Indian physical culture
Indian physical culture is the form of physical culture originating in ancient India.
History
[edit]Ancient era
[edit]Physical fitness was prized in traditional Hindu thought, with cultivation of the body (dehvada) seen as one path to full self-realization.[2][3] Buddhist universities such as Nalanda taught various forms of physical culture, such as swimming and archery,[4] with Buddha himself having been well-acquainted with martial activities prior to his enlightenment.[5] Gurukulas focused significantly on physical education alongside academics, with Hindu epics such as the Ramayana often depicting kings marrying off their daughters to men who excelled in athletic events.[6]
A variety of ball games and war-training activities were present in ancient India,[7][8][9] with both men and women participating.[5] The traditional Indian physical culture generally used little to no equipment.[10] Ayurvedic medical treatises such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita emphasized exercise as a way of avoiding conditions such as diabetes, and prescribed exercise in accordance with the seasons.[11][12] Some specialist communities were known for their acrobatic performances, such as dancing on bamboo.[13]
Hunting for recreation was common through Indian history, and was partaken in by royals; it was done for a variety of reasons, such as proving manliness, for religious purposes, or simply for thrill-seeking purposes.[14][15][16] The emphasis on hunting coincided with an overall view of the forest as being an area to be conquered and used by the state, which resulted in conflict between kingdoms and forest-dwellers.[16][17][18] Though Hindu scriptures warned against excessive hunting of animals,[15] by the end of the colonial era, some animal species had been hunted to extinction, such as cheetahs.[19] Other exercises done with animals included provoking intoxicated elephants for the purpose of building strength by maneuvering around them and escaping their wrath.[20]
Medieval era
[edit]Wrestling was common in Mughal India, with even the loser of a wrestling bout being awarded some money in order to avoid discouragement.[21] Pehlwani emerged as a fusion of Persian and native Indian wrestling traditions during this time.[22]
Colonial era
[edit]During the colonial era, Indians felt emasculated by the British,[24] who had disarmed and demilitarized Indian society throughout the 19th century.[25] The poverty and starvation of the era reduced Indians' ability to participate in physical exercise.[26] Bengalis became particularly involved in seeking to combat British stereotypes of effeteness by pursuing physical culture and martial arts,[27][28][29] with organizations such as the Hindu Mela contributing.[30]
Influences from Western physical culture became prevalent in India, as mediated through influences from groups such as the YMCA,[31] as Indians sought to benefit from the scientific nature and European nationalistic vigor present in Western schools of thought surrounding physical culture at the time.[32][33] The British sought to impose their standards of physical discipline onto Indians, while discouraging traditional Indian games and negatively depicting Indian physiques.[34] The British also used hunting as a way to establish imperial dominance and protect Indians from attacks by wild animals.[35][36][37]
Indians used victory in sport as a method of proving themselves against the colonizer.[38] Indians also sought to standardize and revitalize their native physical culture during this time period, with institutions such as the akharas and vyayamshalas playing a role.[39][40]
Contemporary era
[edit]Cricket, a British sport introduced into India during the colonial era,[41] has emerged as a major aspect of modern-day India, with success in World Cups and the emergence of the Indian Premier League influencing society.[42]
In 2023, cricket star MS Dhoni invested in a company called Tagda Raho (transl. "stay strong"), which is seeking to revive traditional Indian workouts and which has received significant interest from different groups in the cricket world.[43]
Relationship with various movements
[edit]Hindu nationalism
[edit]The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) has encouraged loyalty to India as a Hindu country in its followers through the practice of traditional Indian physical culture.[44]
Militancy
[edit]In the colonial era, gyms and other physical culture institutions helped freedom fighters build their strength towards anti-colonial resistance.[45] In the modern era, some communal violence has been linked to Hindu movements that use physical culture to become more organized and strong.[46]
Influence on the world
[edit]Yoga and Indian clubs are among the most globally widespread elements of physical culture originating from India.[47][48]
Combat sports
[edit]Archery
[edit]Wrestling
[edit]Wrestling has been popular in India since ancient times, it was mainly an exercise to stay physically fit. The wrestlers, traditionally, use to wear a loincloth, langota. In Ancient India, wrestling was most famously known as Malla-yuddha. One of the protagonists of the Mahabharata, Bhima, was considered to be a great wrestler of his time, with some of his contemporaries including Karna, Jarasandha, Kichaka, and Balarama. The other prominent Indian epic, the Ramayana, also mentions wrestling in India and Hanuman is described as one of the greatest wrestlers of his time. During the reign of Mughal Empire, who were of Turko-Mongol descent, the influence of Iranian and Mongolian wrestling were incorporated to the local Malla-yuddha to form the modern Pehlwani, wrestling style popular throughout India, Pakistan and Bangladesh in modern times.[50]
Wrestling in India is also known as Dangal, and it is the basic form of a wrestling tournament. It is also called kushti in Punjab and Haryana. The wrestling in Punjab and Haryana will take place in a circular court with soft ground which in Punjabi is called an "akharha". Two wrestlers will continue to wrestle until the back of one touches the ground. The winner will parade the court with the loser following him.[10] The wrestlers are called Pehlwans who train with modern weights and traditional weights such as a Gada (mace). The aim of kushti is to wrestle the opponent and to block the other player.Physical exercises
[edit]Dand
[edit]Baithak
[edit]A baithak, also known as a Hindu squat or a deep knee bend on toes, is performed without additional weight and body weight placed on the forefeet and toes with the heels raised throughout; during the movement, the knees track far past the toes. The baithak was a staple exercise of ancient Indian wrestlers. It was also used by Bruce Lee in his training regime.[55] It may also be performed with the hands resting on an upturned club or the back of a chair.
Yoga
[edit]Exercise equipment
[edit]Gada
[edit]Indian club
[edit]See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Chakravarthy, Kalyan (2023-09-29). "Dakshinapatha SPORT OF MALLAKHAMB : A TRADITIONAL GAME OF INDIAN CULTURE Arts and Literature". Retrieved 2024-08-26.
- ^ HISTORY, PRINCIPLES AND FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Sri Satya Sai University of Technology & Medical Sciences
- ^ "The story behind India's sporting history". Sportskeeda.
- ^ "India has a sports history going back a thousand years". businessindia.co. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
- ^ a b "CRITICAL REVIEW ON HISTORY OF SPORTS AND GAMES IN INDIAN CONTEXT WITH SPECIAL FOCUS TO WEST BENGAL". International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education.
- ^ Ijsrc, iJOURNALS PUBLICATIONS IJSHRE |. "Historical Analysis of Physical Education". Academia.
- ^ "A JOURNEY OF INDIAN SPORTS CULTURE" (PDF). International Journal of Researches in Social Sciences and Information Studies.
- ^ Shephard, Roy J. (2014-11-27). An Illustrated History of Health and Fitness, from Pre-History to our Post-Modern World. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-11671-6.
- ^ Journals, Best. "ANCIENT INDIAN SPORTS A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS". Academia.
- ^ "HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AND SPORTS IN ANCIENT INDIA" (PDF). Purva Mimaansa.
- ^ "Vyayama culture in ancient India" (PDF). International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health.
- ^ Mondal, Samiran (2013). "Science of exercise: ancient Indian origin". The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India. 61 (8): 560–562. ISSN 0004-5772. PMID 24818341.
- ^ "Development of gymnastics in ancient India" (PDF). International Journal of Physiology, Nutrition and Physical Education.
- ^ "The history of hunting, and its role in wildlife conservation". The Indian Express. 2023-03-03. Retrieved 2023-10-08.
- ^ a b Pattanaik, Devdutt (2020-12-11). "Of thrill seekers and deer hunters". The Economic Times. ISSN 0013-0389. Retrieved 2023-10-08.
- ^ a b Singh, Upinder (2017-10-23). "Even in ancient India, the state was usually at war with the forest and its inhabitants". Scroll.in. Retrieved 2023-10-08.
- ^ "What Political Violence in Ancient India Tells Us About Our Past and Present". The Wire. Retrieved 2023-10-08.
- ^ Sinha, Kanad (2017). "Envisioning a No-Man's Land: Hermitage as a Site of Exemption in Ancient and Early Medieval Indian Literature". Medieval Worlds. 6: 20–39. doi:10.1553/medievalworlds_no6_2017s20.
- ^ Lodh, Sayan (31 December 2020). "Portrayal of 'Hunting' in Environmental History of India". ALTRALANG Journal. 2 (02): 190–206. doi:10.52919/altralang.v2i02.84.
- ^ Mujumdar, Dattatraya Chintaman, ed. (1950). Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture: A Comprehensive Survey of the Physical Education in India, Profusely Illustrating Various Activities of Physical Culture, Games, Exercises, Etc., as Handed Over to Us from Our Fore-fathers and Practised in India. Good Companions. p. 296. OCLC 14652803.
- ^ Physical Culture as Site of Power Play in Mughal Court Dr. Parul Lau Gaur
- ^ Brownstok, Willem. Islam: de l'empire moghol au conflit arabo-israélien (in French). Cambridge Stanford Books.
- ^ "A Fine Specimen". The Indian Express. 2017-02-26. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
- ^ "Indigenous Physical Culture of Bengal During the British Regime" (PDF). Language in India.
- ^ Kidambi, Prashant (2011). "Hero, celebrity and icon: Sachin Tendulkar and Indian public culture". The Cambridge Companion to Cricket. pp. 187–202. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521761291.015. ISBN 978-0-521-76129-1.
- ^ Mujumdar, Dattatraya Chintaman, ed. (1950). Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture: A Comprehensive Survey of the Physical Education in India, Profusely Illustrating Various Activities of Physical Culture, Games, Exercises, Etc., as Handed Over to Us from Our Fore-fathers and Practised in India. Good Companions. p. 22. OCLC 14652803.
- ^ Rosselli, John (1980). "The Self-Image of Effeteness: Physical Education and Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Bengal". Past & Present (86): 121–148. doi:10.1093/past/86.1.121. JSTOR 650742. PMID 11615074.
- ^ Topdar, Sudipa (April 2017). "The Corporeal Empire: Physical Education and Politicising Children's Bodies in Late Colonial Bengal". Gender & History. 29 (1): 176–197. doi:10.1111/1468-0424.12259.
- ^ Manna, Agnidev (2023-03-09). "INDIGENOUS SPORTS AND PHYSICAL CULTURE IN THE FOLK DANCES OF COLONIAL BENGAL". Agpe the Royal Gondwana Research Journal of History, Science, Economic, Political and Social Science. 4 (3): 14–21.
- ^ Chowdhury Sengupta, Indira (1993). Colonialism and cultural identity : The making of a Hindu discourse, Bengal 1867-1905 (Thesis). doi:10.25501/SOAS.00028888.[page needed]
- ^ Fischer-Tiné, Harald (March 2019). "Fitness for Modernity? The YMCA and physical-education schemes in late-colonial South Asia (circa 1900–40)". Modern Asian Studies. 53 (2): 512–559. doi:10.1017/S0026749X17000300.
- ^ Watt, Carey (2021). "Physical culture and the body in colonial India, c.1800–1947". Routledge Handbook of the History of Colonialism in South Asia. pp. 345–358. doi:10.4324/9780429431012-33. ISBN 978-0-429-43101-2.
- ^ Singleton, Mark (2010). "India and the International Physical Culture Movement". Yoga Body. pp. 81–94. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195395358.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-19-539535-8.
- ^ Mills, James H. (2004). Confronting the Body: The Politics of Physicality in Colonial and Post-Colonial India. Anthem Press. ISBN 978-1-84331-365-6.
- ^ Mandala, Vijaya Ramadas (2018). "Imperial Culture and Hunting in Colonial India". Shooting a Tiger. pp. 38–78. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199489381.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-948938-1.
- ^ Mani, Fiona (May 2012). Guns and shikaris: The rise of the sahib's hunting ethos and the fall of the subaltern poacher in British India, 1750-1947 (Thesis). doi:10.33915/etd.594.[page needed]
- ^ Mandala, Vijaya Ramadas (13 December 2018). "Hunting as 'Sport' in Colonial India: Codes of Sportsmanship, Firearms, Race, and Class in Hunting". Shooting a Tiger: 161–219. doi:10.1093/oso/9780199489381.003.0004.
- ^ Mukerji, Prof Sumit. "SPORTS THE CATALYST OF NATIONALISM IN COLONIAL INDIA". Academia.
- ^ Singleton, Mark (2010-02-10). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974598-2.
- ^ Ganneri, Namrata R. (Autumn 2014). "Notes on Vyayam: a vernacular sports journal in western India". The Newsletter. 69. The International Institute for Asian Studies: 8.
- ^ Love, Adam; Dzikus, Lars (2020-02-26). "How India came to love cricket, favored sport of its colonial British rulers". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-03-24.
- ^ Maddox, Callie Elizabeth (2012). Postcolonial play: Encounters with sport and physical culture in contemporary India (Thesis). ProQuest 1314798814.[page needed]
- ^ "Dhoni Invests in Tagda Raho: Powering the Resurgence of Traditional Fitness". myKhel.
- ^ McDonald, Ian (December 1999). "'PHYSIOLOGICAL PATRIOTS'?: The Politics of Physical Culture and Hindu Nationalism in India". International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 34 (4): 343–358. doi:10.1177/101269099034004003.
- ^ Armstrong, Jerome (2020-02-02). "For India's revolutionaries in freedom struggle, gyms, & akharas were a cover for political work". ThePrint. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
- ^ Valiani, Arafaat A. (2011). Militant Publics in India. doi:10.1057/9780230370630. ISBN 978-1-349-29455-8.[page needed]
- ^ Heffernan, Conor (2022). The History of Physical Culture. Common Ground Research Networks. ISBN 978-1-957792-23-1.[page needed]
- ^ Heffernan, Conor (5 July 2016). Indian club swinging in nineteenth and twentieth-century India and England (Thesis). Faculty of History, University of Cambridge. doi:10.17863/CAM.7166.[page needed]
- ^ The Rig Veda/Mandala 6/Hymn 75/5
- ^ Burtt, Jon (2010). Mallakhamb: An investigation into the Indian physical practice of rope and pole Mallakhamb (Thesis). p. 32.
In the 16th century, another northern wrestling influence was brought to the Indian sub-continent by the Persian Mughals. This practice combined with the indigenous form to create the pehlwani wrestling style popular throughout India, Pakistan and Bangladesh today.
- ^ "7 fitness trends to take to in 2019". Hindustan Times. 12 January 2019. Retrieved 2022-05-27.
- ^ Mujumdar, D. C. (1950). The Encyclopedia of Indian Physical Culture, p. 460, plate 131.
- ^ Lee, Bruce (1975). "Preliminaries". Tao of Jeet Kune Do. Ohara Publications. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-89750-048-7.
- ^ Little, John, Bruce Lee – The Art of Expressing The Human Body (Tuttle Publishing, 1998), p. 58
- ^ Lee, Bruce, 'Preliminaries' in The Tao of Jeet Kune Do, California: Ohara Publications, 1975, p.29
- ^ OED 0000.
- ^ Bowker 2000, p. entry "Yoga".
- ^ Keown 2004, p. entry "Yoga".
- ^ Johnson 2009, p. entry "Yoga".
- ^ Carmody & Carmody 1996, p. 68.
- ^ Sarbacker 2005, pp. 1–2.
Sources
[edit]- Bowker, John (2000). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford University Press.
- Carmody, Denise Lardner; Carmody, John (1996). Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US.
- Johnson, W.J. (2009). A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press.
- Keown, Damien (2004). A Dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford University Press.
- Sarbacker, Stuart Ray (2005). Samādhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press.
- White, David Gordon (2011). "Yoga, Brief History of an Idea" (PDF). Yoga in Practice. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–23.
- "yoga". OED Online. Oxford University Press. September 2015. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
Further reading
[edit]- Alter, Joseph S. (1992). The Wrestler's Body: Identity and Ideology in North India. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91217-5.
- Kalaripayatt, kushti and the Indian warfare