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List of kingdoms and empires in African history

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There were many kingdoms and empires in all regions of the continent of Africa throughout history. A kingdom is a state with a king or queen as its head.[1] An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant centre and subordinate peripheries".[2]

In Africa states emerged in a process covering many generations and centuries. Most states were created through conquest or the borrowing and assimilation of ideas and institutions, while some developed through internal, largely isolated development.[3] Economic development "gave rise to a perceived need for centralized institutions and ‘territorial’ leadership that transcended older bonds of kinship and community". The politicoreligious struggle between the people and the king sometime saw the people victorious and the establishment of sacred kings with little political power, contrasted with powerful divine kings equated to gods.[4] Kings and queens used both 'instrumental power', the employment of direct influence to achieve a desired outcome, and 'creative power', the use of ritual and mythology.[a][6]: 21–23 

Despite this, popular understanding often claims that the continent lacked large states or meaningful complex political organisation. Whether rooted in ignorance, Eurocentrism, or racism, famous historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper have argued that African history is not characterised by state formation or hierarchical structures. In fact, the nature of political organisation varied greatly across the continent, from the expansive West Sudanic empires, to the sacral Congolese empires akin to confederations or commonwealths, and the immensely hierarchical kingdoms of the Great Lakes.[7]

The vast majority of states included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, European powers rapidly colonised Africa. While most states were conquered and dissolved, some kings and elites negotiated the terms of colonial rule,[6]: 15  and traditional power structures were incorporated into the colonial regimes as a form of indirect rule.[8]

In the mid-late 20th century decolonisation saw Africans inherit the former colonies,[9] and many traditional kingdoms still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies. The roles, powers, and influence of non–sovereign monarchs throughout Africa vary greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola, the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region.[10] On the flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad,[11] or their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962,[12] and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda, which was later restored in 1993.[13] In this list they are labelled (NSM).

There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa;[14] two of which (Lesotho and Morocco) are constitutional monarchies where the rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, while one (Eswatini) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds.[15]: 15  Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM).

There have been a number of autocratic presidents in Africa who are considered "disguised monarchs" due to the absence of term limits,[16] as well as those who have invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes,[17] such as the Bongos of Gabon,[18] Gnassingbés of Togo,[19] or Aptidon–Guelleh of Djibouti,[20] attracting the terms monarchical republic and presidential monarchism.[18][16] These have been tentatively included, and are labelled (MR).

Criteria for inclusion

[edit]

Only polities that were once independent and described as kingdoms or empires by reliable sources are included. The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of the Muslim world, however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are.

Oral traditions rarely incorporate chronological devices,[21]: 29  and dates in this list are often estimates. Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries.

Comparison between kingdoms

[edit]

Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power:[22]

  1. Despotic Kingdoms (D): Kingdoms where the king controlled the internal and external affairs directly and personally appointed overseers. The king kept a monopoly on the use of force. Examples include Rwanda, Nkore/Ankole, and Kongo of the 16th century.
  2. Regal Kingdoms (R): Kingdoms where the king controlled the external affairs directly, and the internal affairs via a system of overseers where most local chiefs kept their positions but not their autonomy after conquest. The king and most of his administration belonged to the same religion, group and/or family.
  3. Incorporative Kingdoms (I): Kingdoms where the king only controlled the external affairs and the nucleus with no permanent administrative links between him and the chiefs of the provinces. The local chiefs of the provinces were left largely undisturbed after conquest. Examples are the Bamileke, Luba and the Lozi.
  4. Aristocratic Kingdoms (A): The only link between central authority and the provinces was payment of tribute which symbolised subordination. These kingdoms were kept together by the superior military strength of the nucleus. This type is rather common in Africa, examples include Kongo of the 17th century, Kazembe, Kuba, the Ha, and Chagga states of the 18th century.
  5. Federations (F): Kingdoms where the external affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who is simply primus inter pares, such as in the Ashanti Union. (Confederations are not included; see "List of confederations").

Classifications not given as examples by Vansina are open to scrutiny (here). Ones where two classifications are given and joined by an "and" mean that the kingdom had elements from both present; [a] refers to the king's place and power, particularly in the nucleus, whilst [b] refers to the relationship between king and administration.

List of African kingdoms

[edit]

A list of known kingdoms and empires on the African continent that we have record of.

North Africa

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Further information: History of North Africa

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

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7th century – 12th century CE

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13th century – 18th century CE

[edit]

19th century CE – present

[edit]

East Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of East Africa
See also: List of African Great Lakes kingdoms

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

[edit]

7th century – 12th century CE

[edit]

13th century – 18th century CE

[edit]

19th century CE – present

[edit]
13th–century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires.

West Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of West Africa

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

[edit]

7th century – 12th century CE

[edit]

13th century – 18th century CE

[edit]

19th century CE – present

[edit]

Central Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of Central Africa
Central East Africa circa 1750 CE
UN Macroregion of Central Afric

7th century – 12th century CE

[edit]

13th century – 18th century CE

[edit]

19th century CE – present

[edit]

Southern Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of Southern Africa

7th century – 12th century CE

[edit]

13th century – 18th century CE

[edit]

19th century CE – present

[edit]

Unplaced or undated kingdoms/sultanates

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Origin myths serve multiple purposes, helping to define a group's identity and forge sociocultural alliances, and provide the fulcrum on which a group's religious ideology rests.[5]: xix  Dynastic oral traditions often have the king as a stranger, situated above or beyond society. They are considered "a source of order, fertility and well-being", but also "volatile, capricious and potentially dangerous."

Further reading

[edit]
  • General History of Africa
  • Cambridge History of Africa
  • Parker, John (2023-03-21). Great Kingdoms of Africa. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-39567-1.
  • Stewart, John (2024-10-18). African States and Rulers, 3d ed. McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-1707-7.
  • Aderinto, Saheed (2017-08-24). African Kingdoms: An Encyclopedia of Empires and Civilizations. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-580-0.
  • Ayittey, George (2006-09-01). Indigenous African Institutions: 2nd Edition. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-4003-1.


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