Ukraine

Ukraine Україна Ukrayina
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Ще не вмерла України ні слава, ні воля  (Ukrainian) Shche ne vmerla Ukrayiny ni slava, ni volya  (transliteration) Ukraine's glory has not yet perished, nor her freedom
Location of Ukraine (orange) in Europe (white)
Capital and largest city	Kiev (Kyiv)
Official languages	Ukrainian
Demonym(s)	Ukrainian
Government	Semi-presidential unitary state
• President	Viktor Yushchenko
• Prime Minister	Viktor Yanukovych (acting)
Independence  from the Soviet Union
• Declared	August 24 1991
• Referendum	December 1 1991
• Finalized	December 25 1991
Area
• Total	603,628 km2 (233,062 sq mi) (44th)
• Water (%)	7%
Population
• 2007 estimate	46,490,400 (27th)
• 2001 census	48,457,102
• Density	78/km2 (202.0/sq mi) (115th)
GDP (PPP)	2007 estimate
• Total	$364.3 billion (28th)
• Per capita	$7,832 (84th)
GDP (nominal)	2006 estimate
• Total	$82.36 billion (53rd)
• Per capita	$2,274 (104th)
Gini (2003)	28.1 low inequality
HDI (2005)	0.788  (76th)
Currency	Hryvnia (UAH)
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Calling code	380
ISO 3166 code	UA
Internet TLD	.ua

Ukraine (English pronunciation /juːˈkreɪn/; Template:Lang-uk, Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/) is a country in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south. The historic city of Kiev (Kyiv) is the country's capital.

From at least the 9th century, the territory of present-day Ukraine was a centre of medieval East Slavic civilization forming the state of Kievan Rus, and for the following several centuries the territory was divided among a number of regional powers. After a brief period of independence (1917–1921) following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Ukraine became one of the founding Soviet Republics in 1922. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic's territory was enlarged westward after the Second World War, and again in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, Ukrainian SSR became one of the co-founder members of the United Nations. It became independent again after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

History

Main article: History of Ukraine

Human settlement in the territory of Ukraine has been documented into distant prehistory. The late Neolithic Trypillian culture flourished from about 4500 BC to 3000 BC.

Early history (800 BC–AD 700)

In antiquity, the south and east of modern Ukraine was populated by nomads called Scythians (Iranian tribe).

The Scythian Kingdom existed here from 700 BC to 200 BC. In the 3rd century AD, the Goths settled and called the country Oium. They formed the Chernyakhov culture before moving on.

In the 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was the core of the state of the Bulgars (often referred to as Great Bulgaria) with capital city Phanagoria. At the end of the 7th century, most Bulgar tribes migrated in several directions and the remains of their state were absorbed by the Khazars, a semi-nomadic people from Central Asia.

The Khazars founded the independent Khazar kingdom in the southeastern part of today's Europe, near the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. The kingdom included western Kazakhstan, and parts of modern eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, southern Russia, and Crimea.

Golden Age of Kiev (800–1100)

Main article: Kievan Rus'

Map of the Kievan Rus', 11th century. During the Golden Age of Kiev the lands of Rus' covered much of present day Ukraine, as well as Western Russia and Belarus.

During the 10th and 11th centuries the territory of Ukraine became the centre of a European state, the Kievan Rus, laying the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians, as well as other East Slavic nations, through subsequent centuries . Its capital was Kiev, which later became the capital of modern Ukraine, wrested from Khazars by Askold and Dir in about 860. According to the Primary Chronicle, the Kievan Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia. The Varangians later became assimilated into the local Slavic population and became part of the Rus' first dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty.

Kievan Rus' comprised several principalities, ruled by the interrelated Rurikid Princes. The seat of Kiev, the most prestigious and influential of all principalities, became a subject of many rivalries between Rurikids as the most valuable prize in their quest for power, sometimes through intrigue but often through bloody conflicts. The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (Volodymyr, 980–1015) who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power. This was followed by the state's increasing fragmentation as the relative importance of regions rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), the Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death. The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kiev was totally destroyed in 1240.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

See also: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

In the centuries following the Mongol invasion much of Ukraine was controlled by Lithuania (from the 14th century on) and since the Union of Lublin (1569) by Poland as seen at this outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as of 1619

On the Ukrainian territory, the state of Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the principalities of Halych and Volodymyr-Volynskyi, which were merged into the state of Halych-Volynia. In the mid 14th century, it was subjugated by Casimir The Great of Poland while the heartland of Rus', including Kiev, fell under the Gediminids of Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Following the 1386 marriage of Lithuania's Grand Duke Jagiello to Poland's King Jadwiga (her title was "King" although she was a woman), most of Ukraine's territory was controlled by the increasingly Ruthenized Lithuanian rulers as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At this time, the term Ruthenia and Ruthenians as the Latinized versions of "Rus'", became widely applied to the land and its people, respectively.

By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from largely Ruthenized Lithuanian rule to the Polish administration, as it was transferred to the Polish Crown. Under the cultural pressure of Polonization much of the Ruthenian upper class converted to Catholicism (such transitions were beneficial for achieving political influence within the state), for example, King Michael of Poland, who reigned from 1669 to 1673, was of the Polonized Ruthenian Vishnevetsky (Wiśniowiecki) family. At the same time, the common people, especially the peasants, retained their old ways and their allegiance to their historic Eastern Orthodox Church. This led to increasing social tension, visible in events such as the 1596 Union of Brest, created by Sigismund III Vasa, who attempted to bring the Orthodox population under the Catholicism through creation of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. This controversial move failed to achieve its goals. Resisted even by some Ruthenian magnates, otherwise loyal to the Polish kings (Ostrogskis being the most notable example), the new "intermediate" religion was unnecessary for most of the upper class, much of which increasingly turned toward Catholicism with each subsequent generation. Thus, the Ukrainian commoners, deprived of their native protectors among Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to the Cossacks who remained fiercely Orthodox at all times.

From 1569, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth suffered a series of Tatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot, pillage and capture slaves into jasyr. The borderland area to the southeast was in a state of semi-permanent warfare until the 18th century. Some researchers estimate that more than three-million people, predominantly Ukrainians but also Circassians, Russians, Belarusians and Poles, were captured and enslaved during the time of the Crimean Khanate.

Rise of the Cossacks

Main article: Cossack

Reply of the Zaporozhian Cossacks to Sultan Mehmed IV of Turkey. Painted by Ilya Repin from 1880 to 1891.

In the mid 17th century, a Cossack state, the Zaporozhian Sich, was established by the Dnipro cossacks and the Ruthenian peasants fleeing Polish serfdom. Poland had little real control of this land in what is now central Ukraine, which became an autonomous military state, at times allied with the Commonwealth in the military campaigns. However, the enserfment of peasantry by the Polish nobility, overall emphasis of the Commonwealth's agricultural economy on the fierce exploitation of the unfree workforce, and, perhaps most importantly, the suppression of the Orthodox church pushed the allegiances of Cossacks away from Poland. Their aspiration was to have a representation in Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry, all being vehemently denied by the Polish kings. The cossacks turned toward Orthodox Russia, which was one reason for the later downfall of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Russian Empire

See also: Russian Empire

Map of the Russian Empire, 1682-1762

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir. This uprising finally led to a partition of Ukraine between Poland and Russia. Left-bank Ukraine was eventually integrated into Russia as the Cossack Hetmanate, following the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav and the ensuing Russo-Polish War. After the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century by Prussia, Habsburg Austria, and Russia, Western Ukrainian (Galicia) was taken over by Austria, while the rest of Ukraine was progressively incorporated into the Russian Empire. Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy given by the treaty of Pereyaslav, Ukrainians never received the freedoms they were hoping for from Imperial Russia. Because of its geographic location, Ukraine played an important role in the frequent wars between East European monarchies and the Ottoman Empire. The As a result of Russian successes in the wars against Ottoman Empire and Crimean Khanate of 1768–74 and 1787–1792, the territories along the Black Sea coast were annexed to the Russian Empire as well. Within the Empire Ukrainians frequently rose to the highest offices of Russian state (e.g., Aleksey Razumovsky, Alexander Bezborodko, Ivan Paskevich), and the Russian Orthodox Church (e.g., Stephen Yavorsky, Feofan Prokopovich, Dimitry of Rostov). At a later period, the tsar regime was implementing a harsh policy of Russification, banning the use of the Ukrainian language in print, and in public.

World War I and Austro-Hungarian rule

Main article: Ukraine in World War I

During World War I Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion, along with the Polish Legion, to fight against the repression of the Czar. Thousands of young men from both oppressed regions flocked to their respective standards and were armed, equipped and trained by the Austro-Hungarian Army. These legions were the foundations of the successful Polish Army and the abortive Ukrainian Army that fought against the Bolsheviks, in eastern Europe in the post World War 1 period (1919-1923)

Possibly up to 20,000 supporters of Russia from Galicia were detained and placed in an Austrian internment camp in Talerhof, Styria, and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech Republic).

Division and early Soviet years

Main articles: Ukraine after the Russian Revolution and Ukrainian War of Independence

Map of the Ukrainian People's Republic with provisional borders in 1919

With the collapse of the Russian and Austrian empires following World War I and the Russian Revolution of 1917, a Ukrainian national movement for self-determination reemerged. During 1917–20, several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the Tsentralna Rada, the Hetmanate, the Directorate, the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian People's Republic. However, with the defeat of the latter in the Polish-Ukrainian War and the failure of the Polish Kiev Offensive (1920) of the Polish-Soviet War, the Peace of Riga concluded in March 1921 between Poland and the Bolsheviks left Ukraine divided again. The western part of Ukraine had been incorporated into the newly-organized Second Polish Republic. The larger central and eastern part, established as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March of 1919, later became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union in December 1922.

In the early Soviet years, the Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a revival as the Ukrainization became a local implementation of the Soviet-wide Korenization (indigenization) policy. These policies were sharply reversed by the early-1930s.

File:Power plant Dnepr.jpg

DniproGES Hydroelectric power plant. Completed in 1932.

Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in the Soviet industrialization and the republic's industrial output quadrupled in the 1930s. However, the industrialization had a heavy cost for the peasantry, demographically a backbone of the Ukrainian nation. To satisfy the state's need for increased food supplies and finance industrialization, Stalin instituted a program of collectivization of agriculture as the state combined the peasants' lands and animals into collective farms and enforcing the policies by the regular troops and secret police. Those who resisted were arrested and deported and the increased production quotas were placed on the peasantry. The collectivization had a devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the members of the collective farms were not allowed to receive any grain until the unachievable quotas were met, starvation became widespread. In 1932-33, millions starved to death in a man-made famine known as Holodomor.

The times of industrialization and Holodomor also coincided with the Soviet assault on the national political and cultural elite often accused in "nationalist deviations". These policies of Ukrainization were reversed at the turn of the decade. Two waves of purges (1929–1934 and 1936–1938) resulted in the elimination of four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite.

World War II

See also: World War II

File:Lviv 1939 Soviet Cavalry - no watermark.jpg

Red Army cavalry matching into Lviv, 1939.

Following the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland, including Galicia with its Ukrainian population. After France surrendered to Germany, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina to Soviet demands. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, the northern Bukovina, and the Soviet-occupied Hertsa region, but ceded the western part of the Moldavian ASSR to the newly-created Moldavian SSR. All these territorial gains were internationally recognized by the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947.

During World War II, some elements of the Ukrainian nationalist underground fought both Nazi and Soviet forces, forming the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in 1942, while other Ukrainians initially collaborated with the Nazis, having been ignored by all other powers. In 1941 the German invaders and their Axis allies initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed by the Soviets as a "Hero City", for the fierce resistance of the Red Army and of the local population. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one quarter of the Western Front) were killed or takes captive.

Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the Dnieper (the sign reads "To Kiev!"), 1943, Battle of the Dnieper.

Initially, the Germans were received as liberators by some Ukrainians, especially in western Ukraine, which had been occupied by the Soviets only in 1939. However, German misrule in the occupied territories eventually aided the Soviet cause. Nazi administrators of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to exploit the population of Ukrainian territories' dissatisfaction with Soviet political and economic policies. Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, systematically carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported others (mainly Ukrainians) to work in Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of Ukraine to prepare it for German colonization, which included a food blockade on Kiev. Under these circumstances, most people living in the occupied territory either passively or actively opposed the Nazis.

Total civilian losses during the war and German occupation in Ukraine are estimated between five and eight million, including over half a million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen, sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troops who fell in battle against the Nazis, about a quarter (2.7 million) were ethnic Ukrainians. Ukraine is distinguished as one of the first nations to fight the Axis powers in Carpatho-Ukraine, and one that saw some of the greatest bloodshed during the war.

Postwar development

File:Vosstanovim.jpg

A Soviet poster calling for reconstruction of the economy ruined by the war.

See also: History of the Soviet Union (1953–1985)

The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed. The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–47, when the Soviet authorities were forcibly confiscating grain crops in accordance with a plan, ignoring drought conditions of 1946. Collected grain was distributed to the other regions of the Soviet Union, and 2.5 million tonnes were exported. In Ukraine, about one million people, predominantly in rural areas, died from the famine.

In western Ukraine, some Ukrainians continued to resist Soviet rule. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army, formed in World War II to fight both Soviets and Nazis, continued to fight the USSR into the 1950s. Using guerilla war tactics, the insurgents were assassinating Soviet party leaders, NKVD and military officers. In particular, due to the resistance, the 1946-47 famine was less severe in West Ukraine than in other Ukrainian regions.

Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Being the First Secretary of Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938-49, Khrushchev played a role in Stalin's repressions, the liberation of Ukraine from the Nazis, organization of the man-made famine in 1946-47, and suppression of resistance in West Ukraine. But after taking power, he found it best to propagandize the friendship between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated, and in particular, the Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.

In the times of Khrushchev Thaw of 1960s, there were many dissident movements in Ukraine by prominent figures such as Vyacheslav Chornovil, Vasyl Stus, Levko Lukyanenko. As in the other regions of USSR, the movements were quickly suppressed. During the 1960s, it is estimated that over fifty percent of all political prisoners in the USSR were Ukrainians.

Already by the end of the 1950s, the republic fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production. It also became the centre of Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev who would later outsit Khrushchev and became the Soviet leader from 1962 to 1984, as well as many prominent Soviet sportsmen, scientists and artists. The leading engineer of the Soviet Space program, Sergey Korolyov was Ukrainian.

The rule of Shcherbytsky was characterized by the expanded policies of Russification. He used his influence as the First Secretary of CPU, and a Politburo member for over 25 years, to advocate economic interests of Ukraine within the USSR.

The Chernobyl Incident

Main article: Chernobyl disaster

File:Chernobyl Disaster.jpg

Chernobyl reactor number four after the disaster

On April 26, 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history. The disaster was the result of a flawed Soviet reactor design, lack of a containment vessel, and serious mistakes by inadequately-trained plant operators. The explosions and the resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area. The plume drifted over parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Northern Europe, and eastern North America. Large areas in Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia were badly contaminated, resulting in mandatory evacuation or voluntary resettlement of about 350,000 people. At the time of the accident 7 million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 millions in Ukraine. About 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in Belarus.

After the accident, a new city, Slavutych, was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which was decommissioned in 2000. Around 150,000 people were evacuated from the contaminated area, and 300,000–600,000 took part in the cleanup. As of 2000, about 4000 Ukrainian children have been diagnosed with thyroid cancer caused by radiation released by this incident.

Independence

The wave of Gorbachev's perestroika arrived in Ukraine only in 1988–89. It was hindered initially by Shcherbytsky and party nomenklatura. Also, the economic slowdown and product shortages were initially not as severe in Ukraine as in the other regions of the USSR.

In 1989, the national movement "People's Movement of Ukraine", known in short as Rukh was formed. In the elections to the parliament of republic, which were held in March of 1990, Rukh obtained overwhelming support in western Ukraine, as well as in the cities of Kiev and Kharkiv.

On January 21, 1990, over 300,000 Ukrainians organized a human chain for Ukrainian independence in the memory of the 1919 unification of the Ukrainian People's Republic and the West Ukrainian National Republic. Citizens came out to the streets and highways, forming live chains by holding hands in support of unity. On July 16, 1990 the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine. The declaration established the principles of the self-determination of the Ukrainian nation, democracy, political and economic independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. It started a period of confrontation between the central Soviet, and new republican authorities.

In March 1991, a referendum was organized by Soviet authorities, asking people whether they wanted to live in a "renewed" Soviet Union. The Ukrainian parliament added a second question, asking Ukrainian citizens whether they wished to live in the Soviet Union on the principles established in the Declaration of State Sovereignty. The citizens of Ukraine responded positively to both questions.

In August 1991, the conservative Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After the attempt failed, on August 22, 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence of Ukraine in which the parliament declared Ukraine as an independent democratic state.

A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on December 1, 1991. That day, more than 90 percent of the Ukrainian people expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to serve as the first President of the country.

At the meeting in Brest on December 8, followed by Alma Ata meeting on December 21 the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Modern history

File:Zenit-3SLb.jpg

Ukrainian Zenit-3SL launch vehicle stationed at Sea Launch complex.

File:Ukraine elections massprotest 20041122.jpg

Orange-clad demonstrators gather in the Independence Square in Kiev on 22 November, 2004

Ukraine was initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union. However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than the other republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60 percent of its GDP from 1991 to 1999, and suffered five-digit inflation rates. Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as crime and corruption, Ukrainians protested and organized strikes. In 1994, President Kravchuk agreed to hold presidential elections ahead of schedule, in which he lost the presidential post to former Prime-Minister Leonid Kuchma.

Under Kuchma, who served two terms as president, the Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of 1990s, and since 2000 has enjoyed steady economic growth averaging approximately seven percent annually, which is one of the highest growth rates in Europe and the world. A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticized by opponents for concentrating too much of power in his office, corruption, transferring public property into hands of loyal oligarchs, discouraging free speech, and electoral fraud.

The first National Space Agency of Ukraine astronaut to enter space under the Ukrainian flag was Leonid Kadenyuk on May 13, 1997. Ukraine became an active participant in scientific space exploration and remote sensing missions. Between 1991 and 2007, Ukraine has launched six self made satellites and 101 launch vehicles, and continues to design spacecraft.

In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been rigged, as many observers agreed. The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the results and led the peaceful Orange Revolution. The revolution brought Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition. The same year, Ukrainian pop-folk singer Ruslana won Eurovision Song Contest 2004, which allowed Ukraine to host Eurovision Song Contest 2005 in Kiev.

In March 2006, Verkhovna Rada elections took place and three months later the official government was formed by the "Anti-Crisis Coalition" among the Party of Regions, Communist, and Socialist parties. The latter party switched from the "Orange Coalition" with Our Ukraine, and the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc. The new coalition nominated Viktor Yanukovych for the post of Prime Minister. Yanukovych once again became Prime Minister, while the leader of the Socialist Party, Oleksander Moroz, managed to secure the position of chairman of parliament, which is believed by many to have been the reason for his leaving the Orange Coalition, where he had not been considered for this position. On April 2, 2007, President Yushchenko dissolved the Verkhovna Rada with a bill that had to be revised three times because of the uncertainties in the legal basis for the early parliamentary elections. As a result of protracted negotiations among the parties to the conflict, the elections were set to take place in September 2007.

On April 18, 2007 in Cardiff, Wales, Ukraine won a joint bid with Poland to host the UEFA Euro 2012 football championship, which is the third-largest sporting event in the world after the FIFA World Cup and the Olympics. This is the first time in Ukrainian history that the country got a chance to host such a major international event. Experts and politicians have noted that it will boost Ukrainian infrastructure development, tourist attractiveness and overall investments into the country. Among the most significant developments that will take place in the process of preparation are the road infrastructure improvement, expanding hotel networks in at least six major cities, in particular Kiev, Dnipropetrovsk, Kharkiv, Donetsk, Odessa and Lviv, modernization of airports and construction of modern football stadiums. One of the stadiums (under construction) is the Shakhtar Stadium in Donetsk, which received a five-star FIFA rating as one of the best in the world.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Ukraine, Elections in Ukraine, and Foreign relations of Ukraine

File:Verkhovna Rada 2007.JPG

Verkhovna Rada, the Parliament of Ukraine.

Ukraine is a republic under a mixed semi-parliamentary semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The President is elected by popular vote and is the formal head of state.

The 450-seat unicameral parliament, Verkhovna Rada, is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch, the Cabinet of Ministers, which is headed by the Prime Minister.

Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, should they be found to violate the Constitution of Ukraine. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court of Ukraine is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction.

Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president.

Ukraine has a large number of political parties, many of which have tiny memberships and are unknown to the general public. Small parties often join in multi-party coalitions (electoral blocks) for the purpose of participating in parliamentary elections.

Current political situation

Main article: Ukrainian parliamentary election, 2007

2007 Parliamentary election: Leading party by electoral districts.

Ukraine is currently a transition state after a substantial constitutional reform was introduced at the beginning of 2006. The amendments to the Constitution were meant to transform the Ukrainian state from a presidential republic to a mixed parliamentary-presidential republic. However, the amendments happened to be far from perfect and created a great opportunity for potential conflicts between the president on one side and the parliamentary coalition on the other. The political life of Ukraine during this time could be characterized as a constant struggle between the President and the Prime Minister for power. This has been aggravated by the fact that the President and the Prime Minister represent opposite poles of the political spectrum and have significant differences concerning foreign and internal policy. The conflict has been accompanied by accusations from both sides. President Yushchenko accuses the coalition of trying to usurp power and take away even those powers that he preserved after the reform. On the other hand, the coalition accuses the president of unwillingness to accept the consequences of constitutional reform and trying to regain his former powers by all means possible.

In late March and early April 2007, the Ukrainian political system dealt with another constitutional crisis. President Viktor Yushchenko dissolved the Ukrainian parliament and ordered an early election to be held May 27, 2007. Crowds of about 70,000 gathered on Maidan Nezalezhnosti, the central square of Kiev, and supported the dismissal of parliament, with 20,000 supporting Yanukovych's plan to keep the parliament together. On April 3, 2007, President Yushchenko signed the bill into existence. Two hours later on Kiev's Maidan, it was announced to the crowds that Parliament no longer existed.

The Verkhovna Rada immediately called an emergency session and voted against Yushchenko's decree (255 votes in favor; opposition did not participate). A group of members of the parliament took the case to the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, challenging the validity of the president's decree, but the court closed the case without opinion. A political struggle ensued between the parliamentary coalition and the opposition. Later, a compromise between Yushchenko and Yanukovych was reached to hold early parliamentary elections. The elections were held on September 30, 2007 and the opening meeting of the parliament of sixth convocation took place on November 23, 2007. That day the elected deputies swore an oath.. On November 29, a coalition was signed between the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc and Our Ukraine–People's Self-Defense Bloc.

Administrative divisions

Sea of Azov

Black Sea

Dnieper

•

Chernihiv

Chernivtsi

Cherkasy

Dnipropetrovsk

Donetsk

Ivan.-Fr.

Kharkiv

Kherson

Kyiv

Kirovohrad

Khmel.

Luhansk

Lviv

Mykolaiv

Odesa

Poltava

Rivne

Sumy

Ternopil

Vinnytsia

Volyn

Zakarpattia

Zaporizhzhia

Zhytomyr

•Sevastopol

Crimea

Russia

Belarus

Poland

Slov.

Hung.

Romania

Moldova

Serb.

Main article: Administrative divisions of Ukraine

The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal and administrative regime for each unit.

Ukraine is subdivided into twenty-four oblasts (provinces) and one autonomous republic (avtonomna respublika), Crimea. Additionally, two cities (misto), Kiev and Sevastopol, have a special legal status. The oblasts are subdivided into 494 raions (districts).

Geography

Main article: Geography of Ukraine

At 603,700 km² (233,074 sq mi) and with a coastline of 2,782 km (1,729 sq mi), Ukraine is the world's 44th-largest country (after the Central African Republic, before Madagascar). It is the second largest country in Europe (after European part of Russia, before metropolitan France).

Topography of Ukraine

According to some, the geographical center of Europe lies in Ukraine, perhaps near the western town of Rakhiv. The question of Europe's geographical center is subject to ongoing debate, however.

The Ukrainian landscape consists mostly of fertile plains (or steppes) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper, Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Buh as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the delta of the Danube forms the border with Romania. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest is the Hora Hoverla at 2,061 m (6,762 ft), and those on the Crimean peninsula, in the extreme south along the coast.

Ukraine has a mostly temperate continental climate, although a more mediterranean climate is found on the southern Crimean coast. Precipitation is disproportionately distributed; it is highest in the west and north and lesser in the east and southeast. Winters vary from cool along the Black Sea to cold farther inland. Summers are warm across the greater part of the country, but generally hot in the south.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Ukraine

The building of the National Bank of Ukraine.

A 20 hryvnia banknote depicting the Ukrainian poet Ivan Franko.

Largest airplane in the world An-225.

Ukrainian Oblasts by monthly salary.

Ukraine's 2006 GDP (PPP) is ranked 28th in the world and estimated at $364.3 billions. Nominal GDP (in U.S. dollars, calculated at market exchange rate) was $82.36 billions, ranked 53rd in the world.

In Soviet times, the economy of the republic was the second largest in the Soviet Union, being an important industrial and agricultural component of the country's planned economy. With the collapse of the Soviet system, the country moved from a planned economy to a market economy. The transition process was painful for the majority of the population which plunged into poverty. Ukraine's economy contracted severely following the years after the Soviet collapse. Day to day life for the average person living in Ukraine was a struggle. A significant number of citizens in Ukraine survived by growing their own food, often working two or more jobs and buying the basic necessities through the barter economy.

In 1991, the government liberalized most prices to combat widespread product shortages, and was successful in overcoming the problem. At the same time, the government continued to subsidize government-owned industries and agriculture by uncovered monetary emission. The loose monetary policies of the early 1990s pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels. For the year 1993, Ukraine holds the world record for inflation in one calendar year. Those living on fixed incomes suffered the most. Prices stabilized only after the introduction of new currency, hryvnia, in 1996.

The country was also slow in implementing structural reforms. Following independence, the government formed a legal framework for privatization. However, widespread resistance to reforms within the government and from a significant part of the population soon stalled the reform efforts. A large number of governed-owned enterprises were exempt from the privatization process. In the meantime, by 1999, the output had fallen to less than 40 percent of the 1991 level, but recovered to slightly above the 100 percent mark by the end of 2006.

Since the late 1990s, the government has pledged to reduce the number of government agencies, streamline the regulatory process, create a legal environment to encourage entrepreneurs, and enact a comprehensive tax overhaul. Outside institutions — particularly the IMF — have encouraged Ukraine to quicken the pace and scope of reforms and have threatened to withdraw financial support. But reforms in some politically sensitive areas of structural reform and land privatizations are still lagging.

In the early 2000s, the economy showed strong export-based growth of 5 to 10 percent, with industrial production growing more than 10 percent per year. The growth was largely attributed to a surge in exports of metals and chemicals to China.

In 2005, economic growth temporarily slowed due to unfavorable changes in terms of trade, as world energy prices rose and metal prices fell. In 2006, the economy was again experiencing above growth above five percent supported by strong domestic demand and growing consumer and investor confidence.

The World Bank classifies Ukraine as a lower middle-income state. Significant issues include underdeveloped infrastructure and transportation, corruption and bureaucracy, and a lack of modern-minded professionals - despite the large number of universities. But the rapidly growing Ukrainian economy has a very interesting emerging market with a relatively big population, and large profits associated with the high risks. The Ukrainian stock market grew significantly 10 times between 2000 and 2006, including 341 percent growth in 2004, 28 percent in 2005, and 24 percent in 2006. Growing sectors of the Ukrainian economy include the IT Outsourcing market, which is expected to grow over 25 percent this year.

By September 2007 the average nominal salary in Ukraine reached 1,426 hryvnias per month. Despite remaining much lower than in neighboring central European countries, the annual growth of average salary income in real terms is approximately 20 percent for several years (2001-2006) in a row.

The country imports most energy supplies, especially oil and natural gas, and to a large extent depends on Russia as an energy supplier. While 25 percent of the natural gas in Ukraine comes from internal sources, about 35 percent comes from Russia and the remaining 40 percent from Central Asia through transit routes that Russia controls. At the same time, 85 percent of the Russian gas is delivered to Western Europe via Ukraine.

Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles: automobiles, buses, trucks, ships, airplanes, subway and rail cars, and even space craft. In recent years, high technological production has become the norm as most industries have undergone significant modernization, making Ukrainian-made vehicles more economically competitive. Antonov airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many countries.

Despite political turmoil the economy of Ukraine continues to rise strongly, in particular the real estate sector, approximately 50% price increase in real estate and 100% price increase in land investment.

Military

File:Ukrainian in Kosovo.JPG

A Ukrainian peacekeeper in Kosovo.

Main article: Military of Ukraine

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000 military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapon arsenal in the world. In May 1992, Ukraine signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. Ukraine ratified the treaty in 1994, and by 1996 the country became free of nuclear weapons.

Ukraine also took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armored vehicles (Army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country plans to convert the current conscript-based army into a professional volunteer army.

Ukraine has been playing an increasingly larger role in peacekeeping operations. Ukrainian troops are deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion. A Ukrainian unit is deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated ceasefire agreement. There is also a maintenance and training battalion deployed in Sierra Leone. In 2003-2005, a Ukrainian unit was deployed in Iraq, as part of the Multinational force in Iraq under Polish command. The total Ukrainian military deployment around the world is about 2,800 troops.

Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. The country had limited military partnership with Russia and other CIS countries and has had a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, Ukraine was leaning toward NATO, and a deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. As of 2006, this issue is a subject of extensive debate within Ukraine as to whether the country should join NATO. In August of 2006, the leading political parties signed the Universal of National Unity, a nonbinding document, in which it was agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Ukraine

Ethnic composition of Ukraine
Ukrainians			77.8%
Russians			17.3%
Belarusians			0.6%
Moldovans			0.5%
Crimean Tatars			0.5%
Bulgarians			0.4%
Hungarians			0.3%
Romanians			0.3%
Poles			0.3%
Jews			0.2%
Armenians			0.2%
Greeks			0.2%
Tatars			0.2%
Source: Ethnic composition of the population of Ukraine, 2001 Census

Population of Ukraine, 1990-2006

The main square of Kiev.

File:Odesa monument.JPG

A Cossack and horse statue in Odessa.

According to the Ukrainian Census of 2001, ethnic Ukrainians make up 77.8% of the population. Other significant ethnic groups are Russians (17.3%), Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.2%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%).

Ukraine is considered to be in a demographic crisis due to its high death rate and a low birth rate. In 2007 country's population is declining at the fourth fastest rate in the world. The death rate in 2007 is estimated to be 16.07 per 1000 people compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000. Ukraine's birth rate is 9.45 per 1000 people compared to the European Union average of 10.00 per 1000. The demographic trend is showing signs of improvement, as the birth rate has been growing for several consecutive years. Net population growth over the first nine months of 2007 was registered in five provinces of the country (out of 24), and population shrinkage was showing signs of stablising nationwide. The highest birth rates were in Western provinces. Immigrants constitute an estimated 14.7% of the total population.

The industrial regions in the east and south-east are the most heavily populated, and about 67.2% of the population lives in urban areas.

Ukrainian is the only official state language. Russian, which was de facto the official language in the Soviet Union, is widely spoken, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine. According to the 2001 census, 67.5% of the population declared Ukrainian as their native language and 29.6% declared Russian.

It is sometimes difficult to determine the extent of the two languages. Many people use a Surzhyk (a mixture of Ukrainian and Russian where the vocabulary is often combined with Ukrainian grammar and pronunciation) while claiming in surveys that they speak Russian or Ukrainian (though most can speak both literary languages). Besides, some ethnic Ukrainians, while calling Ukrainian their 'native' language, use Russian more frequently in their daily lives.

These details result in a significant difference across different survey results, as even a small restating of a question switches responses of a significant group of people. Standard literary Ukrainian is mainly spoken in western and central Ukraine. In western Ukraine, Ukrainian is also the dominant language in cities (such as Lviv). In central Ukraine, Ukrainian and Russian are both equally used in cities, with Russian being more common in Kiev, while Ukrainian is the dominant language in rural communities. In eastern and southern Ukraine, mainly Russian is used in cities, and Surzhyk is used in rural areas.

The government follows a policy of Ukrainization—the increase of Ukrainian language, generally at the expense of Russian. This takes the form of use of Ukrainian in various spheres that are under government control, such as schools, government offices, and some media. This is even done in areas which are largely Russian-speaking. However, in non-government areas of life, the language of convenience (usually Russian) is used.

According to the Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Ukrainian is the only state language of the republic. However, the republic's constitution specifically recognizes Russian as the language of the majority of its population and guarantees its usage 'in all spheres of public life'. Similarly, the Crimean Tatar language (the language of a sizeable 12% minority of the republic) is guaranteed a special state protection as well as the 'languages of other ethnicities'. Russian speakers constitute an overwhelming majority of the Crimean population (77%), with Ukrainian speakers comprising 10.1%, and Crimean Tatar speakers 11.4%. But in everyday life the majority of Crimean Tatars and Ukrainians in Crimea use Russian.

Romanians and Moldavians are another significant minority in Ukraine, concentrated mainly in Chernivtsi, Odessa, Zakarpattia and Vinnytsia oblasts.

Jews played a very important role in Ukrainian cultural life, especially in the 19th and first half of the 20th century. Today Yiddish, the Ukrainian Jews' traditional language, is only used by a small number of older people.

Significant migration took place in the first years of Ukrainian independence. More than 1 million people moved into Ukraine in 1991-1992, mostly from the other former Soviet republics. In total, between 1991 and 2004, 2.2 million immigrated to Ukraine (among them, 2.0 million came from the other former Soviet Union states), and 2.5 million emigrated from Ukraine (among them, 1.9 million moved to other former Soviet Union republics).

In the context of low salaries and unemployment within Ukraine, labor emigration became a mass phenomenon at the end of the 1990s. Although estimates vary, approximately two to three million Ukrainian citizens are currently working abroad, many illegally, in construction, service, housekeeping, and agriculture industries. Moreover, a significant number of women from Ukraine had been dragged into prostitution and sex slavery in foreign lands, mainly Western Europe and Turkey.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Ukraine

Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Christianity, which is the dominant religion in the country. The culture of Ukraine has been also influenced by its eastern and western neighbors, which is reflected in the architecture, music and art of Ukraine.

Communist rule had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine. In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organizations"; this stifled creativity. During the 1980s glasnost(openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.

The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanka has long roots in Ukraine: these eggs were drawn on with wax to create pattern; dye was then added to give the eggs their delightful colors — the dye not affecting the wax-coated parts of the egg. Once the whole egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colorful pattern. The tradition is thousands of years old, and predates the arrival of Christianity in the country.

A collection of traditional pysanky from Volyn.

The Ukrainian diet includes chicken, pork, beef, fish and mushrooms. Ukrainians eat a lot of potatoes, grains, fresh and sour vegetables, different kinds of bread. Popular traditional dishes include varenyky (boiled dumplings with mushrooms, potatoes, sauerkraut, cottage cheese or cherries), borsch (soup made of beets, cabbage and mushrooms or meat) and holubtsy (stuffed cabbage rolls filled with rice, carrots and meat). Ukrainian specialties also include Chicken Kiev and Kiev Cake. Ukrainians drink stewed fruit, juices, milk, sour milk (they make cottage cheese from this), mineral water, tea and coffee, beer, wine and horilka.

In Ukraine, gender roles tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play greater role in raising children than in the West.

Sport

Main article: Sport in Ukraine

File:Олимпийский спортивный комплекс в Киеве.jpg

Olympic Stadium in Kiev

Of the many different sports Ukraine plays, the major sport is football. The top professional league is the Vyscha Liha, also known as the Ukrainian Premier League. The most decorated and known team is FC Dynamo Kyiv. The Ukraine national football team debuted in 2006 FIFA World Cup, and reached the quarter-finals before losing to eventual champions Italy.

Other sports are also popular in Ukraine. Boxers Vitali Klitschko and Wladimir Klitschko have held heavyweight world champion titles. Ukraine has an ice hockey league and a national ice hockey team. They also have a basketball league, and cricket clubs.

Ukraine made its Olympic debut at the 1994 Winter Olympics. After attending 3 out of 25 Summer Games and 4 out of 22 Winter Games, Ukraine is ranked 36th by number of gold medals won in the All-time Olympic Games medal count. Many athletes who represented and won medals for the Soviet Union were Ukrainians.

Name etymology

Main article: Name of Ukraine

The Ukrainian word Ukrayina is from Old East Slavic ukraina "borderland", from u "by, at" and the Slavic root kraj "edge; region" . In particular, in Ukrainian krayina means simply "country". On the other hand, "ou" means "in" in Ukrainian, so it can mean "inner country".

In English, the country is sometimes referred to with the definite article, as the Ukraine, similar to the Netherlands, the Gambia, the Sudan or the Congo. However, usage without the article is now more frequent, and has become established in diplomacy and journalism since the country's independence

Religion

See also: History of Christianity in Ukraine

St. Michael's Golden-Domed Cathedral is an example of Ukrainian Baroque architecture

The Crimean Khan's palace in Bakhchisaray was the center of Islam in Ukraine for more than 300 years.

The dominant religion in Ukraine is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which is currently split between three Church bodies: Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), Ukrainian Orthodox Church - Kiev Patriarchate, and Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.

A distant second is the Eastern Rite Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, which practices a similar liturgical and spiritual tradition as Eastern Orthodoxy, but is in communion with the See of Peter (Roman Catholic Church) and recognizes the primacy of the Pope as head of the Church.

There are 863 Catholic communities, and 474 clergy members serving the some one million Roman Catholics in Ukraine. The group forms some 2.19% of the population and consists mainly of ethnic Poles, living predominantly in the western regions of the country.

Protestant Christians also form some 2.19% of the population. Protestant numbers have grown greatly since Ukrainian independence. Evangelical Baptist Union of Ukraine is the largest group, with more than 150,000 members and about 3000 clergy. The second biggest Protestant church is the Ukrainian Church of Evangelical faith (pentecostals)[4] with 110000 members and over 1500 local churches and over 2000 clergy, but there also exists other pentecostal groups and unions and together all pentecostals are over 300000, with over 3000 local churhes. Also there are a lot of pentecostal high education schools such as Lviv Teological Seminary[5] and Kiev Bible Institute.[6] Other groups include Calvinists, Lutherans, Methodists, Seventh-day Adventists. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is also present. and there is a small Reform population. Additionally, there is a presence of the middle-ground sect, Conservative Judaism (aka Masorti Judaism) as well.

There are an estimated 500,000 Muslims in Ukraine. Approximately 300,000 Muslims are Crimean Tatars. There are 487 registered Muslim communities, 368 of them on the Crimean peninsula. In addition, some 50,000 Muslims live in Kiev, mostly foreign-born.

As of January 1, 2006, there were 35 Krishna Consciousness and 53 Buddhist registered communities in the country.

International rankings

Organization	Survey	Ranking
Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal	Index of Economic Freedom	125 out of 157 (2007)
Reporters Without Borders	Worldwide Press Freedom Index	92 out of 169 (2007)
Transparency International	Corruption Perceptions Index	118 out of 180 (2007)
United Nations Development Programme	Human Development Index	76 out of 177 (2006)
World Economic Forum	Global Competitiveness Report	78 out of 125 (2006)
A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine	Globalization Index	50 out of 122 (2007)

External links

General online sources

• CIA World Factbook - Ukraine
• Country profile: Ukraine, BBC's Country Profile on Ukraine.
• Country Briefings: Ukraine, by The Economist
• Special Report: Ukraine, ongoing coverage by Guardian Unlimited
• Background Note: Ukraine, the U.S. Department of State website
• Ukraine, Portals to the World, Internet resources selected by Library of Congress subject experts

Official External links

• The President of Ukraine
• Verkhovna Rada: the parliament of Ukraine
• Government Portal of Ukraine— Branches of government
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine
• Constitution of Ukraine
• Конституційний Процес в Україні — Ukraine's constitutional process (available in Ukrainian only)

Miscellaneous

• Open Directory Project - Ukraine directory category
• Maps of Ukraine more than 30,000 cities, towns and villages maps
• Detailed map of Ukraine
• Photos of Ukraine
• Currency, Stock market, Bank's financial results, Currency converter
• Encyclopedia of Ukraine
• Ukraine country information on globalEDGE
• Template:Wikitravelpar
• Religious Information Service of Ukraine

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