Overseas Chinese: Difference between revisions
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In [[Cambodia]], between 1965 to 1993, people with Chinese names were prevented from finding governmental employ, leading to a large number of people changing their names to a local, Cambodian name. [[Indonesia]], and [[Myanmar]] were among the countries that do not allow birth names to be registered in foreign languages, including Chinese. But since 2003, the [[Indonesia]]n government has allowed overseas Chinese to use their Chinese name or using their Chinese family name on their birth certificate. |
In [[Cambodia]], between 1965 to 1993, people with Chinese names were prevented from finding governmental employ, leading to a large number of people changing their names to a local, Cambodian name. [[Indonesia]], and [[Myanmar]] were among the countries that do not allow birth names to be registered in foreign languages, including Chinese. But since 2003, the [[Indonesia]]n government has allowed overseas Chinese to use their Chinese name or using their Chinese family name on their birth certificate. |
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In [[Vietnam]], Chinese names are pronounced with [[Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary|Sino-Vietnamese readings]]. For example, the name of the Chinese president, {{lang|zh-cn|胡锦涛}} ([[pinyin]]: [[Hu Jintao|Hú Jǐntāo]]), would be transcribed as "Hồ Cẩm Đào". In Western countries, the overseas Chinese generally use romanised versions of their Chinese names, and the use of local first names is also common. |
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On the other hand, in [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and [[Brunei]], overseas Chinese have maintained a distinct communal identity, though the rate and state of being assimilated to the local, in this case a multicultural society, is currently on par with that of other Chinese communities (see [[Peranakan]]). |
On the other hand, in [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and [[Brunei]], overseas Chinese have maintained a distinct communal identity, though the rate and state of being assimilated to the local, in this case a multicultural society, is currently on par with that of other Chinese communities (see [[Peranakan]]). |
Revision as of 07:38, 22 May 2013
Template:Overseas Chinese infobox Template:Contains Chinese text Overseas Chinese (traditional Chinese: 海外華人; simplified Chinese: 海外华人; pinyin: Hǎiwài Huárén) are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the People's Republic of China and Republic of China (Taiwan). People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese. Overseas Chinese can be of the Han Chinese ethnic majority, or from any of the other ethnic groups in China.[1]
A person may self-identify or be identified by others as an overseas Chinese person based upon any of several criteria, such as a direct lineal descent from groups originating from China, retention of Chinese cultural practices, self-identity with Chinese culture, or acknowledgement of a Chinese origin.[citation needed]
Terminology
The Chinese language has various terms equivalent to the English "Overseas Chinese" which refers to Chinese citizens residing in countries other than China: Huáqiáo (simplified Chinese: 华侨; traditional Chinese: 華僑; pinyin: Huáqiáo) or Hoan-kheh in Hokkien (Chinese: 番客). The term haigui (海归) refers to returned Overseas Chinese and guīqiáo qiáojuàn (归侨侨眷) to their returning relatives.[1]
Huáyì (simplified Chinese: 华裔; traditional Chinese: 華裔; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Hôa-è) refers to ethnic Chinese residing outside of China.[2] Another often-used term is 海外华人 (Hǎiwài Huárén), a more literal translation of Overseas Chinese; it is often used by the PRC government to refer to people of Chinese ethnicities who live outside the PRC, regardless of citizenship.
Overseas Chinese who are ethnically Han Chinese, such as Cantonese, Hokkien, or Hakka refer to Overseas Chinese as 唐人 (Tángrén), pronounced tòhng yàn in Cantonese, Tn̂g-lâng in Hokkien, and tong nyin in Hakka. Literally, it means Tang people, a reference to Tang dynasty China when it was ruling China proper. It should be noted that this term is commonly used by the Cantonese, Hakka and Hokkien as a colloquial reference to the Chinese people, and has little relevance to the ancient dynasty.
The term shǎoshù mínzú (少数民族) is added to the various terms for Overseas Chinese to indicate those in the diaspora who would be considered ethnic minorities in China. The terms shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén; shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén; and shǎoshù mínzú hǎiwài qiáobāo (少数民族海外侨胞) are all in usage. The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the PRC does not distinguish between Han and ethnic minority populations for official policy purposes.[1] For example, members of the Tibetan diaspora may travel to China on passes granted to certain Overseas Chinese.[3] Various estimates of the Overseas Chinese minority population include 3.1 million (1993),[4] 3.4 million (2004),[5] 5.7 million (2001, 2010),[6][7] or approximately one tenth of all overseas Chinese (2006, 2011).[8][9] Cross-border ethnic groups (跨境民族, kuàjìng mínzú) are not considered Overseas Chinese minorities unless they left China after the establishment of an independent state on China's border.[1]
History
The Chinese people have a long history of migrating overseas. One of the migrations dates back to the Ming dynasty when Zheng He (1371–1435) became the envoy of Ming. He sent people - many of them Cantonese and Hokkien - to explore and trade in the South China Sea and in the Indian Ocean.
Waves of immigration
Different waves of immigration led to subgroups among overseas Chinese such as the new and old immigrants in Southeast Asia, North America, Oceania, the Caribbean, Latin America, South Africa, and Russia.
In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at its height and the great Chinese diaspora began. Many colonies lacked a large pool of laborers. Meanwhile, in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong in China, there was a surge in emigration as a result of the poverty and ruin caused by the Taiping rebellion.[10] The Qing Empire was forced to allow its subjects to work overseas under colonial powers. Many Hokkien chose to work in Southeast Asia (where they had earlier links starting from the Ming era), as did the Cantonese. The city of Taishan in Guangdong province was the source for many of the economic migrants. For the countries in North America and Australasia, great numbers of laborers were needed in the dangerous tasks of gold mining and railway construction. Widespread famine in Guangdong impelled many Cantonese to work in these countries to improve the living conditions of their relatives. Some overseas Chinese were sold[by whom?] to South America during the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–1867) in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong. After World War II many people from the New Territories in Hong Kong emigrated to the UK (mainly England) and to the Netherlands to earn a better living.
From the mid-19th century onward, emigration has been directed primarily to Western countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, and the nations of Western Europe; as well as to Peru where they are called tusán, Panama, and to a lesser extent to Mexico. Many of these emigrants who entered Western countries were themselves overseas Chinese, particularly from the 1950s to the 1980s, a period during which the PRC placed severe restrictions on the movement of its citizens. In 1984, Britain agreed to transfer the sovereignty of Hong Kong to the PRC; this triggered another wave of migration to the United Kingdom (mainly England), Australia, Canada, USA, Latin America and other parts of the world. The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 further accelerated the migration. The wave calmed after Hong Kong's transfer of sovereignty in 1997. In addition, many citizens of Hong Kong hold citizenships or have current visas in other countries so if the need arises, they can leave Hong Kong at short notice. In fact, after the Tiananmen Square incident, the lines for immigration visas increased at every consulate in Hong Kong. More recent Chinese presences have developed in Europe, where they number nearly a million, and in Russia, they number over 600,000, concentrated in Russian Far East. Chinese who emigrated to Vietnam beginning in the 18th century are referred to as Hoa.
It is estimated that only 26,700 of the old Chinese community now remain in South Korea.[11] However, in recent years[when?], immigration from People's Republic of China has increased; 624,994 persons of Chinese nationality have immigrated to South Korea, including 443,566 of ethnic Korean descent.[12]
In recent years, the People's Republic of China has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations. As of August 2007, there were an estimated 750,000 Chinese nationals working or living for extended periods in different African countries.[13] An estimated 200,000 ethnic Chinese live in South Africa.[14] In a 2007 New York Times article, Chad Chamber of Commerce Director estimated an "influx of at least 40,000 Chinese in coming years" to Chad. As of 2006[update] as many as 40,000 Chinese lived in Namibia,[15] an estimated 80,000 Chinese in Zambia[16] and 50,000 Chinese in Nigeria.[17] As many as 100,000 Chinese live and work across Angola.[18] As of 2009[update] 35,000 Chinese migrant workers lived in Algeria.[19]
Russia’s main Pacific port and naval base of Vladivostok, once closed to foreigners, as of 2010[update] bristles with Chinese markets, restaurants and trade houses.[20] Experts predict that the Chinese diaspora in Russia will increase to at least 10 million by 2010 and Chinese may become the dominant ethnic group in the Russian Far East region 20 to 30 years from now.[21][22][23] Other experts discount such stories estimating the numbers of Chinese in Russia at less than half a million, most of whom are temporary traders.[24]
A growing Chinese community in Germany consists of around 76,000 people as of 2010[update].[25] An estimated 15,000 to 30,000 Chinese live in Austria.[26]
Occupations
The Chinese in Southeast Asian countries have established themselves in commerce and finance.[27] In North America, Europe and Oceania, occupations are diverse and impossible to generalize; ranging from catering to significant ranks in medicine, the arts, and academia.
Overseas Chinese experience
The Chinese usually identify a person by ethnic origin instead of nationality. As long as the person is of Chinese descent, that person is considered Chinese, and if that person lives outside of China, that person is overseas Chinese. The majority of PRC Chinese do not understand the overseas Chinese experience of being a minority, as ethnic Han Chinese comprise approximately 91% of the population.[28]
Discrimination
Overseas Chinese have sometimes experienced hostility and discrimination.
In countries with small Chinese minorities, the economic disparity can be remarkable. For example, in 1998, ethnic Chinese made up just 1% of the population of the Philippines and 3% of the population in Indonesia, but controlled as much as 60% of the Philippines private economy and roughly 70% of the Indonesian private economy.[29] The book World on Fire, describing the Chinese as a "market-dominant minority", notes that "Chinese market dominance and intense resentment amongst the indigenous majority is characteristic of virtually every country in Southeast Asia except Thailand and Singapore".[30]
This asymmetrical economic position has incited anti-Chinese sentiment among the poorer majorities. Sometimes the anti-Chinese attitudes turn violent, such as the May 13 Incident in Malaysia in 1969 and the Jakarta riots of May 1998 in Indonesia, in which more than 2,000 people died, mostly rioters burned to death in a shopping mall.[31] During the colonial era, some genocides killed ten thousands of Chinese.[32][33][34][35][36]
During the Indonesian killings of 1965–66, in which more than 500,000 people died,[37] ethnic Chinese were killed and their properties looted and burned as a result of anti-Chinese racism on the excuse that Dipa "Amat" Aidit had brought the PKI closer to China.[38][39] The anti-Chinese legislation was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998.
It is commonly held that a major point of friction is the apparent tendency of overseas Chinese to segregate themselves into a subculture.[citation needed] For example, the anti-Chinese Kuala Lumpur Racial Riots of 13 May 1969 and Jakarta Riots of May 1998 were believed to have been motivated by these racially-biased perceptions.[40] This analysis has been questioned by some historians, most notably Dr. Kua Kia Soong, the principal of New Era College, who has put forward the controversial argument that the May 13 Incident was a pre-meditated attempt by sections of the ruling Malay elite to incite racial hostility in preparation for a coup.[41] In 2006, rioters damaged shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in Nukuʻalofa.[42] Chinese migrants were evacuated from the riot-torn Solomon Islands.[43]
Ethnic politics can be found to motivate both sides of the debate. In Malaysia, Overseas Chinese tend to support equal and meritocratic treatment on the expectation that they would not be discriminated against in the resulting competition for government contracts, university places, etc., whereas many "Bumiputra" ("native sons") Malays oppose this on the grounds that their group needs such protections in order to retain their patrimony. The question of to what extent ethnic Malays, Chinese, or others are "native" to Malaysia is a sensitive political one. It is currently a taboo for Chinese politicians to raise the issue of Bumiputra protections in parliament, as this would be deemed ethnic incitement.[44]
Many of the overseas Chinese who worked on railways in North America in the 19th century suffered from racial discrimination in Canada and the United States. Although discriminatory laws have been repealed or are no longer enforced today, both countries had at one time introduced statutes that barred Chinese from entering the country, for example the United States Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (repealed 1943) or the Canadian Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 (repealed 1947).
In Australia, Chinese were targeted by a system of discriminatory laws known as the 'White Australia Policy' which was enshrined in the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. The policy was formally abolished in 1973, and in recent years Australians of Chinese background have publicly called for an apology from the Australian Federal Government[45] similar to that given to the 'stolen generations' of indigenous people in 2007 by the then Prime Minister Kevin Rudd.
Assimilation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/East_Timor_hakka_wedding.jpg/220px-East_Timor_hakka_wedding.jpg)
Overseas Chinese vary widely as to their degree of assimilation, their interactions with the surrounding communities (see Chinatown), and their relationship with China.
Thailand has the largest overseas Chinese community and is also the most successful case of full assimilation. For over 400 years, Thai-Chinese have largely intermarried and assimilated with their compatriots. The present Thai monarch, Chakri Dynasty, is founded by King Rama I who himself is partly Chinese. His predecessor, King Taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom, is the son of Chinese immigrant from Guangdong Province and was born with Chinese name. His mother, Lady Nok-iang (Thai: นกเอี้ยง), was Thai (and was later awarded the feudal title of Somdet Krom Phra Phithak Thephamat).
In the Philippines, Chinese migrants from Guangdong, China since the 9th century to the late 1800s largely intermarried with either Filipinos or Spanish colonizers. Their descendants would eventually form the bulk of the Philippine elite and ruling classes. From 1860s until today, most migrants have come from Fujian, China. The Fujianese migrants rarely intermarry - as such, they form the bulk of the "unmixed" Philippine Chinese. Older generations have retained Chinese traditions and the use of Minnan (Hokkien), while the vast majority of younger generations largely use English or Filipino and have largely adopted some facets of both Western and Filipino traditions in the background of their Chinese ancestry and culture.
In Myanmar, the Chinese rarely intermarry (even amongst different Chinese linguistic groups), but have largely adopted the Burmese culture whilst maintaining Chinese cultural affinities.
In Cambodia, between 1965 to 1993, people with Chinese names were prevented from finding governmental employ, leading to a large number of people changing their names to a local, Cambodian name. Indonesia, and Myanmar were among the countries that do not allow birth names to be registered in foreign languages, including Chinese. But since 2003, the Indonesian government has allowed overseas Chinese to use their Chinese name or using their Chinese family name on their birth certificate.
On the other hand, in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, overseas Chinese have maintained a distinct communal identity, though the rate and state of being assimilated to the local, in this case a multicultural society, is currently on par with that of other Chinese communities (see Peranakan).
Language
The usage of Chinese languages by overseas Chinese has been determined by a large number of factors, including their ancestry, their migrant ancestors' "regime of origin", assimilation through generational changes, and official policies of their country of residence. The general trend is - increase of Mandarin-speaking Chinese among the new arrivals, making it the most common language of chinatowns.[46]
Southeast Asia
Within Southeast Asia, the language situation of overseas Chinese varies greatly even amongst neighboring nations.
Singapore
In Singapore, a nation with an ethnic Chinese majority population, Mandarin is recognized as one of its official languages, along with simplified Chinese characters, in contrast to other overseas Chinese communities which almost exclusively used traditional Chinese characters until the 1990s, when nationals of the PRC began to emigrate in substantial numbers and brought with them the simplified Chinese characters. Although ethnic Chinese in Singapore are predominantly of Hokkien descent, the government of Singapore discourages the usage of non-Mandarin Chinese languages through the Speak Mandarin Campaign. The official policy in Singapore also has an impact on neighboring Johor, in southern Peninsular Malaysia, where Mandarin is predominantly spoken among the Chinese communities there. As the Singapore government actively promotes English as the common language of the multiracial society of Singapore, younger Chinese Singaporeans are mostly bilingual in Mandarin and English while the it is mainly the older generation who speak the dialects.
Malaysia
Malaysia is the only country besides China and Taiwan that has a complete Chinese education system, right from primary school to university.[47] Chinese Malaysians speak a wide variety of dialects and Mandarin, their prevalence being concentrated around particular metropolitan centres: the Penang, Klang, Kelantan and Malacca groups are predominantly Hokkien-speaking (Penang has its own version of Hokkien, Kelantan has its own version of Hokkien too); the Kuala Lumpur, Seremban, Kuantan and Ipoh groups are predominantly Cantonese and Hakka-speaking; whereas in East Malaysia (Malaysian Borneo), Hokkien, Teochew, Hakka and Mandarin are widely spoken, except in Sibu, where the Fuzhou dialect is predominant, and in Sandakan, where Cantonese is spoken. Regardless of location, however, younger generations tend to speak Malaysian Mandarin, which is taught in schools. A significant number of Chinese are English-educated, who speak mainly English. Most Chinese Malaysians can speak both Malay, the national language, and English, which is widely used in business and at tertiary level. Cantonese is the lingua franca in Kuala Lumpur and many places as many Chinese can understand it, but may not be able to speak it perfectly.
Indonesia
Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia had, for decades, been subjected to official, and at times draconian, assimilation policies, and as a result majority of them are no longer proficient in Chinese language (particularly ethnic Chinese who lived in Java). Originally, majority of the population emigrated from Fujian and Guangdong province of South China, during Taiping Rebellion era in the 19th century. Some originated hundred of years ago, as result of trade between Ming dynasty China and early colonial era Dutch East Indies. Most of Chinese who lived in Sumatra did not give up some of the dialects. Most of the ethnic Chinese in Medan, the capital of North Sumatra, are still able to speak creole Hokkien within their community. This is due to the number of generations that have lived in Indonesia and their exposure to cultural assimilation. Most of the ethnic Chinese who live in Java have a long line (10 generations) of forefathers before them, where the ethnic Chinese who live in Sumatra have a relatively short generation of forefathers (4 or 5 generations). There is also a small population of Hakka Chinese in Indonesia, most notably in Bangka Belitung province, Pontianak and Singkawang where they form a significant part of the local population, while in the areas from Pontianak to Kendawangan on the southern tip of West Kalimantan are populated by Teochew speakers much like Bangkok, Thailand.[48] As to their identity, Chinese Indonesians are more Indonesians compared to Chinese.
Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia made up of 4.7% of the country population (as of 2011 census data), and is collectively considered as one of the wealthiest group of overseas Chinese in the world, with many of their private companies currently debut on the world stage. However, they have been glass-walled into going for any major political position in the country. Younger generation of Indonesian Chinese speaks fluent Bahasa Indonesia and English.
Thailand
Thailand is home to the largest and most integrated Overseas Chinese community. As already said above, the present Thai monarch, Chakri Dynasty, was founded by King Rama I, who himself was partly Chinese. His predecessor, King Taksin of Thonburi Dynasty, was the son of Chinese immigrants from Guangdong Province and was born with a Chinese name. The majority of Prime Ministers in Thailand are of Chinese descent. Most ethnic Chinese in Thailand live in cities such as Bangkok, Chiang Mai, Phuket, Hat Yai and Nakhon Sawan. A large majority of them belong to the Teochew dialect group of Han Chinese. A small number of Chinese people, mainly belonging to the Yunnanese dialect group, also live in the northern part of Thailand which is in close proximity to their homeland in Yunnan province of China. Charoen Pokphand Group, founded by Thai-Chinese Chearavanont family, is currently the single largest foreign investors in China.[49]
Vietnam
There is some controversy about the size of the Chinese minority in Vietnam: official figures tend to float around the 1 million figure (1.1% of total population), but outside sources tend to suggest a higher number. Not all Chinese (known as Hoa) are officially recognized by the government of Vietnam: the Hoa category excludes the San Diu (mountain Chinese) and the Ngai. A large number of Chinese people live in Saigon city and most of them today speak Cantonese, though there is also a large group who speak Teochew, tracing their ancestral homeland to the Guangdong province in China, from where their ancestors came around the 18th century.[50]
Cambodia
Chinese are a visible ethnic group of Cambodia and constitute around 7% of the population.[51] Chinese ethnics can be seen in all towns and many towns are exclusive to ethnic Chinese. Most Chinese Cambodians belong to the Hokkien and Teochew dialect groups. Many Khmer people are taught Mandarin in school alongside many Sino-Khmers and ethnic Vietnamese people.[52]
Laos
Laos is one of South-East Asia’s most ethnically diverse countries: a somewhat surprising situation given the relatively small size and population of around 6 million, but probably due to its location, mountainous terrain and tropical climate. There are also Chinese minorities in Laos, though their exact number is difficult to ascertain: Chinese presence goes back centuries, tending to be concentrated in the cities of Vientiane and Savannakhet.[53]
Myanmar
Although the Burmese Chinese (or Chinese Burmese) officially make up three percent of the population, the actual figure is believed to be much higher. Among the under-counted Chinese populations are: those of mixed background;[54] those that have registered themselves as ethnic Bamar to escape discrimination; illegal Chinese immigrants that have flooded Upper Burma since the 1990s (up to 2 million by some estimates[55]) but are not counted due to the lack of reliable census taking.[56] The Burmese Chinese dominate the Burmese economy today.[57] They also have a very large presence in Burmese higher education, and make up a high percentage of the educated class in Burma. Most Burmese Chinese speak Burmese as their mother tongue. Those with higher education also speak Mandarin and/or English. The use of Chinese dialects still prevails. Hokkien (a dialect of Min Nan) is mostly used in Yangon as well as in Lower Burma, while Taishanese (a Yue dialect akin to Cantonese) and Yunnanese Mandarin are well preserved in Upper Burma.
Brunei
A variety of Chinese dialects are spoken in Brunei. Mandarin and Hokkien are the most commonly spoken dialects in the country.
Philippines
Chinese Filipinos officially comprise 1.5% of the country's population, although unofficial estimates suggest that around 5-10% of the Philippine population may actually be Chinese or are Chinese Mestizos.
Most Chinese Filipinos are trilingual, speaking a Chinese, English, and a Philippine language, most often, Tagalog or Cebuano. Older Chinese Filipinos generally prefer to use Chinese, whereas those younger, especially those younger than 40, prefer to use either English or a Philippine language, a result of the prohibition of Chinese Language education enacted during the dictatorship of President Marcos (1972-1986).
The most widely spoken Chinese dialect is Hokkien (there is a native form of Hokkien called Lan-nang-oe). Hokkien is used at home, informally in schools, and in business among Chinese Filipinos. The Hokkien spoken in Xiamen (Amoy), Quanzhou, and Zhangzhou are the most common forms of Hokkien in the Philippines. Other Chinese dialects such as Cantonese, Shanghainese, and Teochew are also spoken, albeit by a very tiny and decreasing population, because of intermarriage with the more dominant Hokkien-speaking people, and because Hokkien is the preferred Chinese variant in the Philippines.
Mandarin is still taught at all Chinese schools as the "Standard Chinese", although most Chinese Filipinos do not speak it at home and do not attain the same level of fluency as those of Chinese descent in China, Taiwan, and Singapore.
Due to extensive albeit informal contacts with the Ministry of Education of the Taiwan (ROC) during 1950-1990, the traditional Chinese script as well as the bopomofo are still used, although these are gradually being eased out in favor of simplified Chinese characters and pinyin starting 2005, with Chinese Language textbooks increasingly imported from both China and Singapore.
As part of a recent trend, partly due to increased contacts with other Overseas Chinese in Hong Kong and Singapore, more Chinese Filipino families are now opting to use English as their first language at home. There is also a trend among some young Chinese Filipinos to relearn Hokkien, a result of increasing pride in being "ethnic Chinese" and the popularity of Taiwanese films and shows, which is associated with the rise of China in the 21st century.
Despite the perceived widespread assimilation of the Chinese Filipinos into the general Philippine population, most still form part of a "Tsinoy" community where Chinese culture is celebrated and practiced. Despite the fact that not all Chinese Filipinos can fluently speak Hokkien or any other Chinese variant, most can still understand at least some Hokkien.
On the other hand, most Chinese Mestizos (called chhut-si-ia in Hokkien), or those who are of mixed Chinese and Filipino, Spanish, and/or American ancestry, tend to downplay their Chinese roots and invariably consider themselves Filipino. Most Chinese Mestizos speak Tagalog or English.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Brooklyn_Chinatown.png/250px-Brooklyn_Chinatown.png)
North America
Many overseas Chinese populations in North America speak some variety of Chinese. In the United States and Canada, Chinese is the third most spoken language.[63][64] Cantonese has historically been the most prevalent variety due to immigrants being mostly from southern China from the 19th century up through the 1980s.[64][65] However, Mandarin is becoming increasingly more prevalent due to the opening up of the PRC.[65]
In New York City at least, although Mandarin is spoken as a native language among only ten percent of Chinese speakers, it is used as a secondary dialect among the greatest number of them and is on its way to replace Cantonese as their lingua franca.[66] Although Min Chinese is spoken natively by a third of the Chinese population there, it is not used as a lingua franca because speakers of other dialect groups do not learn Min.[66]
In Richmond (part of the Greater Vancouver metropolitan area in Canada), 44% of the population is Chinese.[67] Chinese words can be seen everywhere from local banks to grocery stores. In the broader Vancouver Census Metropolitan Area, 18% of the population is Chinese. Similarly in Toronto, which is the largest city in Canada, Chinese people make up 11.4% of the local population with the higher percentages of between 20-50% in the suburbs of Markham, Richmond Hill and within the city's east end, Scarborough.[68] Cantonese and Mandarin are the most popular Chinese languages.
Economic growth in the People's Republic of China has given mainland Chinese more opportunities to emigrate. A 2011 survey showed that 60% of Chinese millionaires plan to emigrate,[69] mostly to the USA or Canada. The EB-5 Investment Visa allows many powerful Chinese to seek U.S. citizenship, and recent reports show that 75% of applicants for this visa in 2011 were Chinese.[70] Chinese multimillionaires benefited most from the EB-5 Immigrant Investor Program in the U.S. Now, as long as one has at least US$500,000 to invest in projects listed by United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), where it is possible to get an EB-5 green card that comes with permanent U.S. residency rights, but only in states specified by the pilot project.[71]
Relationship with China
Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China maintain highly complex relationships with overseas Chinese populations. Both maintain cabinet level ministries to deal with overseas Chinese affairs, and many local governments within the PRC have overseas Chinese bureaus. Both the PRC and ROC have some legislative representation for overseas Chinese. In the case of the PRC, some seats in the National People's Congress are allocated for returned overseas Chinese. In the ROC's Legislative Yuan, there used to be eight seats allocated for overseas Chinese. These seats were apportioned to the political parties based on their vote totals in the ROC, and then the parties assigned the seats to overseas Chinese party loyalists. Now, political parties in the ROC are still allowed to assign overseas Chinese into the Legislative Yuan, but they are not required to. Most of these members elected to the Legislative Yuan hold dual citizenship, but must renounce their foreign citizenship before being sworn in.
Overseas Chinese have sometimes played an important role in Chinese politics. Most of the funding for the Chinese revolution of 1911 came from overseas Chinese.
During the 1950s and 1960s, the ROC tended to seek the support of overseas Chinese communities through branches of the Kuomintang based on Sun Yat-sen's use of expatriate Chinese communities to raise money for his revolution. During this period, the People's Republic of China tended to view overseas Chinese with suspicion as possible capitalist infiltrators and tended to value relationships with southeast Asian nations as more important than gaining support of overseas Chinese, and in the Bandung declaration explicitly stated that overseas Chinese owed primary loyalty to their home nation. On the other hand, overseas Chinese in their home nations were often persecuted for suspected or fabricated ties to "Communist China". This was used as a pretext for the massacres of ethnic Chinese in Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries.
After the Deng Xiaoping reforms, the attitude of the PRC toward overseas Chinese changed dramatically. Rather than being seen with suspicion, they were seen as people who could aid PRC development via their skills and capital. During the 1980s, the PRC actively attempted to court the support of overseas Chinese by among other things, returning properties that had been confiscated after the 1949 revolution. More recently PRC policy has attempted to maintain the support of recently emigrated Chinese, who consist largely of Chinese seeking graduate education in the West. Many overseas Chinese are now investing in People's Republic of China providing financial resources, social and cultural networks, contacts and opportunities. However, some distrust between Chinese and overseas Chinese still remains.[72][73]
The Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China, which does not recognise dual citizenship, provides for automatic loss of PRC citizenship when a former PRC citizen both settles in another country and acquires foreign citizenship. For children born overseas of a PRC citizen, whether the child receives PRC citizenship at birth depends on whether the PRC parent has settled overseas: "Any person born abroad whose parents are both Chinese nationals or one of whose parents is a Chinese national shall have Chinese nationality. But a person whose parents are both Chinese nationals and have both settled abroad, or one of whose parents is a Chinese national and has settled abroad, and who has acquired foreign nationality at birth shall not have Chinese nationality" (Art 5).[74]
By contrast, the Nationality Law of the Republic of China, which both permits and recognises dual citizenship, considers these persons to be citizens of the ROC.
Returning and re-emigration
With People's Republic of China's growing economic strength and the influence on the world, many overseas Chinese have began to migrate back to China even though many Mainland Chinese millionaires are considering emigrating out of the nation for better opportunities.[75]
With China being the second largest economy in the world, this trend is expected to rise even more in the future as China's vigorous economy is poised to surpass the United States in the upcoming decade. For instance, in the case of Indonesia and Burma, political and ethnic strife has cause a significant number of people of Chinese origins to re-emigrate. Other Southeast Asian countries with large Chinese communities such as Malaysia, the economic rise of People's Republic of China has made it an attractive destination for many Malaysian Chinese to re-emigrate. As the Chinese economy opens up, Malaysian Chinese act as a bridge because many Malaysian Chinese are educated in the United States or Britain but can also understand the Chinese language and culture making it easier for potential entrepreneurial and business to be done between the people among the two countries.[76]
In the Philippines, increasing numbers of Chinese-Filipino entrepreneurs and professionals have flocked to their ancestral homeland to partake of business and employment opportunities opened up by China's poised emergence as a global economic superpower.[77]
Economic impact
Overseas Chinese are estimated to control 1.5 to 2 trillion USD in liquid assets and have considerable amounts of wealth to stimulate economic power in China.[78][79] Overseas Chinese often send remittances back home to family members to help better them financially and socioeconomically. China ranks second after India of top remittance receiving countries in 2010 with over 51 billion USD sent.[80]
Current numbers
There are over 50 million overseas Chinese.[81][82][83][84] Most overseas Chinese are living in Southeast Asia where they make up a majority of the population of Singapore and significant minority populations in Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, the Philippines, and Vietnam. The overseas populations in those areas arrived between the 16th and 19th centuries mostly from the maritime provinces of Guangdong and Fujian, followed by Hainan. There were incidences of earlier emigration from the 15th centuries in particular to Malacca.[85]
Urban areas with large Chinese populations include Bangkok with 2,900,000 (2009 census, registered resident only), Singapore with 2,800,000 (2010 census), Kuala Lumpur with 612,277 (2000 census, city only),[86] Penang with 650,000 (2005), Jakarta with 528,300 (2010 census), the New York City Metropolitan Area with 682,265[87] and the San Francisco Bay Area with 592,865 (2010 United States Census),[88] the Greater Toronto Area with 486,300 (2006 Census, metropolitan area),[89] as well as the Greater Vancouver Area with 402,000 (2006 Census, metropolitan area).[90]
Statistics
See also
- Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia
- Bumiputra
- Chinese migration
- Chinatown, the article, and Category:Chinatowns the international category list
- Chinese Clan Association
- Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association
- Hong Kongers
- List of overseas Chinese
- Overseas Chinese banks
- Overseas Chinese Affairs Office
- Third culture kid
Notes
- ^ The Japanese nationals with Chinese ethnicity are excluded.
- ^ This number includes 443,566 people called Joseonjok (조선족). Joseonjok people are the Koreans who have Chinese citizenship. The 181,428 Chinese people who are ethnic Chinese (calculated from 624,994-443,566) in Korea are called Hwagyo (화교). (See reference)
References
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Further reading
- Pan, Lynn. The Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas, Landmark Books, Singapore, 1998. ISBN 981-4155-90-X
- Chin, Ung Ho. The Chinese of South East Asia, London: Minority Rights Group, 2000. ISBN 1-897693-28-1
- López-Calvo, Ignacio. Imaging the Chinese in Cuban Literature and Culture, Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 2008. ISBN 0-8130-3240-7
- Fitzgerald, John. "Big White Lie: Chinese Australians in White Australia", UNSW Press, Sydney, 2007. ISBN 978-0-86840-870-5
External links
- Andrewkidz Collections Library - The Overseas Chinese Biographies
- Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China Template:Language icon
- Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission, R.O.C.
- Ohio University Study on Distribution of the Overseas Chinese Population
- The Distribution of the Overseas Chinese in the Contemporary World
- Museum of Chinese in the Americas
- The Overseas Chinese returnees movement Template:Language icon
- Chinese in Africa