrès  (French) "Love, Fatherland, Progress"
Anthem: "Ry Tanindrazanay malala ô!" Oh, Beloved Land of our Ancestors!
Location of Madagascar
Capital and largest city	Antananarivo
Official languages	Malagasy, French
Demonym(s)	Malagasy
Government	Caretaker government
• President of the High Transitional Authority	Andry Rajoelina
• Prime Minister	Omer Beriziky
Independence  from France
• Date	June 26, 1960
Area
• Total	587,041 km2 (226,658 sq mi) (47th)
• Water (%)	0.009%
Population
• 2011 estimate	21,926,221 (53rd)
• 1993 census	12,238,914
• Density	35.2/km2 (91.2/sq mi) (174th)
GDP (PPP)	2011 estimate
• Total	$20.610 billion
• Per capita	$943
GDP (nominal)	2010 estimate
• Total	$8.59 billion
• Per capita	$320
Gini (2001)	47.5 high inequality
HDI (2010)	0.435  (135th)
Currency	Malagasy ariary (MGA[4])
Time zone	UTC+3 (EAT)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (not observed)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+261
ISO 3166 code	MG
Internet TLD	.mg

The Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic, Malagasy: Repoblikan'i Madagasikara [republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə̥], French: République de Madagascar) is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar (at 587,041 square kilometres (226,658 sq mi), the fourth-largest island in the world), as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands, the largest of which include Nosy Be and Nosy Boraha (Île Sainte-Marie). Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot in which over 80% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by human settlement.

Most researchers believe Madagascar was first inhabited sometime between 200 BCE and 500 CE by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo who were later joined around 1000 CE by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel. Arabs, East African, later Malay and Javanese, Indian, Chinese and European (primarily French) migrants settled on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into eighteen or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands.

Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was populated by a fragmented assortment of shifting socio-political alliances of varying sizes. Beginning in the early 19th century the majority of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy collapsed when the island was conquered and absorbed into the French colonial empire in 1896, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, termed Republics. Since 1992 the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, during a popular uprising in 2009 headed by then-mayor of Antananarivo and TGV political party president Andry Rajoelina, the last elected president Marc Ravalomanana was pressured to resign. Military leaders then unconstitutionally transferred presidential power in March 2009 to Rajoelina, who has since administered the country under his High Transitional Authority. Rajoelina (b. 1974), currently the youngest head of state in Africa, has failed to secure recognition from the international community, which largely views the current administration as illegitimate and has widely characterized Rajoelina's seizure of power as a coup d'état.

In 2011, the population of Madagascar was estimated at around 21.9 million, 90% of whom live on less than two dollars per day. Malagasy, the Austronesian language spoken in various forms by the vast majority of the population, is the national language and one of two current official languages alongside French. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs or Christianity. Ecotourism, agriculture, expansion of international trade and greater investments in education, health and private enterprise are key elements of Madagascar's development strategy. Under Ravalomanana, these investments produced substantive economic growth but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class. Current and future generations in Madagascar are faced with the challenge of striking a balance between economic growth, equitable development and natural conservation.

Etymology

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara [madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥] and its people are referred to as Malagasy. However, the island's appellation "Madagascar" is not of local origin but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. The name Madageiscar was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century Venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupted form of the name Mogadishu, the Somalian port with which Polo had confused the island. On St. Laurence's Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island and christened it São Lourenço, but Polo's name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their own name for part or all of the land they inhabited.

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Madagascar and Ecoregions of Madagascar

At 592,800 square kilometres (228,900 sq mi), Madagascar is the world's 47th-largest country and the fourth-largest island. The country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. The prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana separated the Madagascar-Antarctica-India landmass from the Africa-South America landmass around 135 million years ago. Madagascar later split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation. The island of Madagascar can be divided into three broad geographic zones. These include the highlands, a plateau region in the center of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 m (2,460 to 4,920 ft) above sea level; a narrow and steep escarpment that runs the length of the eastern coast and contains much of the island's remaining tropical rain forest; and a wide, dry plain that gently slopes from the western boundaries of the highlands toward the Mozambique Channel. The central highlands, traditionally the homeland of the Merina people (the island's most numerous ethnic group) and location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, is the most densely populated part of the island and is characterized by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy, deforested hills. Here, erosion has exposed the island's red laterite soil, source of the country's sobriquet "The Red Island". Madagascar's highest peaks arise from three prominent highland massifs: Maromokotro 9,436 ft (2,876 m) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island's highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m (8,720 ft) in the Andringitra Massif and Tsiafajavona 2,643 m (8,671 ft) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of man-made and natural lakes connected by French-built canals just inland from the east coast, running parallel to it for some 600 km (370 mi). The western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Presumably due to relatively lower population densities, Madagascar's dry deciduous rain forest has been better preserved than the eastern rain forests or the original woodlands of the high central plateau. The western coast features many protected harbors, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the vast western plains.

The diversity of the Madagascan landscape: rice production in the central highlands, the desert-like plains of Isalo National Park, the Avenue of the Baobabs near Morondava, the rain forests of the eastern coast and the spiny forests of the south.

Climate

Cyclone Clovis (2006)

The combination of southeastern trade winds and northwestern monsoon winds produce a hot rainy season (November—April) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season (May—October). Broadly speaking, the climate is tropical along the coast, temperate inland, moderately dry in the west, and arid in the south. Rain clouds originating over the Indian Ocean discharge much of their moisture over the island's eastern coast where precipitation as heavy as 3,800 mm (150 in) per year supports the area's rain forest ecosystem. The central highlands are both drier and cooler, while the west coast is drier still, with high aridity in the southwest and southern part of the island where a semi-desert climate prevails. Annual cyclones cause regular damage to infrastructure and local economies as well as loss of life. Cyclone Gafilo was the strongest cyclone on record ever to hit Madagascar. Making landfall on the island in March 2004, the category five cyclone killed 363 people, left 250,000 homeless, and caused over $250 million in damage.

Ecology

Main articles: Wildlife of Madagascar, Fauna of Madagascar, and Agroecology in Madagascar

The Madagascar periwinkle is key in the treatment of leukemia and Hodgkin's disease.

As a result of the island's long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to a vast array of plants and animals, many found nowhere else on Earth. Approximately 80% of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic, including the lemur infraorder of primates, the carnivorous fossa and three avian families. This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent", and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hotspot.

Over 10,000 plant species are native to Madagascar, of which 90% are found nowhere else in the world. Seven plant families are only found here, the highest number of any biodiversity hotspot in the world. The plant family didiereaceae, composed of four genera and 11 species, is limited to the spiny forests of southwestern Madagascar. Four-fifths of the world's pachypodium species are endemic to the island. Three-fourths of Madagascar's 960 orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the world's eight baobab species. The island is also home to around 170 palm species, three times as many as are found on mainland Africa; 165 of these are endemic. Many native plant species are used as effective herbal remedies for a variety of afflictions, including the Madagascar periwinkle, which has recently been established as the most effective treatment for leukemia and Hodgkin's disease. The traveler's palm, endemic to the eastern rain forests, is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem as well as the Air Madagascar logo.

The ring-tailed lemur is one of around 100 known species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar.

Like its flora, Madagascar's fauna is likewise diverse and exhibits a high rate of endemism. Lemurs have been characterized as "Madagascar's flagship mammal species" by Conservation International. In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2008, there are officially 99 species and subspecies of lemur, 39 of which have been described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. They are almost all classified as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since man arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species. The biodiversity of fauna in Madagascar extends beyond prosimians to the wider animal population. A number of other mammals, including the cat-like fossa, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of bird have been recorded on the island, of which over 60% (including four families and 42 genera) are endemic. The few families and genera of reptile that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90% of these being endemic (including one endemic family). The island is home to two-thirds of the world's chameleon species, and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may represent the origin of all chameleon species. Endemic fishes on Madagascar include two families, 14 genera and over 100 species primarily inhabiting the island's freshwater lakes and rivers. Although invertebrate species remain poorly studied on Madagascar relative to other wildlife, researchers have found high rates of endemism among known species. All 651 species of terrestrial snail are endemic, as are a majority of the island's butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders and dragonflies.

Environmental challenges

Main articles: Deforestation in Madagascar and Illegal logging in Madagascar

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity. Since the arrival of humans 2,000 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its original forest. Approximately 70% is believed to have been destroyed between 1895 and 1925, when Madagascar was under French rule. Since the 1970s, one-third of the remaining forest has disappeared. Key contributors to the loss of forest cover include the use of coffee as a cash crop, illegal logging, and slash-and-burn activity, locally called tavy. This traditional practice was imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers from Indonesia around 2,000 years ago and has strong cultural meaning in addition to its practical value as an agricultural technique.

Tavy (slash-and-burn) destruction of native forest habitat is widespread (left), causing massive erosion (center) and silting of rivers (right).

Habitat destruction and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar's endemic species or driven them to extinction. This process is exemplified by the extinction of the elephant bird, an endemic giant ratite that was formerly the world's largest bird. This species, whose average height was over 3 metres (10 ft) tall, has been extinct since at least the 17th century, most likely due to human hunting of adult birds and poaching of their massive eggs for food. Numerous subfossil lemur species also vanished with the arrival of human settlers to the island, and today most extant lemurs are listed as endangered or threatened species due to habitat destruction. Many species have gone extinct over the course of the last centuries as a growing population has put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food.

Under President Marc Ravalomanana, a vigorous effort was made to expand Madagascar's protected natural areas. At the 2003 IUCN World Parks Congress in Durban, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, a bold initiative to more than triple the area under protection from approximately 17,000 km² to over 60,000 km² (an increase from 3% to 10% of Madagascar's area). As of 2011, areas protected by the state include five Strict Nature Reserves (Réserves Naturelles Intégrales), 21 Wildlife Reserves (Réserves Spéciales) and 21 National Parks (Parcs Nationaux). In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the name Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These six parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra. Local timber barons are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protected rainforests such as Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and musical instruments. To raise public awareness of Madagascar's environmental challenges, the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled "Madagascar!" in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York.

History

Main article: History of Madagascar

Early period

Pirate cemetery at Île Sainte-Marie, surrounded by ravinala (Traveler's Palm)

Most archaeologists estimate that the earliest settlers arrived in outrigger canoes from southern Borneo in successive waves beginning between 200 BCE and 500 CE, making Madagascar one of the last major landmasses on Earth to undergo human settlement. Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the virgin coastal rainforests for the cultivation of their crops. The first settlers encountered Madagascar's wealth of megafauna, including giant lemurs, elephant birds, giant fossa and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction. By 600 CE groups of these early settlers had moved inland and began clearing the forests of the central highlands. A wave of Bantu-speaking East African migrants arrived around 1000 CE and introduced zebu which were kept in large herds. Irrigated rice paddies emerged in the central highland Betsileo Kingdom by 1600 and were complemented with terraced paddies throughout the neighboring Kingdom of Imerina a century later. The rising intensity of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu pasturage in the central highlands had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the 17th century. The oral histories of the Merina people, who may arrived in the central highlands between 400 and 1000 years ago, describe encountering an established population they called the Vazimba. Most likely the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced Austronesian settlement wave, the Vazimba were expelled from the highlands by Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early 17th centuries. Today the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany (ancestral masters of the land) by many traditional Malagasy communities.

Madagascar was an important transoceanic trading hub connecting ports of the Indian Ocean in the early centuries following human settlement. The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century when Arabs established trading posts along the northwest coast and introduced Islam, the Arabic script (used to transcribe the Malagasy language in a form of writing known as sorabe), Arab astrology and other cultural elements. European contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island. The French established trading posts along the east coast in the late 17th century. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained prominence among pirates and European traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The small island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the site of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. The wealth generated by maritime trade spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the 17th century. Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern coast and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, likewise emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo.

Kingdom of Madagascar

Main article: Merina Kingdom

King Andrianampoinimerina (1787-1810)

Upon its emergence in the early 17th century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor power relative to the larger coastal kingdoms and grew even weaker in the early 18th century when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following a century of warring and famine, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina (1787–1810). From his capital at Ambohimanga, this Merina king rapidly expanded his rule over neighboring principalities with the intent to bring the entire island under his control, an ambition largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I (1810–1828). Radama concluded a treaty with the British governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave trade in return for British military and financial assistance. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such key figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman alphabet, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island.

Radama's successor, Queen Ranavalona I (1828–1861), responded to increasing political and cultural encroachment on the part of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and other industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial trade agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II (1861–1863) attempted to relax the queen's stringent policies but was overthrown two years later by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony (1852–1865) and an alliance of courtiers who sought to end the absolute power of the monarch. Following the coup, the courtiers offered Radama's queen Rasoherina (1863–1868) the opportunity to rule if she would accept a power sharing arrangement with the Prime Minister—a new social contract to be sealed by a political marriage between them. Queen Rasoherina accepted, first wedding Rainivoninahitriniony, then later deposing him and wedding his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony (1864–1895), who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II (1868–1883) and Queen Ranavalona III (1883–1897) in succession.

French colonization

Poster of the French war in Madagascar

France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War on the pretext of the non-respect of the Lambert Charter and a letter signed by Radama II two decades prior entreating the assistance of the French in ending the rule of former queen Ranavalona I. At the war's end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert's heirs. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate on the island, but French authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the French bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. A French military flying column then proceeded to march toward Antananarivo but lost many to malaria and other diseases, necessitating reinforcements drawn from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the Rova palace with heavy artillery, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and dissolved the 103-year-old Merina monarchy, sending the royal family into exile in Reunion Island and Algeria.

Under colonial rule, plantations were established for the production of a variety of export crops. Wide paved boulevards and gathering spaces were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo and the Rova palace compound was turned into a museum. Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. Education became mandatory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused primarily on French language and practical skills. The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor was continued under the French and used to construct a railway and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. In the 1930s the island was identified by Nazi leadership as a potential site for the deportation of Europe's Jews, and during the Second World War was the site of a battle between the Vichy government and the British. The occupation of France during the Second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. This movement led the French to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960.

Independent state

Philibert Tsiranana, first president of Madagascar (1960-1972)

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic (1960-1972), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuation of strong economic and political ties to France. Many high-level technical positions were filled by French expatriates, and French teachers, textbooks and curricula continued to be used in schools around the country. Popular resentment over Tsiranana's tolerance for this "neo-colonial" arrangement inspired a series of student protests that overturned his administration in 1972. Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a Major General in the army, was appointed interim President and Prime Minister that same year but low public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava was appointed to succeed him but was assassinated six days into his tenure; General Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after him for four months before being replaced by another military appointee: Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who would usher in the socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the Eastern Bloc countries and a shift toward economic insularity. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 oil crisis, resulted in the rapid collapse of Madagascar's economy and a sharp decline in living standards for the average citizen of Madagascar.

Ratsiraka's dwindling popularity in the late 1980s reached a critical point when presidential guards opened fire on unarmed protesters during a rally in 1991. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Professor Albert Zafy (1993-1996), who would go on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic (1992-2010). The new constitution established a multi-party democracy and a separation of powers that placed significant control in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution also emphasized human rights, social and political freedoms, and free trade for economic development. Zafy's term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months prior to the next presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms, but only gradual progress was made during his second tenure, which lasted from 1996 to 2001. The contested 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, would eventually emerge victorious, caused a seven-month standoff in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The negative economic impact of the political crisis was gradually redressed through Ravalomanana's progressive economic and political policies which targeted investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated foreign direct investment, and cultivated trading partnerships both regionally and internationally; national GDP grew at an average rate of 7% per year under his administration. In the later half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing authoritarianism and corruption. Opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional process widely condemned as a coup d'etat. In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim governing body responsible for moving the country toward presidential elections. In 2010, a new constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic that sustains the democratic, multi-party structure established in the previous constitution. As of early 2012, a fixed date for presidential elections has not yet been set by the Rajoelina administration.

Government

Structure

Main articles: Government of Madagascar and Antananarivo

Antananarivo is the political and economic capital of Madagascar

Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president is the head of state and selects a prime minister, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the constitution, executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, the Senate and the National Assembly, although in reality these two latter bodies have very little power or legislative role. The constitution establishes independent executive, legislative and judicial branches and mandates a popularly-elected president limited to three five-year terms. The last presidential election was held on December 3, 2006 and resulted in the re-election of Marc Ravalomanana, from whom executive power was unconstitutionally transferred to Andry Rajoelina in March 2009. There is currently no legitimately elected head of state in Madagascar. The public also elects the 127 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. The last National Assembly election was held on Septeber 23, 2007. All 33 members of the Senate serve six year terms, with 22 senators elected by local officials and 11 appointed by the president. Following the coup, Rajoelina dissolved both the National Assembly and Senate, leaving the nation without a legitimate legislative body. At the local level, the island's 22 provinces are administered by a governor and provincial council. Provinces are further sub-divided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the French system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance.

Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar. It is located in the highlands region near to the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a captured Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga. As Merina dominance expanded over neighboring Malagasy peoples in the early 19th century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of administration for virtually the entire island. French colonization of Madagascar in 1896 saw the adoption of the Merina capital as the center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after the island nation gained independence from France in 1960. In 2011, the capital's population was estimated at 1,300,000 inhabitants. By comparison, the next largest cities are Antsirabe (500,000), Toamasina (450,000) and Mahajanga (400,000).

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Madagascar and Regions of Madagascar

Map of the regions and former provinces of Madagascar

As part of an effort to decentralize administration, Madagascar was divided into six autonomous provinces (faritany mizakatena), which were subdivided into 22 regions (faritra) in 2004. The regions became the highest subdivision level when the provinces were dissolved in accordance with the results of the 2007 referendum. The regions are further subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 fokontany.

Regions and former provinces

New regions	Former provinces	Population 2004 estimate
Diana (1), Sava (2)	Antsiranana	1,291,100
Itasy (3), Analamanga (4), Vakinankaratra (5), Bongolava (6)	Antananarivo	5,370,900
Sofia (7), Boeny (8), Betsiboka (9), Melaky (10)	Mahajanga	1,896,000
Alaotra Mangoro (11), Atsinanana (12), Analanjirofo (13)	Toamasina	2,855,600
Amoron'i Mania (14), Haute-Matsiatra (15), Vatovavy-Fitovinany (16), Atsimo-Atsinanana (17), Ihorombe (18)	Fianarantsoa	3,730,200
Menabe (19), Atsimo-Andrefana (20), Androy (21), Anosy (22)	Toliara	2,430,100

Politics

Main articles: Politics of Madagascar, Foreign relations of Madagascar, and Human rights in Madagascar

File:Iavoloha-26-mars-00011.jpg

High Transitional Authority administration, March 2011

The political situation in Madagascar has been marked by struggle for control. Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island's recurrent political crises are often prolonged, with detrimental effects to the local economy, international relations and Malagasy living standards. The eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson. A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed. The unconstitutional installation of Rajoelina's transitional regime has caused many bilateral donors and intergovernmental organizations to freeze aid and suspend regular diplomatic relations with Madagascar since March 2009, causing economic development to stagnate and reversing many of the gains achieved under the previous administration. In addition, modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina subjugation of coastal communities under their rule in the 19th century. The consequent tension between the highland and coastal populations has periodically flared up into isolated events of violence.

Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the election in December 2001, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus triggered by the 2002 political crisis. However, Madagascar was suspended again by the African Union in March 2009 because of ongoing political crisis. Madagascar is a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military. Numerous countries have established and maintain a diplomatic presence in Madagascar.

Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state is a signatory to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The extent to which such rights are reflected in practice remains subject to debate. The 2010 Human Rights Report by the United States Department of State noted concerns regarding the suspension of democratic electoral processes as the result of recent political unrest. Furthermore, reports of corruption, arbitrary arrest, widespread underage prostitution and child labor highlight the prevalence of human rights issues in the country. Accusations of media censorship have risen since 2009 due to the allegedly increasing restrictions on the coverage of government opposition.

Security

Main article: Military of Madagascar

The rise of centralized kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island's first standing armies by the 16th century, initially equipped with spears but later with muskets, cannons and other firearms. By the early 19th century, the Merina sovereigns of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought much of the island under their control by mobilizing an army of trained and armed soldiers numbering as high as 30,000. French attacks on coastal towns in the later part of the century prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit British assistance to provide training to the queen's army. Despite the training and leadership provided by British military advisers, the Malagasy army was unable to withstand French weaponry and was obliged to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. The island was declared a colony of France in 1897.

The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, navy and air force, was restored with independence from France in 1960. Since this time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore order during periods of political unrest. Under the socialist Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka declared mandatory national armed or civil service for all young citizens regardless of gender, but this requirement was abandoned in 1992. The armed forces are under the direction of the Minister of the Interior and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the disputed 2001 presidential elections when the military refused to intervene in favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009 when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in support of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from power. It is widely believed that payoffs were involved in persuading these military personnel to break their neutrality in support of the coup d'etat.

In addition to overseeing the nation's armed forces, the Minister of the Interior is responsible for the national police force, paramilitary force (gendarmerie) and the secret police. These bodies are stationed and administered at the local level. However, in 2009 fewer than one-third of all communes had access to the services of the national police or gendarmerie, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps.

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Madagascar and Tourism in Madagascar

Embroidered table cloths are produced for sale to tourists at Nosy Komba.

During Madagascar's First Republic, France heavily influenced Madagascar's economic planning and policy and served as its key trading partner, purchasing almost half of the island's exports and providing more than 50 percent of its imports. Key products were cultivated and distributed nationally through producers' and consumers' cooperatives. Government initiatives such as a rural development program and state farms were established to boost production of commodities such as rice, coffee, cattle, silk and palm oil. Popular dissatisfaction over these policies was a key factor in launching the socialist-Marxist Second Republic, in which the formerly private bank and insurance industries were nationalized; state monopolies were established for such industries as textile, cotton and power; and import-export trade and shipping were brought under state control. Madagascar's economy quickly deteriorated as exports fell, industrial production dropped by 75 percent, inflation spiked and government debt increased; the rural population was soon reduced to living at subsistence levels. Over fifty percent of the nation's export revenues was spent on debt servicing. The IMF forced Madagascar's government to accept structural adjustment policies and liberalization of the economy when the state became bankrupt in 1982 and state-controlled industries were gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s. The political crisis of 1991 led to the suspension of IMF and World Bank assistance. Conditions for the resumption of aid were not met under Zafy, who tried unsuccessfully to attract other forms of revenue for the State before aid was once again resumed under the interim government established upon Zafy's impeachment. The IMF agreed to write off half of Madagascar's debt in 2004 under the Ravalomanana administration. Having met a set of stringent economic, governance and human rights criteria, Madagascar became the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in 2005.

Madagascar's GDP in 2009 was estimated at 8.6 billion USD, with a per capita GDP of $438. Approximately 90% of the population lives on less than two US dollars per day, and 68% live on less than one dollar per day. A 2008 study by the International Monetary Fund estimated that international donor aid formed 75% of foreign government investment in the island and provided 50% of Madagascar's national budget. The agriculture sector constituted 29% of Malagasy GDP in 2009, while industry formed 15.9% of GDP. Madagascar's sources of growth are tourism, textile and light manufacturing exports, agricultural products, and mining. Madagascar is the world's leading producer of vanilla and accounts for about half the world's export market. Tourism targets the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species.

Natural resources and trade

Rice paddies in Ambositra

Madagascar's natural resources include a variety of unprocessed agricultural and mineral resources. Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is a mainstay of the economy. Madagascar is the world's largest vanilla exporter and provides half the world's supply. Other key agricultural resources include coffee, lychees and shrimp. Key mineral resources include various types of precious and semi-precious stones, and currently provides half of the world's supply of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s. The island also holds one of the world's largest reserves of ilmenite (titanium ore), as well as important reserves of chromite, coal, iron, cobalt, copper and nickel. Several major projects are underway in the mining, oil and gas sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as coal mining at Sakoa and the extraction of nickel near Tamatave by Rio Tinto, as well as the development of the massive onshore heavy oil field at Tsimiroro and ultra heavy oil field at Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil.

Exports formed 28% of GDP in 2009. Most of the country's export revenue is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other food stuffs. The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003 as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy artisan producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets. France is Madagascar's main trading partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany also have strong economic ties to the country. Exports from Economic Priority Zones, located around Antananarivo and Antsirabe, comprise the majority of garment manufacture, targeting the US market under AGOA and the European markets under the Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement. Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an estimated 52% of GDP. Main sources of Madagascar's imports include France, China, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong.

Infrastructure

Main articles: Telecommunications in Madagascar and Transport in Madagascar

Rickshaws in Antsirabe

Running water and electricity is supplied at the national level by a government service provider, Jirama, which remains challenged by a lack of capacity to effectively service the entire population. As of 2009, only seven percent of Madagascar's 22 districts had access to water provided by Jirama, while nine percent had access to its electricity services. Mobile telephone and internet access are widespread in urban areas but remain somewhat limited in rural parts of the island. Approximately one-third of the districts are able to access the nations' several private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or land lines. Two-thirds of Madagascar's power is supplied by hydroelectric power plants with the remaining one-third supplied by coal-burning plants.

In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of paved roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways and 432 km (270 mi) of navigable waterways. The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved with many becoming impossible to travel in the rainy season. Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district. There are several rail lines on the island. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka, Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa by rail, and another rail line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most important port in Madagascar is located on the east coast at Toamasina. The next largest is located at Mahajanga but is significantly less used. The port at Antsiranana is considered one of the finest natural harbors in the world, although the volume of shipping through it is limited due to the town's remoteness and limited ground access to the capital. Air Madagascar services the island's many small regional airports, which offer the only practical means of access to many of the more remote regions of the island during rainy season road washouts.

Health

Child immunization is rising

Medical centers, dispensaries and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy. In addition to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely low. In 2010 Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a total of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists and 57 dentists for a population of 21.9 million. 14.6% of government spending in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. Approximately 70% of spending on health was contributed by the government, while 30% originated with international donors and other private sources. The government provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands.

Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a trend toward improvement over the past twenty years. Child immunizations against such diseases as hepatitis C, diptheria and measles increased an average of 60% in this period, indicating low but increasing availability of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per woman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. Rapid population growth remains a challenge, however, with teen pregnancy rates of 14.8% in 2011 much higher than the African average. In 2010 the maternal mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a decline in perinatal care following the 2009 coup. The infant mortality rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births, with an under-five mortality rate at 61 per 1,000 births. Schistosomiasis, malaria and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of AIDS remain low relative to many countries in mainland Africa, at only 0.2% of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is also among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in part due to the highest frequency use of insecticide treated nets in Africa. Adult life expectancy in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women.

Education

Main article: Education in Madagascar

Education access and quality were prioritized under Ravalomanana

Prior to the 19th century, all learning in Madagascar was informal and typically served to teach practical skills as well as social and cultural norms, including respect for ancestors and elders. The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society (LMS), who were invited by King Radama I (1810–1828) to expand their schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835 but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death. By the end of the 19th century Madagascar could boast the most developed and modern school system in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Limited access and poor quality have plagued the schools of Madagascar from the colonial period to the present. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continued reliance on French nationals as teachers and French as the language of instruction created tension among those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power. Consequently, under the socialist Second Republic, French instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the language of instruction and a large cadre of young Malagasy were rapidly trained to teach at remote rural schools under the mandatory two-year national service policy. This policy, known as malgachization, coincided with a severe economic downturn and a dramatic decline in the quality of education; people schooled during this period generally failed to master the French language or many other subjects. Struggling in the competitive local employment market, most remained mired in deepening poverty as they were obliged to turn to low-paying jobs in the informal or black market. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in power from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in the sector throughout this time.

Education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration (2002-2009), and is currently free and compulsory from ages 6 to 13. The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary level and three years at the upper secondary level. During Ravalomanana's first term, thousands of new primary schools and additional classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of new primary teachers were recruited and trained. Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one lower secondary school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers. The three branches of the national public university are located at Antananarivo (1961), Mahajanga (1977) and Fianarantsoa (1988). These are complemented by public teacher training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges. As a result of increased educational access, primary school enrollment rates jumped from 63% in 2000 to 95% in 2005. Expanding access to continuing education has also raised adult literacy rates, with over 60 percent of women and 75 percent of men able to read. Quality of education remains a challenge in Madagascar and student repetition and drop-out rates are high. Education policy in Ravalomanana's second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a middle school leaving certificate (BEPC) to a high school leaving certificate (BAC), and a reformed teacher training program to support the transition from traditional didactic instruction to student-centered teaching methods to boost student learning and participation in the classroom. Public expenditure on education was at 16.4% of total government expenditure in the 2000–2007 period with per-pupil expenditure at the primary level at about US$57.

Society

Ethnic diversity and demographics

Main articles: Ethnic groups of Madagascar and Demographics of Madagascar

Malagasy ethnic groups

The Malagasy ethnic group forms over 90% of Madagascar's population and is divided into eighteen ethnic sub-groups. Recent DNA research revealed that the genetic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an equal blend of Austronesian and East African genes, although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Austronesian or African origins or some Arab, Indian or European ancestry. Austronesian origins are most predominant among the the Merina of the central highlands, who form the largest Malagasy ethnic sub-group at 3 million, while certain communities among the coastal peoples (collectively called côtiers) have relatively stronger African origins. The largest coastal ethnic sub-groups are the Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). Throughout the French colonial period and the First Republic, Malagasy citizens were officially classified as belonging to a particular ethnic group. This practice was abandoned in the first census after independence in 1975; all subsequent ethnic group data has been estimated.

Malagasy ethnic groups	Regional concentration
Antankarana, Sakalava, Tsimihety	Antsiranana Province
Sakalava, Vezo	Mahajanga Province
Betsimisaraka, Sihanaka, Bezanozano	Toamasina Province
Merina	Antananarivo Province
Betsileo, Antaifasy, Antambahoaka, Antaimoro, Antaisaka, Tanala	Fianarantsoa Province
Mahafaly, Antandroy, Antanosy people, Bara, Vezo	Toliara Province

Chinese, Indian and Comorian minorities are present in Madagascar, as well as a small European (primarily French) expatriate community. Emigration in the late 20th century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976 following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga. By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples. In the mid-1980s, the number of ethnic minorities in Madagascar was estimated at 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 French, 17,000 Indians, and 9,000 Chinese.

The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9% in 2009. The population grew from 2.2 million in 1900 to an estimated 21.9 million in 2011. Approximately 44% of the population is younger than 15 years of age, while 53% are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form three percent of the total population. Only two general censuses, 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most densely populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populated western plains.

Language

Main articles: Malagasy language and Languages of Madagascar

The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are generally mutually intelligible, can be clustered under one of two sub-groups: eastern Malagasy (spoken along the eastern forests and highlands, including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo) and western Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. French became the official language during the colonial period when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the first national Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is spoken among the educated population. English, although uncommon, has gradually become more widely spoken.

No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the national language. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, eventually leading a citizen to initiate a legal case against the state in April 2000 on the grounds that the publication of official documents in the French language only was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language. In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remained the national language while official languages were reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English. English was removed as an official language from the constitution approved by voters in the November referendum 2010. The outcome of the referendum and its consequences for official and national language policy are not recognized by the political opposition or by the international community, who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the organization of the election by the High Transitional Authority.

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Madagascar, Malagasy mythology, Roman Catholicism in Madagascar, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Islam in Madagascar, and Hinduism in Madagascar

Famadihana reburial ceremony

Approximately two-fifths of the country's population practice traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana (ancestors). The veneration of ancestors has led to the widespread tradition of tomb building, as well as the highlands practice of the famadihana whereby a deceased family member's remains may be taken from the tomb to be periodically re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds before being replaced in the tomb. The famadihana is an occasion to celebrate the beloved ancestor's memory, reunite with family and community, and enjoy a festive atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are often invited to attend the party, where food and rum are often served and a hiragasy troupe or other musical entertainment is typically present. Consideration for ancestors is also demonstrated through respect for fady, taboos that are respected during and after the lifetime of the person who establishes them. It is widely believed that by showing respect for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. Conversely, misfortunes are often attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy believe in a creator god, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra.

Almost half the Malagasy are Christian, with about 20 percent practicing Roman Catholicism and over one-fourth of the population adhering to Protestantism. In 1818 the London Missionary Society sent the first Christian missionaries to the island, where they built churches, translated the Bible into the Malagasy language and began to gain converts. Beginning in 1835 Queen Ranavalona I persecuted these converts as part of an attempt to halt European cultural and political influence on the island. In 1869 a successor, Queen Ranavalona II, converted the court to Christianity and encouraged Christian missionary activity, burning the sampy (royal idols) in a symbolic break with traditional beliefs. Today, many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones relating to honoring the ancestors. For instance, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burial rites or invite a Christian minister to consecrate a famadihana reburial. Many of the Christian churches are influential in politics. The best example of this is the Malagasy Council of Churches comprising the four oldest and most prominent Christian denominations (Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican).

Eastern religions are also present on the island. Islam was first brought to the island in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders who established several Islamic schools along the eastern coast. While the use of Arabic script and loan words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, the Islamic religion failed to take hold in all but a handful of southeastern coastal communities. Today, Muslims constitute 7% of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana (Diego Suarez). Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorians. More recently, Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late 19th century. Most Hindus in Madagascar speak Gujarati or Hindi.

Culture

Hiragasy musicians wearing lambas and locally produced straw hats

Each of the many ethnic sub-groups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. Despite these distinctions, there are a number of core cultural features that are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity) vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe to imbue and thereby legitimate authority figures within the community or family. Also common throughout the island are the practice of male circumcision; a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves; strong kinship ties' and a widespread belief in the power of magic, diviners, astrology and witch doctors. Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ("Makers of the Days") to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. Similarly, prior to French colonization the nobles of many Malagasy communities would commonly employ advisers known as the ombiasy (from olona-be-hasina, "man of much virtue") of the southeastern Antemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Arab settlers.

The diverse origins of Malagasy culture are evident in the tangible expressions of Malagasy culture. Houses in Madagascar are typically four-sided with a peaked roof and are traditionally constructed following a design, orientation and interior layout highly similar to houses found in southeastern Borneo. Reflecting a widespread veneration of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material (typically stone) and feature more elaborate decoration than the houses of the living. The zebu (humped cattle), introduced to Madagascar by Bantu-speaking East African migrants around 1,000 years ago, have taken on sacred importance and embody the wealth of the owner, a tradition originating on the African mainland. Cattle rustling, originally a rite of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest attempt to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers. The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island's earliest settlers, and Madagascar's national dress, the woven lamba has evolved into a varied and refined art. The Southeast Asian cultural influence is also evident in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or meat dishes.

Arts

File:Alo-alo.jpg

Aloalo traditionally decorate tombs in some western coastal communities

A wide range of aural artistic traditions have developed in Madagascar. One of the island's foremost artistic traditions is that of its oratory as expressed in the forms of hainteny (poetry), kabary (public discourse) and ohabolana (proverbs). An epic poem showcasing these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island and offers insight into the diverse mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities; this tradition was continued in the 20th century by such artists as Jean Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa's first modern poet, and Elie Rajaonarison, standard bearer of the new wave of Malagasy poetry. Madagascar has also developed a rich musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or highland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves.

The plastic arts are also widespread throughout the island. In addition to the tradition of silk weaving and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and other local plant materials has been applied to create a wide array of practical items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats. Wood carving is another highly developed art form, with distinct regional styles evident in the decoration of balcony railings and other construction elements, a variety of furniture and household items, alo-alo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures typically created for the tourist market. The decorative and functional woodworking traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008. Among the Antaimoro people, the production of paper embedded with flowers and other decorative natural materials is a long-established tradition that the community has begun to market to eco-tourists. Embroidery and cutwork are done by hand to produce clothing as well as tablecloths and other home textiles for sale in local crafts markets. A small but growing number of fine art galleries in Antananarivo and several other urban areas offer paintings by local artists, and annual arts events such as the Hosotra open-air exhibition in the capital contribute to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar.

Sport and recreation

Moraingy is a traditional sport

A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. Moraingy, a type of hand-to-hand combat, is a popular spectator sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate. The wrestling of zebu is also practiced in many regions. In addition to sports, a wide variety of games are played. Fanorona is a board game that is associated with the Merina sovereigns and is widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk legend, the succession of King Andrianjaka after his father Ralambo was partially due to the unhealthy obsession that Andrianjaka's older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities.

Western sports were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Football and rugby are especially popular. Pétanque, a French game similar to lawn bowling, is also widely played in urban areas and particularly throughout the Highlands. Madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque. School athletics programs typically include soccer, track and field, judo, boxing, women's basketball and women's tennis. Sisters Dally and Natasha Randriantefy have competed internationally in women's tennis tournaments at the U.S. Open and the Olympic Games. Madagascar sent its first competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964 and has also competed in the African Games. Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs. Membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905.

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External links

• Government of Madagascar (official website)
• Country Profile from BBC News
• "Madagascar". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
• Madagascar at Curlie
• Wikimedia Atlas of Madagascar