List of languages by first written account
This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2012) |
This is a list of languages arranged by the approximate dates of the oldest existing texts recording a complete sentence in the language. It does not include undeciphered scripts, though there are various claims without wide acceptance, which, if substantiated, would push backward the first attestation of certain languages. It also does not include inscriptions consisting of isolated words or names from a language.
A written record may encode a stage of a language corresponding to an earlier time, either as a result of oral tradition, or because the earliest source is a copy of an older manuscript that was lost. An oral tradition of epic poetry may typically bridge a few centuries, and in rare cases, over a millennium. An extreme case is the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda: the earliest parts of this text may date to c. 1500 BC,[1] while the oldest known manuscript dates to the 11th century AD, a gap of over 2,500 years. Similarly the oldest Avestan texts, the Gathas, are believed to have been composed before 1000 BC, but the oldest Avestan manuscripts date from the 13th century AD.[2]
Because of the way languages change gradually, it is usually impossible to pinpoint when a given language began to be spoken. In many cases, some form of the language had already been spoken (and even written) considerably earlier than the dates of the earliest extant samples provided here.
For languages that have developed out of a known predecessor, dates provided here are subject to conventional terminology. For example, Old French developed gradually out of Vulgar Latin, and the Oaths of Strasbourg (842) listed are the earliest text that is classified as "Old French". Similarly, Danish and Swedish separated from common Old East Norse in the 12th century, while Norwegian separated from Old West Norse around 1300.
Before 1000 BC
Writing first appeared in the Near East at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. A very limited number of languages are attested in the area from before the Bronze Age collapse and the rise of alphabetic writing:
- the Sumerian, Hurrian, Hattic and Elamite language isolates,
- Afro-Asiatic in the form of the Egyptian and Semitic languages and
- Indo-European (Anatolian languages and Mycenaean Greek).
In East Asia towards the end of the second millennium BC, the Sino-Tibetan family was represented by Old Chinese. There are also a number of undeciphered Bronze Age records:
- Proto-Elamite script and Linear Elamite
- the Indus script (claimed to record a "Harappan language")
- Cretan hieroglyphs and Linear A (encoding a possible "Minoan language")[3][4]
- the Cypro-Minoan syllabary[5]
Date | Language | Attestation | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
c. 2690 BC | Egyptian | Egyptian hieroglyphs in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (2nd Dynasty), Umm el-Qa'ab[6] | "proto-hieroglyphic" inscriptions from about 3300 BC (Naqada III; see Abydos, Egypt, Narmer Palette) |
26th century BC | Sumerian | Instructions of Shuruppak, the Kesh temple hymn and other cuneiform texts from Shuruppak and Abu Salabikh (Fara period)[7][8] | "proto-literate" period from about 3500 BC (see Kish tablet); administrative records at Uruk and Ur from c. 2900 BC. |
c. 2400 BC | Akkadian | A few dozen pre-Sargonic texts from Mari and other sites in northern Babylonia[9] | Some proper names attested in Sumerian texts at Tell Harmal from about 2800 BC.[10] Fragments of the Legend of Etana at Tell Harmal c. 2600 BC.[11] |
c. 2400 BC | Eblaite | Ebla tablets[12] | |
c. 2250 BC | Elamite | Awan dynasty peace treaty with Naram-Sin[13][14] | |
21st century BC | Hurrian | Temple inscription of Tish-atal in Urkesh[15] | |
c. 1700 BC | Hittite | Anitta text in Hittite cuneiform[16] | Isolated Hittite words and names occur in Assyrian texts found at Kültepe, from the 19th century BC. |
16th century BC | Palaic | Hittite texts CTH 751–754[17] | |
c. 1450 BC | Mycenaean Greek | Linear B tablet archive from Knossos[18][19][20] | These are mostly administrative lists, with some complete sentences.[21] |
c. 1400 BC | Luwian | Hieroglyphic Luwian monumental inscriptions, Cuneiform Luwian tablets in the Hattusa archives[22] | Isolated hieroglyphs appear on seals from the 18th century BC.[22] |
c. 1400 BC | Hattic | Hittite texts CTH 725–745 | |
c. 1300 BC | Ugaritic | Tablets from Ugarit[23] | see Ugaritic alphabet |
c. 1200 BC | Old Chinese | Oracle bone and bronze inscriptions from the reign of Wu Ding[24][25][26] |
-
Seal impression from the tomb of Seth-Peribsen, containing the oldest known complete sentence in Egyptian, c. 2690 BC
-
Letter in Sumerian cuneiform sent by the high-priest Lu'enna, informing him the king of Lagash of his son's death in battle, c. 2400 BC
-
Ox scapula inscribed with three records of divinations in the reign of Wu Ding of the Chinese Shang dynasty, c. 1200 BC
First millennium BC
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Sarcophag_of_Ahiram_inscription.png/480px-Sarcophag_of_Ahiram_inscription.png)
The earliest known alphabetic inscriptions, at Serabit el-Khadim (c. 1500 BC), appear to record a Northwest Semitic language, though only one or two words have been deciphered. In the Early Iron Age, alphabetic writing spread across the Near East and southern Europe. With the emergence of the Brahmic family of scripts, languages of India are attested from after about 300 BC.
There is only fragmentary evidence for languages such as Iberian, Tartessian, Galatian, Thracian and Messapian.[27] The North Picene language of the Novilara Stele from c. 600 BC has not been deciphered.[28] The earliest examples of the Central American Isthmian script date from c. 500 BC, but a proposed decipherment remains controversial.[29]
Date | Language | Attestation | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
c. 1000 BC | Phoenician | Ahiram epitaph[30] | |
10th century BC | Aramaic | royal inscriptions from Aramean city-states[31] | |
10th century BC | Hebrew | Gezer calendar | |
c. 850 BC | Ammonite | Amman Citadel Inscription[32] | |
c. 840 BC | Moabite | Mesha Stele | |
c. 800 BC | Phrygian | Paleo-Phrygian inscriptions at Gordion | |
c. 800 BC | Old North Arabian | ||
c. 800 BC | Old South Arabian | ||
c. 700 BC | Etruscan | proto-Corinthian vase found at Tarquinia[33] | |
7th century BC | Latin | Vetusia Inscription and Fibula Praenestina[34] | |
c. 600 BC | Umbrian | ||
c. 600 BC | Lepontic | ||
c. 600 BC | Lydian | inscriptions from Sardis[22] | |
c. 600 BC | Carian | inscriptions from Caria and Egypt[22] | |
c. 600 BC | Faliscan | Ceres inscription found at Falerii[35] | |
c. 550 BC | South Picene | Warrior of Capestrano[36] | |
late 6th century BC | Venetic | inscriptions at Este | |
c. 500 BC | Old Persian | Behistun inscription | |
c. 500 BC | Gaulish | ||
c. 400 BC | Oscan | ||
3rd century BC | Volscian | Tabula Veliterna[37] | |
c. 260 BC | Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrit) | Edicts of Ashoka[38][39] | Pottery inscriptions from Anuradhapura have been dated c. 400 BC.[40][41] |
c. 200 BC | Tamil | cave inscriptions and potsherds in Tamil Nadu[42][43] | |
2nd century BC | Meroitic | graffiti on the temple of Amun at Dukki Gel, near Kerma[44] | |
c. 100 BC | Celtiberian | Botorrita plaques | |
1st century BC | Parthian | ostraca at Nisa and Qumis[45] |
First millennium AD
From Late Antiquity, we have for the first time languages with earliest records in manuscript tradition (as opposed to epigraphy). Thus, Old Armenian is first attested in the Armenian Bible translation.
The Vimose inscriptions (2nd and 3rd centuries) in the Elder Futhark runic alphabet appear to record Proto-Norse names. Some scholars interpret the Negau helmet inscription (c. 100 BC) as a Germanic fragment.
Date | Language | Attestation | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
c. 150 | Bactrian | Rabatak inscription | |
c. 150 | Sanskrit | Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman I[46] | |
292 | Mayan | Stela 29 from Tikal[47] | A brief undeciphered inscription at San Bartolo is dated to the 3rd century BC.[48] |
312–313 | Sogdian | Ancient Letters, found near Dunhuang[49] | |
328 | Arabic | Namara inscription | |
c. 350 | Ge'ez | inscriptions of Ezana of Aksum[50] | |
c. 350 | Cham | Đông Yên Châu inscription found near Tra Kiêu[51] | |
4th century | Gothic | Gothic Bible, translated by Wulfila[52] | A few problematic Gothic runic inscriptions may date to the early 4th century. |
c. 430 | Georgian | Bir El Qutt inscriptions[53] | |
c. 450 | Kannada | Halmidi inscription[54] | Kavirajamarga (c. 850) is the oldest literary work.[54] |
late 5th century | Armenian | Inscription at the Tekor Basilica[55] | Saint Mesrob Mashtots is traditionally held to have translated an Armenian Bible in 434. |
c. 510 | Old Dutch | Formula for freeing a serf in the Malbergse Glossen on the Salic law[56] | A word in the mid-5th century Bergakker inscription yields the oldest evidence of Dutch morphology, but there is no consensus on the interpretation of the rest of the text.[56] |
6th century | Tocharian | manuscripts from Kucha, Karasahr and Dunhuang[57] | Some Tocharian names and words have been found in Prakrit documents from Krorän dated c. 300 AD. |
second half of 6th century | Old High German | Pforzen buckle[58] | |
c. 575 | Telugu | Erragudipadu inscription[54] | Telugu place names are found in Prakrit inscriptions from the 2nd century AD.[54] |
591 | Korean | Sinseong (新城) Stele in Namsan (Gyeongju)[59][60] | |
611 | Khmer | Angkor Borei inscription | |
c. 650 | Tibetan | Tibetan Annals | |
c. 650–700 | Old Udi | Sinai palimpsest M13 | |
c. 683 | Old Malay | Kedukan Bukit Inscription | |
7th century | Beja | ostracon from Saqqara[61][62] | |
late 7th century | Pyu | Hpayahtaung funeral urn inscription of kings of Sri Ksetra | |
c. 700 | Old English | runic inscription on the Franks Casket | The Undley bracteate (5th century) and West Heslerton brooch (c. 650) have fragmentary runic inscriptions. |
711–712 | Japanese | poems in the Kojiki | |
732 | Old Turkic | Orkhon inscriptions | |
c. 750 | Old Irish | Würzburg glosses[63] | Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century consist of personal names, patronymics and/or clan names.[64][65] |
c. 750 | Persian | ||
c. 750–900 | Old Frisian | Westeremden yew-stick | |
769 | Old Hindi | Dohakosh by Saraha | |
late 8th century | Breton | Praecepta medica (Leyden, Codex Vossianus Lat. F. 96 A)[66] | A botanical manuscript in Latin and Breton |
c. 800 | Old Norse | runic inscriptions | |
804 | Javanese | initial part of the Sukabumi inscription[67] | |
9th century | Malayalam | Rajasekhara inscription at Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple[43] | Ramacaritam (12th century) is the oldest literary work.[43] |
9th century | Welsh | Cadfan Stone (Tywyn 2)[68] | |
c. 842 | Old French | Oaths of Strasbourg | |
c. 862 | Old Church Slavonic | religious literature translated by Cyril and Methodius | Developed in the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School, the two major cultural centres of the Bulgarian Empire. |
882 | Balinese | dated royal inscription[69] | |
c. 900 | Old Occitan | Tomida femina | |
c. 959–974 | Leonese | Nodicia de Kesos | |
c. 960–963 | Italian | Placiti Cassinesi[70] | The Veronese Riddle (c. 800) is considered a mixture of Italian and Latin.[71] |
986 | Khitan | Memorial for Yelü Yanning | |
late 10th century | Marathi | inscription on Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola[72] |
1000–1500 AD
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Date | Language | Attestation | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
972–1093 | Slovene | Freising manuscripts | |
c. 1000 | Old East Slavic | Novgorod Codex[73] | |
c. 1000 | Basque, Aragonese and Spanish | Glosas Emilianenses | Alleged finds of c. 300 Basque inscriptions at Iruña-Veleia have been exposed as a forgery. |
c. 1028 | Catalan | Jurament Feudal[74] | |
1050 | Middle High German | by convention | |
1066 | Middle English | by convention | |
11th century | Mozarabic | kharjas appended to Arabic and Hebrew poems[75] | Isolated words are found in glossaries from the 8th century.[76] |
c. 1100 | Croatian | Baška tablet | |
c. 1100 | Danish | by convention | |
c. 1100 | Ossetian | Zelančuk inscription[77] | |
c. 1100 | Swedish | by convention; the Rök Stone (c. 9th century) is often cited as the beginning of Swedish literature | |
c. 1106 | Irish | Lebor na hUidre ("Book of the Dun Cow") | |
1113 | Burmese | Myazedi inscription | |
1114 | Newari | palm-leaf manuscript from Uku Bahah[78] | |
1160–1170 | Middle Dutch | Het Leven van Sint Servaes ("Life of Saint Servatius") by Heinrich von Veldeke[79] | |
c. 1175 | Galician-Portuguese | Pacto dos Irmãos Pais and A Notícia de Fiadores[80] | The will of Afonso II of Portugal, dated 1214, is often cited as the first document written in Portuguese. |
1186–1190 | Serbian | Miroslav Gospel | |
1189 | Bosnian | Charter of Ban Kulin | |
1192 | Old Hungarian | Funeral Sermon and Prayer | There are isolated fragments in earlier charters such as the charter of Veszprém (c. 1000) and the charter of Tihany (1055). |
c. 1200 | Finnic | Birch bark letter no. 292 | Finnish proper: 1543, Abckiria. |
c. 1200–1230 | Czech | founding charter of the Litoměřice chapter | |
1224–1225 | Mongolian | Genghis stone | |
early 13th century | Punjabi | poetry of Fariduddin Ganjshakar | |
early 13th century | Cornish | prophesy in the cartulary of Glasney College[81] | A 9th century gloss in De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius: ud rocashaas is controversially interpreted.[82][83] |
c. 1250 | Kashmiri | Mahanayakaprakash ("Light of the supreme lord") by Shitikantha[84] | |
c. 1270 | Old Polish | Book of Henryków | |
1272 | Yiddish | blessing in the Worms mahzor | |
c. 1274 | Western Lombard | Libro de le tre scritture, by Bonvesin de la Riva | |
c. 1292 | Thai | Ramkhamhaeng stele | Some scholars argue that the stele is a forgery. |
13th century | Tigrinya | a text of laws found in Logosarda | |
c. 1300 | Old Norwegian | ||
c. 1300 | Batak | ||
c. 1350 | Oghuz Turkic (including Azeri and Ottoman Turkish) | Imadaddin Nasimi | |
c. 1369 | Old Prussian | Basel Epigram[85] | |
1372 | Komi | Abur inscriptions | |
c. 1440 | Vietnamese | Quốc âm thi tập[86] | Isolated names in Chữ nôm date from the early 13th century. |
1462 | Albanian | Formula e Pagëzimit, a baptismal formula in a letter of Archbishop Pal Engjëll | Some scholars interpret a few lines in the Bellifortis text (1405) as Albanian.[87] |
c. 1470 | Maltese | Il Cantilena | |
1470s | Early Modern English | by convention | |
1485 | Yi | bronze bell inscription in Dafang County, Guizhou[88] | |
15th century | Tulu | inscriptions in an adaptation of Malayam script[89] |
After 1500
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Date | Language | Attestation | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
c. 1503 | Lithuanian | Hand-written Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary and Creed[90] | Katekizmas (1547) by Martynas Mažvydas was the first printed book in Lithuanian. |
1521 | Romanian | Neacșu's Letter | The Cyrillic orthographic manual of Constantin Kostentschi from 1420 documents earlier written usage.[91] Four 16th century documents, namely Codicele Voronetean, Psaltirea Scheiana, Psaltirea Hurmuzachi and Psaltirea Voroneteana, are arguably copies of 15th century originals.[92] |
1530 | Latvian | Nicholas Ramm's translation of a hymn | |
1535 | Estonian | Wanradt-Koell catechism | |
1536 | Modern Portuguese | Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa by Fernão de Oliveira. | by convention.[93] |
1543 | Modern Finnish | Abckiria by Mikael Agricola. | |
1550 | Classical Nahuatl | Doctrina cristiana en lengua española y mexicana[94] | The Breve y mas compendiosa doctrina cristiana en lengua mexicana y castellana (1539) was possibly the first printed book in the New World. No copies are known to exist today.[94] |
c. 1550 | Standard Dutch | Statenbijbel | The Statenbijbel is commonly accepted to be the start of Standard Dutch, but various experiments were performed around 1550 in Flanders and Brabant. Although none proved to be lasting they did create a semi-standard and many formed the base for the Statenbijbel. |
1554 | Wastek | A grammar by Andrés de Olmos | |
1557 | Kikongo | A catechism[95] | |
1561 | Old Ukrainian | Peresopnytsia Gospel | |
1593 | Tagalog | Doctrina Cristiana | |
1600 | Buginese | ||
c. 1610 | Manx | Book of Common Prayer[96] | |
1639 | Guarani | Tesoro de la lengua guaraní by Antonio Ruíz de Montoya | |
c. 1650 | Ubykh, Abkhaz, Adyghe and Mingrelian | Travel Book of Evliya Çelebi[97] | |
1651 | Pashto | copy of Xayru 'l-bayān in the library of the University of Tübingen[98] | The Pata Khazana, purporting to date from the 8th century, is considered by most scholars to be a forgery.[98] |
1693 | Tunisian Arabic | Copy of a Tunisian poem written by Sheykh Hassan el-Karray [99] | Before 1700, lyrics of songs were not written in Tunisian Arabic but in Classical Arabic. Even though Tunisian Arabic existed before, it was only used orally.[99] |
c. 1695 | Seri | Grammar and vocabulary compiled by Adamo Gilg | No longer known to exist.[100] |
1728 | Swahili | Utendi wa Tambuka | |
1736 | Greenlandic | Grönländische Grammatica by Paul Egede[101] | A poor-quality wordlist was recorded by John Davis in 1586.[102] |
1743 | Chinese Pidgin English | sentence recorded in Macau by George Anson[103] | |
1800 | Inuktitut | "Eskimo Grammar" by Moravian missionaries[101] | A list of 17 words was recorded in 1576 by Christopher Hall, an assistant to Martin Frobisher.[101][102] |
1806 | Tswana | Heinrich Lictenstein – Upon the Language of the Beetjuana | First complete Bible translation in 1857 by Robert Moffat |
1819 | Cherokee | Sequoyah's Cherokee syllabary | |
1820 | Maori | Grammar by Thomas Kendall and Samuel Lee | Kendal began compiling wordlists in 1814. |
1820 | Aleut | Description by Rasmus Rask | A short word list was collected by James King in 1778. |
1823 | Xhosa | John Bennie's Xhosa reading sheet | Complete Bible translation 1859 |
c. 1833 | Vai | Vai syllabary created by Momolu Duwalu Bukele. | |
1833 | Sotho | Reduced to writing by French missionaries Casalis and Arbousset | First grammar book 1841 and complete Bible translation 1881 |
1837 | Zulu | First written publication Incwadi Yokuqala Yabafundayo | First grammar book 1859 and complete Bible translation 1883 |
1844 | Afrikaans | Letters by Louis Henri Meurant (published in Eastern Cape newspaper – South Africa) | Followed by Muslim texts written in Afrikaans using Arabic alphabet in 1856. Spelling rules published in 1874. Complete Bible published 1933. |
1851 | Sakha (Yakut) | Über die Sprache der Jakuten, a grammar by Otto von Böhtlingk | Wordlists were included in Noord en Oost Tartarije (1692) by Nicolaas Witsen and Das Nord-und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (1730) by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg. |
1856 | Gamilaraay | Articles by William Ridley[104] | Basic vocabulary collected by Thomas Mitchell in 1832. |
1872 | Venda | Reduced to writing by the Berlin Missionaries | First complete Bible translation 1936 |
1882 | Mirandese | O dialecto mirandez by José Leite de Vasconcelos[105] | The same author also published the first book written in Mirandese: Flores mirandezas (1884)[106] |
1885 | Carrier | Barkerville Jail Text, written in pencil on a board in the then recently created Carrier syllabics | Although the first known text by native speakers dates to 1885, the first record of the language is a list of words recorded in 1793 by Alexander MacKenzie. |
1885 | Motu | Grammar by W.G. Lawes | |
1891 | Galela | grammatical sketch by M.J. van Baarda[107] | |
1893 | Oromo | Translation of the New Testament by Onesimos Nesib, assisted by Aster Ganno | |
1901 | Guugu Yimithirr | Description by Walter Roth | Several words were recorded by James Cook's crew in 1770. |
1903 | Lingala | ||
c. 1940 | Kamoro | materials by Peter Drabbe[107] | A Kamoro wordlist recorded in 1828 by Modera and Müller, passengers on a Dutch ship, is the oldest record of any of the Papuan languages.[107][108] |
1968 | Southern Ndebele | Small booklet published with praises of their kings and a little history | Translation of the New Testament of the Bible completed in 1986 – translation of Old Testament ongoing |
1982 | Gooniyandi | survey by William McGregor[109] |
By family
Attestation by major language family:
- Afro-Asiatic: since about the 27th century BC
- Hurro-Urartian: c. 21st century BC
- Indo-European: since about the 17th century BC
- 17th century BC: Anatolian: Hittite
- 15th–14th century BC: Greek
- 7th century BC: Italic
- 6th century BC: Celtic
- 6th century BC: Indo-Iranian
- 4th century AD: Germanic
- 9th century AD: Balto-Slavic
- Sino-Tibetan: c. 1200 BC
- roughly 1200 BC: Old Chinese
- 7th century AD: Tibeto-Burman (Tibetan)
- Dravidian: c. 200 BC
- Mayan: 3rd century AD
- Austronesian: 4th century AD
- South Caucasian: 5th century (Georgian)
- Northeast Caucasian: 7th century (Udi)
- Austroasiatic: 7th century (Khmer)
- Turkic: 8th century (Old Turkic)
- Japonic: 8th century
- Nilo-Saharan: 8th century (Old Nubian)
- Basque: 10th century
- Uralic: 11th century
- Mongolic: 13th century (apparently related Khitan language: 10th century)
- Tai–Kadai: 13th century
- Uto-Aztecan: 16th century
- Quechuan: 16th century
- Niger–Congo (Bantu): 16th century
- Northwest Caucasian: 17th century (Abkhaz, Adyghe, Ubykh)
- Indigenous Australian languages: 19th century
- Iroquoian: 19th century
- Hmong-Mien: 20th century
- Papuan languages: 20th century
Constructed languages
Date | Language | Attestation | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
1879 | Volapük | created by Johann Martin Schleyer | |
1887 | Esperanto | Unua Libro | created by L. L. Zamenhof |
1907 | Ido | based on Esperanto | |
1917 | Quenya | created by J. R. R. Tolkien | |
1928 | Novial | created by Otto Jespersen | |
1935 | Sona | Sona, an auxiliary neutral language | created by Kenneth Searight |
1943 | Interglossa | Later became Glosa | created by Lancelot Hogben |
1951 | Interlingua | Interlingua-English Dictionary | created by the International Auxiliary Language Association |
1955 | Loglan | created by James Cooke Brown | |
1985 | Klingon | created by Marc Okrand | |
1987 | Lojban | based on Loglan, created by the Logical Language Group | |
2005–6 | Na'vi | created by Dr. Paul Frommer and James Cameron | |
2009 | Dothraki | created by George R. R. Martin and David J. Peterson for Game of Thrones |
See also
References
- Notes
- ^ Jamison, Stephanie W. (2008). "Sanskrit". In Woodward, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–32. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.
- ^ Hale, Mark (2008). "Avestan". In Woodward, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. pp. 101–122. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.
- ^ Woodard (2008), p. 2.
- ^ "Linear A – Undeciphered Writing System of the Minoans". Archaeology.about.com. 2013-07-13. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
- ^ Woodard (2008), p. 3.
- ^ Allen, James P. (2003). The Ancient Egyptian Language. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-66467-8.
- ^ Hayes, John (1990). A Manual of Sumerian: Grammar and Texts. Malibu, CA.: UNDENA. pp. 268–269. ISBN 0-89003-197-5.
- ^ Woods (2010), p. 87.
- ^ Hasselbach, Rebecca (2005). Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 8. ISBN 978-3-447-05172-9.
- ^ Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.), Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 31–71.
- ^ Clay, Albert T. (2003). Atrahasis: An Ancient Hebrew Deluge Story. Book Tree. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-58509-228-4.
- ^ Huehnergard, John; Woods, Christopher (2008). "Akkadian and Eblaite". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press. pp. 83–145. ISBN 978-0-521-68497-2.
- ^ Stolper, Matthew W. (2008). "Elamite". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt and Aksum. Cambridge University Press. pp. 47–82. ISBN 978-0-521-68497-2.
- ^ Potts, D.T. (1999). The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-521-56496-0.
- ^ van Soldt, Wilfred H. (2010). "The adaptation of Cuneiform script to foreign languages". In De Voogt, Alexander J.; Finkel, Irving L. (eds.). The Idea of Writing: Play and Complexity. BRILL. pp. 117–128. ISBN 978-90-04-17446-7.
- ^ Watkins, Calvert (2008). "Hittite". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–30. ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5.
- ^ Melchert, H. Craig (2008). "Palaic". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge University Press. pp. 40–45. ISBN 978-0-521-68496-5.
- ^ Shelmerdine, Cynthia. c.be/archgrec/IMG/aegeum/aegaeum18(pdf)/34%20Shelmerdine.pdf "Where Do We Go From Here? And How Can the Linear B Tablets Help Us Get There?" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-03-27.
{{cite web}}
: Check|url=
value (help) - ^ Olivier (1986), pp. 377f.
- ^ "Clay tablets inscribed with records in Linear B script". British Museum. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
- ^ Bennett, Emmett L. (1996). "Aegean scripts". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–133. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
- ^ a b c d Baldi (2002), p. 30.
- ^ Pardee, Dennis (2008). "Ugaritic". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 5–35. ISBN 978-0-521-68498-9.
- ^ Bagley (1999), pp. 181–182.
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