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Filipinos

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Filipino people
Corazón AquinoEmilio AguinaldoVina MoralesManny Pacquiao
Ignacia del Espíritu SantoCharlene GonzalesJeanne Angeles HarnImelda Marcos
Lea SalongaJuan LunaCatherine UntalanGloria Arroyo Toni Gonzaga Charice Pempengco Regine Velasquez Noynoy Aquino

1st row: Corazón Aquino · Emilio Aguinaldo · Vina Morales · Manny Pacquiao
2nd row: Ignacia del Espíritu Santo · Charlene Gonzales · Jeanne Angeles Harn · Imelda Marcos
3rd row: Lea Salonga · Juan Luna · Catherine Untalan · Gloria Arroyo

4th row: Sarah Geronimo · Charice Pempengco · Regine Velasquez · Noynoy Aquino
Total population
103,000,000[1]
Regions with significant populations
 Philippines92,000,000 [2]
 United States3,053,179[3]
 Saudi Arabia1,066,401[4]
 Malaysia636,544[5]
 United Arab Emirates529,114[4]
 Canada410,695[6]
 Japan210,617[7]
 United Kingdom203,035[4]
 Qatar195,558[4]
 Kuwait139,802[4]
 Hong Kong130,810[8]
 Australia129,400[9]
 Italy120,192[4]
 South Korea63,464[10]
 Spain40,000[11]
 New Zealand16,938[12]
 Nigeria16,000[13]
 Norway12,262[14]
 Netherlands12,000[15]
 Pakistan3,000[16]
Languages
Filipino (based on Tagalog); English and other local languages of the Philippines; Spanish, Arabic and other languages.
Religion
Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism), Islam, Buddhism, Traditional and folk religions and other religion.
Related ethnic groups
other Southeast Asians and Austronesian-speaking people.

The Filipino people are the citizens of the Republic of the Philippines. The term is also often used to refer to a person having Filipino ancestry. There are about 92 million Filipinos in the Philippines[17] and about 11 million living outside the Philippines.[18] Most Filipinos refer to themselves colloquially as "Pinoy" (feminine: "Pinay"), which is a slang word formed by taking the last four letters of "Pilipino" and adding the diminutive suffix "-y". The pre-1987 Philippine alphabet (Abakada)'s lack of the letter "F" had caused the letter "F" to be substituted with "P". This is the reason, when the 28-letter modern Filipino alphabet has been made official in 1987, the name Filipino was preferred over Pilipino.

History

Main article: History of the Philippines

The earliest human remains found in the Philippines are the fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone, discovered in the 1960s by Dr. Robert B. Fox, a North American anthropologist of the National Museum.[19] Anthropologists who have examined these remains agreed that they belonged to modern human beings. These include the homo sapiens, as distinguished from the mid-Pleistocene homo erectus species. The Tabon man fossils are considered to have come from a third group of inhabitants, who worked the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BCE. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50 thousand years ago.[20] Researchers say this indicates that the human remains were pre-Mongoloid, from about 40,000 years ago. Mongoloid is the term which anthropologists applied to the ethnic group which migrated to Southeast Asia during the Holocene period and evolved into the Austronesian people (associated with the Haplogroup O1 (Y-DNA) genetic marker), a group of Malayo-Polynesian-speaking people including those from Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Malagasy, parts of Vietnam as well as the non-Han Chinese Taiwanese Aboriginals.[21] anthropologist F. Landa Jocano of the University of the Philippines, in 2001 postulates that the present indigenous Filipinos are products of the long process of evolution and movement of people.[22]

Fluctuations in ancient shorelines between 150,000 BP and 17,000 BP connected to the Malay archipelago region with Maritime Southeast Asia and the Philippines. This may have enabled ancient migrations into the Philippines from Maritime Southeast Asia approximately 50,000 BP to 13,000 BP.[23]

A January 2009 study of language phylogenies by R. D. Gray at UCLA published in Science (journal), suggests that the population expansion of Austronesian peoples was triggered by rising sea levels of the Sunda shelf at the end of the last ice age in a two-pronged expansion, which moved north through the Philippines and into Taiwan, while a second expansion prong spread east along the New Guinea coast and into Oceania and Polynesia.[24]

About 30,000 years ago, the Negritos settled in the islands. Multiple studies also show that Negritos from Southeast Asia to New Guinea share a closer cranial affinity with Australo-Melanesians.[25][26] They were the ancestors of such tribes of the Philippines as the Aeta, Agta, Ayta, Ati, Dumagat and other tribes of the Philippines, today making up .03% of the total Philippine population.[27]

The majority of present day Filipinos are a products of the long process of evolution and movement of people.[28] After the mass migrations through land bridges, Migrations continue by boat during the maritime era of South East Asia where in the Ancient races became homogenized into the Malayo-polynesians which colonized the majority of the Philippine, Malaysian and Indonesian Archipelagos.[29].

Various ethnic groups established several communities formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms.[27] South Asian and East Asian people together with the people of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula, traded with Filipinos and introduced and passed Hinduism and Buddhism to the native tribes of the Philippines. Most of these people stayed in the Philippines where they were slowly absorbed to the local society.

From the 9th century onwards, a large number of Arab traders from the Middle East settled in the Malay Archipelago and intermarried with the local Malay, Indonesian and Filipino populations.[30]

Ethnic Chinese sailed down and frequently interacted and even created settlements including CALABARZON region such as Rizal which carried on trade with the Arab merchants long before the Spanish colonization. As evidenced by a collection of priceless Chinese artifacts found in the Philippines, dating back right up to the 10th century.

By the 13th century, Arab Missionaries from present-day Malaysia and Indonesia brought Islam to the Philippines, where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions. Most indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture of Animism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. Native villages, called barangays were populated by locals called Timawa (Middle Class/ freemen) and Alipin (servants & slaves). They were ruled by Rajahs, Datus and Sultans, a class called Maharlika (nobles and royals).[27]. This tradition continued among the Spanish and Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations.[31] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese traders also migrated to the Philippines and assimilated into the local population.[32]

During the period of Spanish colonialism beginning in the 16th century, the Philippines was governed by Mexico City on behalf of the Spanish Empire. Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers, soldiers, government official and religious missionaries born in Spain and Mexico. The Peninsulares (governors born in Spain), mostly of Castilian ancestry settled in the islands to govern their territory. Intermarriage between Spaniards and Filipinos occurred, but was not as common as it was in the Americas. Most settlers married the daughters of rajahs, datus and sultans (chieftains) to reinforce the colonization of the islands, while some married only other Spaniards. Today, There are still a few Filipino families who maintained a pure Spanish and/or European ancestry. Prehistoric evidence attest to the fact that most datus, rajahs and sultans or maharlikas(nobles and royals) in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the spaniards were of mixed indigenous Filipino, Indo-Aryan and Chinese ancestry. They formed the group which is to be called Principalia (Spanish nobility) during the Spanish period, and were given privileges by the Spanish colonial authorities.

As a part of the Seven years war, British conquest of the Spanish Philippines occurred between 1762 and 1764, although the only part of the Philippines which the British actually occupied was the Spanish colonial capital Manila with the principal Spanish naval port Cavite, both on Manila Bay. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris (1763). At the time of signing the treaty, the signatories were not aware that the Philippines had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Crown.[33] Many Indian troops and their British captains mutinied and were left in Manila and some parts of the Ilocos and Cagayan. The ones in manila settled at Cainta, Rizal and the ones at the north settled at Isabela. Most of which assimilated into the local population.

The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines attracted new waves of Chinese immigrants from China, and maritime trade flourished during the Spanish occupation. The Spanish recruited thousands of Chinese migrant workers called sangleys to build the colonial infrastructure in the islands. Most Chinese immigrants converted to Christianity, intermarried with the locals, and adopted Hispanized names and customs. The children of unions between Filipinos and Chinese were called Mestizos de Sangley or Chinese mestizos, while those between Spaniards and Chinese were called Tornatrás and were classified as blanco or white, together with the mixed-race Filipino mestizos and pure-blooded Spanish Filipinos. The Chinese mestizos were largely confined to the Binondo area. However, they eventually spread all over the islands, and became traders, moneylenders and landowners.

A total of 110 Manila-Acapulco galleons set sail between 1565 to 1815, during the Philippines trade with Mexico. Until 1593, three or more ships would set sail annually from each port. European criollos, mestizos and mullatos of Spanish, Portuguese, French and Mexican descent from the Americas, mostly from Latin America came in contact with the Filipinos. Japanese, Korean and Cambodian Christians who fled from religious persecutions and killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 1600s until the 1800s.

With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1867, Spain opened the Philippines for international trade. European investors such as British, German, Portuguese, Italian and French were among those who settled in the islands as business increased. More Spaniards arrived during the next century. Many of these European migrants intermarried with local mestizos and some assimilated with the indigenous population. They became the precursors of the current Chinese and oriental dominated major corporations and conglomerates of the country.

The name Filipino was derived from king Philip II of Spain, the Spanish name given to the Philippines in the 16th century, by Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos.[34]

After the defeat of Spain during the Spanish-American War in 1898, Filipino general, Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence on June 12 while general Wesley Merritt became the first American governors of the Philippines. On December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris formally ended the war, with Spain ceding the Philippines and other colonies to the United States in exchange for $20 million dollars.[35][36] United States civil governance was established in 1901, with William Howard Taft as the first American Governor-General.[37] A number of Americans settled in the islands and thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and Filipinos have taken place since then. Due to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21 bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the United States first colonized the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War, but left behind thousands of Amerasian children.[38] The country gained independence from the United States in 1946. The Pearl S. Buck International foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians scattered throughout the Philippines. In addition, numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and made careers in it, often settling with their families in the United States. Some of their second or third generation-families returned to the country.

Following its independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the country, mostly involving Chinese, Americans, British, Europeans, Japanese, and South Asians. A few groups of Vietnamese war refugees during the 1970's were welcomed by the country. More recent migrations into the country by Koreans, Persians, Brazilians and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of the country's ethnic landscape, language and culture. Centuries of migration, diaspora, assimilation, and cultural diversity made most Filipinos open-minded in embracing interracial marriage and multiculturalism. Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principles of your place of birth or origin, and therefore descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring national citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain illegal citizens born in the Philippines.

Together, some of these recent foreign immigrants have intermarried with the Filipinos, as well as with the previous immigrant groups, giving rise to Filipinos of mixed racial and/or ethnic origins also known as mestizos.

Genetic studies

The Philippine Government has never conducted any recent genetic study of great statistical significance about the ancestry of the various Philippine ethnic groups, there have been some studies, based upon very small samples of the population, which provide clues as to their origins. The affordability of DNA testing kits for Y-DNA and mtDNA haplogroup verification has spurned the proliferation of public DNA databases such as those hosted by genetic genealogy companies.[39]

A Stanford University study conducted during 2001 revealed that Haplogroup O3-M122 (labeled as "Haplogroup L" in this study) is the most common Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup found among Filipinos. This particular haplogroup is also predominant among Chinese, Koreans, and Vietnamese. Another haplogroup, Haplogroup O1a-M119 (labeled as "Haplogroup H" in this study), is also found among Filipinos. The rates of Haplogroup O1a are highest among the Taiwanese aborigines, and Chamic-speaking people. Genetic data found among a sampling of Filipinos may indicate some relation to the Ami tribe of Taiwan.[40]

A 2008 genetic study showed no evidence of a large-scale Taiwanese migration into the Philippine Islands. A study by Leeds University and published in Molecular Biology and Evolution, showed that mitochondrial DNA lineages have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) since modern humans arrived approximately 50,000 years ago. Population dispersals occurred at the same time as sea levels rose, which resulted in migrations from the Philippine Islands into Taiwan within the last 10,000 years.[41]

A 2002 China Medical University study indicated that some Filipinos shared genetic chromosome that is found among Asian people, such as Taiwanese aborigines, Indonesians, Thais, and Chinese.[42]

A variety of research study by the University of the Philippines, genetic chromosome were found in Filipinos which are shared by people from different parts of East Asia, and Southeast Asia. The predominant genotype detected was SC, the Southeast Asian genotype.[43].

Sinodonty and Sundadonty are two patterns, identified by anthropologist Christy Turner, for East Asia, within the "Mongoloid dental complex"[44]. The latter is regarded as having a more generalised, Australoid morphology and having a longer ancestry than its offspring, Sinodonty. He found the Sundadont pattern in the Jōmon of Japan, Taiwanese aborigines, Filipinos, Indonesians, Thais, Borneans, Laotians, and Malaysians, and the Sinodont pattern in the inhabitants of China, Mongolia, eastern Siberia, Native Americans, and the Yayoi. Both of patterns are common among indigenous Filipino tribes. Other dental patterns are also found among City dwellers as a result of mixed racial ancestry.

These indigenous elements in the Filipino's genetic makeup serve as clues to the patterns of migration throughout Philippine prehistory. After the 1500s, of course, the colonial period saw the influx of genetic influence from Europeans. During the above mentioned study conducted by Stanford University Asia-Pacific Research Center, it was stated that 3.6% of the Philippine population has varying degrees of European ancestry from Spanish, and American colonization.[45]

Languages

Main articles: Languages of the Philippines and Philippine languages

Austronesian languages have been spoken in the Philippines for thousands of years. Starting in the second half of the 16th century, Spanish was the official language of the country for the more than three centuries that the islands were governed through Mexico City on behalf of the Spanish Empire.

It is accepted that Spanish became the lingua franca of the Philippines among educated Filipinos and Ilustrados in the 19th and early 20th centuries. But significant disagreement exists on the extent of use of Spanish beyond that. In the view of some, "By constrast with the Canaries and America, the Philippines were only superficially hispanized; Spanish became the language only of the ruling class, of civil and judicial administration, and of culture. By the time Spanish rule came to an end, Spanish was the language of approximately 10 per cent of the population".[46] Per this view, then, Spanish was never spoken by a large portion of the population.

In sharp constrast, another view is that the ratio of the population which spoke Spanish as their mother tongue in the last decade of Spanish rule was 10% or 14%.[47] An additional 60% is said to have spoken Spanish as a second language until World War II.[48] Various sources reported the widespread use of Spanish by the Philippine population, among them the secretary of education during the period of US rule, as well as Henry Ford, who reported what he observed and the Filipino speech that he heard in his travels through the archipelago, sixteen of whose provinces where said to be Spanish-speaking in 1906.[47]

In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish.[49] It was also the language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution proclaimed it as the "official language" of the First Philippine Republic. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the imposition of English, the overall use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.

According to Ethnologue, there are about 180 languages spoken in the Philippines.[50] The Constitution of the Philippines designates Filipino (which is based on Tagalog[51][52]) as the national language and designates both Filipino and English as official languages. Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages. The constitution also provides that Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.[53]

Other major and minor languages in the country include Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray, Kapampangan, Bicol, Pangasinan, Tausug, Maguindanao, Maranao, Kinaray-a, Chavacano and Spanish. The 28-letter modern Filipino alphabet, adopted in 1987, is the official writing system.[54]

Diaspora

Main article: Overseas Filipino

Filipinos form a minority ethnic group in the Americas, Europe, Oceania,[55][56] the Middle East and other countries in the world.

Filipinos make up about half of the entire population of the Northern Marianas Islands, an American territory in the North Pacific Ocean, and a large proportion of the populations of Guam, Palau, and the Malaysian state of Sabah.[56]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to People of the Philippines.

Publications

References

  1. ^ Combination of Filipinos living in the Philippines and Filipinos living abroad (OFW)
  2. ^ Philippines U.S. Department of State.
  3. ^ Filipino Statistics: US US Census Bureau. Retrieved 30 June 2009
  4. ^ a b c d e f Stock Estimates of Overseas Filipinos 2007 Report. Philippine Oversea Employment Administration. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  5. ^ Filipinos in Malaysia. Office Press Secretary of the Philippines. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  6. ^ Filipino Canadian Statistics Canada. Retrieved 30 June 2009
  7. ^ 平成２０年末現在における外国人登録者統計について
  8. ^ Filipinos in Hong Kong Hong Kong Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 30 June 2009.
  9. ^ Filipino Australian Australia Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 30 June 2009
  10. ^ Filipinos in South Korea. Korean Culture and Information Service (KOIS). Retrieved 21 July 2009.
  11. ^ "PGMA meets members of Filipino community in Spain". Philippines:Gov.Ph: The Official Government Portal of the Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved 1 July 2006.
  12. ^ Filipinos in New Zealand. Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 2 July 2009
  13. ^ People: Filipino, The Joshua Project[unreliable source?]
  14. ^ "8 Folkemengde, etter norsk / utenlandsk statsborgerskap og landbakgrunn 1. januar 2009". Statistisk sentralbyra (Statistics Norway). Retrieved 2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  15. ^ "A BRIEF HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE - NETHERLANDS RELATIONS". The Philippine Embassy in The Hague.
  16. ^ "Philippines monitors condition of Filipino workers in Pakistan". 5 November 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
  17. ^ Philippines Statistics National Statistics Office projection. Retrieved 30 June 2009
  18. ^ Yvette Collymore (June 2003). "Rapid Population Growth, Crowded Cities Present Challenges in the Philippines". Population Reference Bureau. Retrieved 2009-06-30. An estimated 10 percent of the country's population, or nearly 8,000,000 people, are overseas Filipino workers distributed in 182 countries, according to POPCOM. That is in addition to the estimated 3,000,000 migrants who work illegally abroad
  19. ^ "Archaeology in the Philippines, the National Museum and an Emergent Filipino Nation". Wilhelm G. Solheim II foundation for Philippine Archaeology, Inc.
  20. ^ Scott 1984, pp. 14–15.
  21. ^ http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=215578
  22. ^ Jocano 2001, p. 34-56
  23. ^ Harold K. Voris. "Maps of Pleistocene sea levels in Southeast Asia". Field Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  24. ^ R. D. Gray. "Language Phylogenies Reveal Expansion Pulses and Pauses in Pacific Settlement" (PDF). Science. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  25. ^ Getting Here: The Story of Human Evolution, William Howells, Compass Press, 1993
  26. ^ David Bulbeck (2006). "Races of Homo sapiens: if not in the southwest Pacific, then nowhere" (PDF). World Archaeology. 38 (1). Taylor & Francis: 109–132 year=2006. doi:10.1080/00438240600564987. ISSN 0043-8243. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing pipe in: |pages= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); line feed character in |pages= at position 8 (help)
  27. ^ a b c "Background note:Philippines". U.S. Department of State Diplomacy in Action. Retrieved April 2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  28. ^ "The People of the Philippines". AsianInfo.
  29. ^ Jocano 2001, p. 34-56
  30. ^ "Arab and native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia" (Document). ColorQ World. {{cite document}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
  31. ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 0521663709. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Text "Cambridge University Press" ignored (help)
  32. ^ Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 52–3. ISBN 0826460747. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  33. ^ Tracy, Nicholas (1995). Manila Ransomed: The British Assault on Manila in the Seven Years War. University of Exeter Press. p. 109. ISBN 9780859894265. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) ISBN 0859894266, ISBN 9780859894265.
  34. ^ "Filipino". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2001. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  35. ^ Article 3 of the treaty specifically associated the $20 million payment with the transfer of the Philippines.
  36. ^ "American Conquest of the Philippines - War and Consequences: Benevolent Assimilation and the 1899 PhilAm War". www.oovrag.com. Retrieved April 2003. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  37. ^ "The Philippines/Philippines - A History of Resistance and Assimilation". voices.cla.umn.edu. Retrieved 2005. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  38. ^ Women and children, militarism, and human rights: International Women's Working Conference | Off Our Backs | Find Articles at BNET.com
  39. ^ FamilyTreeDNA. "Philippines DNA Project". FamilyTreeDNA. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  40. ^ Capelli, Cristian (2001). "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania" (pdf). American journal of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 432–443. doi:10.1086/318205. PMC 1235276. PMID 11170891. Retrieved 2007-06-24. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); line feed character in |coauthors= at position 56 (help)
  41. ^ Dr. Martin Richards. "Climate Change and Postglacial Human Dispersals in Southeast Asia". Oxford Journals. Retrieved 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  42. ^ Chang JG, Ko YC, Lee JC, Chang SJ, Liu TC, Shih MC, Peng CT. "Molecular analysis of mutations and polymorphisms of the Lewis secretor type alpha(1,2)-fucosyltransferase gene reveals that Taiwanese aborigines are of Austronesian derivation". Journal of Human Genetics, abstract from PubMed (www.pubmed.gov). Retrieved 2002. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ Miranda JJ, Sugimoto C, Paraguison R, Takasaka T, Zheng HY, Yogo Y. "Genetic diversity of JC virus in the modern Filipino population: implications for the peopling of the Philippines". Journal of Human Genetics, abstract from PubMed (www.pubmed.gov). Retrieved 2007-03-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=HuRcAyXWJxIC&pg=PA165&dq=dental+complex&sig=DLgOFSTm0uoEvkUoJk_eKZO3jYk#PPA177,M1
  45. ^ "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular South Asia and Oceania" (PDF). Stanford University. Retrieved 2001. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  46. ^ Penny & Penny 2002, pp. 29-30
  47. ^ a b Gómez Rivera, Guillermo (2005). "Estadisticas: El idioma español en Filipinas". Retrieved 2010-06-25. "Los censos norteamericanos de 1903 y 1905, dicen de soslayo que los hispano-hablantes de este archipiélago nunca han rebasado, en su número, a más del diez por ciento (10%) de la población durante la última década de los mil ochocientos (1800s). Esto quiere decir que 900,000 filipinos, el diez porciento de los dados nueve millones citados por el Fray Manuel Arellano Remondo, tenían al idioma español como su primera y única lengua." (Emphasis added.) The same author writes: "Por otro lado, unos recientes estudios por el Dr. Rafael Rodríguez Ponga señalan, sin embargo, que los filipinos de habla española, al liquidarse la presencia peninsular en este archipiélago, llegaban al catorce (14%) por ciento de la población de la década 1891-1900. Es decir, el 14% de una población de nueve millones (9,000,000), que serían un millón (1,260,000) y dos cientos sesenta mil de filipinos que eran primordialmente de habla hispana. (Vea Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos, enero de 2003)." (La persecución del uso oficial del idioma español en Filipinas. Retrieved July 08, 2010.)
  48. ^ Gómez Rivera, Guillermo (2005). "Estadisticas: El idioma español en Filipinas". Retrieved 2010-07-08. Note the following statements: "Esta observación confirma el dato dado por el abogado Don Luciano de la Rosa sobre el español siendo el segundo idioma del 60 por cien de la población total de Filipinas durante las primeras cuatro (4) décadas de 1900." and "Si añadimos a los 60% los anteriores 10%, tenemos al 70% de la población filipina como usuaria cotidiana del idioma español entre 1890 y 1940."
  49. ^ US Country Studies: Education in the Philippines
  50. ^ "Languages of the Philippines". Ethnologue.
  51. ^ Thompson, Roger M. (2003). "3. Nationalism and the rise of Tagalog 1936-1973". Filipino English and Taglish. John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9789027248916. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help), ISBN 9027248915, 9789027248916.
  52. ^ Andrew Gonzalez (1998). "The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines" (PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 19 (5, 6): 487–488. doi:10.1080/01434639808666365. Retrieved 2007-03-24. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  53. ^ Article XIV, Section 6, The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines.
  54. ^ Linda Trinh Võ; Rick Bonus (2002). Contemporary Asian American communities:the [[Demographics of the Philippines]] article.ntersections and divergences. Temple University Press. pp. 96, 100. ISBN 9781566399388. {{cite book}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  55. ^ "National Summary Tables". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2001-06-06.
  56. ^ a b "Population Composition: Asian-born Australians". Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2001-06-06.
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