Lebanon: Difference between revisions
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{{about|the country|other uses of "Lebanon"|Lebanon (disambiguation)|and|Liban (disambiguation)}} |
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#REDIRECT [[French Guiana-Dutch Guiana Border Dispute]] |
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{{Infobox country |
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|conventional_long_name = Lebanese Republic |
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|native_name = <div style="line-height:1.33em;">{{unbulleted list |{{big|{{lang|ar|الجمهورية اللبنانية}}}} |{{smaller|{{transl|ar|ISO|''Al-Jumhūrīyah Al-Libnānīyah''}}}} |''{{lang|fr|République libanaise}}''}}</div> |
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|common_name = Lebanon |
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|image_flag = Flag of Lebanon.svg |
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|image_coat = Coat of Arms of Lebanon.svg |
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|national_anthem = {{unbulleted list |{{lower|0.1em|{{big|[[Lebanese National Anthem|كلّنا للوطن]]}}}} |{{transl|ar|ISO|''Kulluna lil-watan''}} |{{small|''All Of Us, For the Nation!''}}}} <center>[[File:Lebanese national anthem.ogg]]</center> |
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|image_map = Lebanon (orthographic projection).svg |
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|capital = [[Beirut]] |
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|latd=33 |latm=54 |latNS=N |longd=35 |longm=32 |longEW=E |
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|largest_city = [[Beirut]] |
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|official_languages = [[Literary Arabic|Arabic]]<sup>a</sup> |
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|demonym = [[Lebanese (disambiguation)|Lebanese]] |
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|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Confessionalism (politics)|confessionalist]]<br/>[[parliamentary republic]]<ref name="constitution">{{cite web |title=The Lebanese Constitution |url=http://presidency.gov.lb/English/LebaneseSystem/Documents/Lebanese%20Constitution.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=Presidency of Lebanon |accessdate=20 August 2011}}</ref>}} |
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|leader_title1 = [[President of Lebanon|President]] |
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|leader_name1 = [[Michel Suleiman]] |
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|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Lebanon|Prime Minister]] |
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|leader_name2 = [[Najib Mikati]] |
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|leader_title3 = ''[[Prime Minister of Lebanon|Prime Minister-designate]]'' |
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|leader_name3 = ''[[Tammam Salam]]'' |
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|legislature = [[Parliament of Lebanon|Chamber of Deputies]] |
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|established_event1 = [[Greater Lebanon]] |
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|established_date1 = 1 September 1920 |
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|established_event2 = Constitution |
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|established_date2 = 23 May 1926 |
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|established_event3 = Independence declared |
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|established_date3 = 8 November 1943 |
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|established_event4 = Independence recognized by France |
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|established_date4 = 22 November 1943 |
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|established_event5= Withdrawal of [[Allies of World War II|French forces]] |
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|established_date5= 31 December 1946 |
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|area_rank = 166th |
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|area_magnitude = 1 E10 |
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|area_km2 = 10452 |
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|area_sq_mi = 4036 |
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|percent_water = 1.8 |
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|area_label = Total |
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|population_estimate = 4,224,000<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf |title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1 |page=17 |version=2008 revision |format=PDF |publisher=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] |year=2009 |accessdate=22 September 2010}}</ref> |
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|population_estimate_rank = 126th |
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|population_estimate_year= 2008 |
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|population_density_km2 = 404 |
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|population_density_sq_mi = 1046 |
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|population_density_rank = 25th |
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|GDP_PPP = $61.444 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=38&pr.y=0&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=446&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Lebanon |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref> |
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|GDP_PPP_rank = 83rd |
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|GDP_PPP_year = 2011 |
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|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $15,522<ref name=imf2/> |
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|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 57th |
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|GDP_nominal = $39.039 billion<ref name=imf2/> |
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|GDP_nominal_rank = 80th |
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|GDP_nominal_year = 2011 |
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|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $9,862<ref name=imf2/> |
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|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 63rd |
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|Gini_year = |Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |Gini = <!--number only--> |Gini_ref = |Gini_rank = |
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|HDI_year = 2013 |
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|HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> |
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|HDI = 0.745 <!--number only--> |
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|HDI_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf |title=HDRO (Human Development Report Office) United Nations Development Programme |year=2011 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref> |
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|HDI_rank = 72nd |
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|currency = [[Lebanese pound]] |
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|currency_code = LBP |
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|time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |
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|utc_offset = +2 |
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|time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]] |
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|utc_offset_DST = +3 |
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|drives_on = right<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adcidl.com/Driving-in-Lebanon.html |title=Driving in Lebanon |publisher=Adcidl.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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|calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Lebanon|+961]]<ref name="cia"/> |
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|cctld = [[.lb]] |
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|footnote_a = Article 11 of the [[Constitution of Lebanon]] states that "[[Literary Arabic|Arabic]] is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the [[French language]] is to be used." |
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}} |
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'''Lebanon''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-US-Lebanon.ogg|ˈ|l|ɛ|b|ə|n|ɒ|n}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|b|ə|n|ən}}; {{lang-ar|لبنان}} {{transl|ar|ISO|''Libnān''}} or {{transl|ar|ISO|''Lubnān''}}, <small>[[Lebanese Arabic]]:</small> {{IPA-ar|lɪbˈneːn|}}, [[Aramaic]] לבנאנ ), officially the '''Lebanese Republic'''<ref group="nb">''Republic of Lebanon'' is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term ''Lebanese Republic'' is a literal translation of the official [[Arabic]] and [[French language|French]] names that is not used in today's world. [[Lebanese Arabic]] is the most common language spoken among the citizens of Lebanon.</ref> ({{lang-ar|الجمهورية اللبنانية}} {{transl|ar|ISO|''Al-Jumhūrīyah Al-Libnānīyah''}}, <small>[[Lebanese Arabic]]:</small> {{IPA-ar|elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje|}}), is a country in the [[East Mediterranean]]. It is bordered by [[Syria]] to the north and east and [[Israel]] to the south. Lebanon's location at the [[Crossroads (culture)|crossroads]] of the [[Mediterranean Basin]] and the [[Arabia]]n [[hinterland]] has dictated [[History of Lebanon|its rich history]] and shaped [[Culture of Lebanon|a cultural identity]] of [[Demographics of Lebanon#Religious groups of Lebanon|religious]] and [[Ethnic groups in Lebanon|ethnic]] diversity.<ref>{{cite book |last=McGowen |first=Afaf Sabeh |editor-last=Collelo |editor-first=Thomas |title=Lebanon: A Country Study |chapter=Historical Setting |series=Area Handbook Series |edition=3rd |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=The Division |publication-date=1989 |oclc=18907889 |url=http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/cntrystd.lb |accessdate=24 July 2009}}</ref> |
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The [[Archaeological evidence|earliest evidence]] of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating [[recorded history]].<ref name="byblos">{{cite book |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa |last1=Dumper |first1=Michael |last2=Stanley |first2=Bruce E. |last3=Abu-Lughod |first3=Janet L. |year=2006 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=1-57607-919-8 |page=104 |quote=Archaeological excavations at Byblos (Jbeil) indicate that the site has been continually inhabited since at least 5000 B.C. |accessdate=22 July 2009}}</ref> Lebanon was the home of the [[Phoenicians]], a maritime culture that flourished for over a thousand years ([[Circa|c.]]1550–539 BC). In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the [[Roman Empire]], and eventually became one of the Empire's leading centers of Christianity. In the [[Mount Lebanon]] range a monastic tradition known as the [[Maronite]] [[Maronite Church|Church]] was established. As the [[Arab]] [[Muslim]]s conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion and identity. However, a new religious group, the [[Druze]], established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, a religious divide that would last for centuries. During the [[Crusades]], the Maronites established strong ties with the [[Roman Catholic]] invaders, ties that influenced the region into the modern era. |
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The region eventually came under the rule of the [[Ottoman Empire]], a political situation that lasted for centuries. Following the collapse of the Empire after [[World War I]], the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon were [[French Mandate of Lebanon|mandated to France]]. The French expanded the borders of [[Mount Lebanon Governorate|Mount Lebanon]], which was mostly populated by Maronites and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing a unique political system{{spaced ndash}}"[[Confessionalism (politics)|confessionalism]]"{{spaced ndash}}that is a [[Consociationalism|power-sharing]] mechanism based on religious communities. [[Bechara El Khoury]] (independent Lebanon's first President) and [[Riad El-Solh]] (Lebanon's first Prime Minister) are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.<ref name="dos-2011-12-01">{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/lebanon/191951.htm |title=Background Note: Lebanon |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=2011-12-01 |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> |
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Before the [[Lebanese Civil War]] (1975–1990), the country experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, and banking.<ref name="dos-2010-03-22">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/lebanon/149912.htm |title=Background Note: Lebanon |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=2010-03-22 |accessdate=4 October 2010}}</ref> Because of its financial power and diversity, Lebanon was known in its heyday as the "Switzerland of the East".<ref>{{Cite news| url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/II05Ak01.html| title=Lebanon douses a terrorist fire| last=Moubayed| first=Sami |date=5 September 2007 |work=[[Asia Times]] |accessdate=27 October 2009}}</ref> It attracted so many tourists that the capital, [[Beirut]], was referred to as "Paris of the Middle East."<ref name="tourism">{{cite web| url=http://www.chron.com/default/article/Lebanon-hopes-for-stability-so-tourism-industry-1895818.php| author=Anna Johnson|year=2006| title=Lebanon: Tourism Depends on Stability| accessdate=31 October 2006}}</ref> At the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/lebanon#3| title=Lebanon: Country Profile| publisher=[[Canadian International Development Agency]]| accessdate=2 December 2006}}</ref> |
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==Etymology==<!--linked--> |
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The name ''Lebanon'' comes from the [[Semitic language|Semitic]] root ''LBN'' (لبن), meaning "white", likely a reference to the snow-capped [[Mount Lebanon]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,621 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features and Historic Sites |last1=Room |first1=Adrian |edition=2nd |year=2005|publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-2248-7 |pages=214–216|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=M1JIPAN-eJ4C&pg=PA214}}</ref> |
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Occurrences of the name have been found in different texts from the library of [[Ebla]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford guide to people & places of the Bible |last1=Metzger |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Coogan |first2=Michael D. |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-517610-3 |page=178 |accessdate=23 July 2009}}</ref> which date to the third millennium BC, nearly 70 times in the [[Hebrew Bible]], and three of the twelve tablets of the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]] (perhaps as early as 2100 BC).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of the ancient Near East |last1=Bienkowski |first1=Piotr |last2=Millard |first2=Alan Ralph |year=2000|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-3557-9 |page=178}}</ref> |
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The name is recorded in [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] as ''Rmnn'', where ''R'' stood for Canaanite ''L''.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Pronunciation of Ancient Egyptian| last=Ross| first=Kelley L| work=The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series|url=http://www.friesian.com/egypt.htm| publisher=Friesian School| accessdate=20 January 2009}}</ref> |
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==History== |
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{{Main|History of Lebanon}} |
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===Ancient Lebanon=== |
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{{Main|History of ancient Lebanon}} |
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[[File:PhoenicianTrade.png|thumb|Map of Phoenicia and trade routes]] |
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Evidence of an early settlement in Lebanon was found in [[Byblos]], which is considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world,<ref name="byblos" /> and date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the [[Neolithic]] and [[Copper Age|Chalcolithic]] fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://destinationlebanon.gov.lb/eng/Byblos/History.asp |title=Archaeological Virtual Tours: Byblos |publisher=Destinationlebanon.gov.lb |accessdate=14 October 2008 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080223164318/http://destinationlebanon.gov.lb/eng/Byblos/History.asp |archivedate = 23 February 2008}}</ref> |
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Lebanon was a part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants – the [[Phoenicia]]ns, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of [[Cyrus the Great]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_lebanonphoenicians.htm |title=Lebanon in Ancient Times |publisher=About.com |date=2012-04-13 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Their most famous colonies were [[Carthage]] in today’s Tunisia and [[Cadiz]] in today’s Spain. The [[Phoenicians]] are best known as the inventors of the [[alphabet]], among many other things. After two centuries of Persian rule, [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]] ruler [[Alexander the Great]] attacked and burned [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them [[Egyptian Empire]], [[Persian Empire|Persian]], [[Achaemenid Assyria|Assyria]]n, [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenian]], [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]], [[List of Muslim empires and dynasties|Arab (Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid)]], [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuk]], [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk]], the [[Crusader States|Crusader]]'s state of [[County of Tripoli]] founded by [[Raymond IV of Toulouse]] that encompassed most of present day Lebanon, and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. |
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===Maronites, Druze, and the Crusades=== |
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[[File:Siege of Tripoli Painting (1289).jpg|thumb|180px|The [[Fall of Tripoli (1289)|Fall of Tripoli]] to the Egyptian [[Mamluk]]s and destruction of the Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, 1289]] |
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The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity in the [[Roman Empire]] during the early spread of the religion. During the late 4th and early 5th century, a hermit named [[Maron]] established a monastic tradition, focused on the importance of [[monotheism]] and [[asceticism]], near the Syrian mountain range known as [[Mount Lebanon]]. The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among the Syrians in the region. These Christians came to be known as [[Maronite]]s and moved into mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.<ref>{{cite book | title=From the Holy Mountain: A Journey Among the Christians of the Middle East | author=Dalrymple, William | year=1997 | publisher=Vintage Books (Random House) | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jHGYvr7rkrsC |page=305 | isbn=9780307948922}}</ref> |
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During the 7th century the Muslim Arabs [[Muslim conquest of Syria|conquered Syria]] establishing a new regime to replace the Romans (or ''[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]'' as the Eastern Romans are sometimes called). Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime, the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the Syriac language. The Maronite community in particular clung stubbornly to its faith and managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Syria. |
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During the 11th century the [[Druze]] faith emerged from a branch of [[Shia Islam]]. The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon. The Maronites and the Druze divided Mount Lebanon until the modern era. The major cities on the coast, [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Beirut]], and others, were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by Arab culture. |
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Following the fall of Roman/Christian Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Romans put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century. The result was a series of wars known as the [[Crusades]] launched by the [[Frankish Empire|Franks]] in Western Europe to reclaim the former Roman territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the ''[[Levant]]''). The [[First Crusade]] succeeded in temporarily establishing the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the [[County of Tripoli]] as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast.<ref>{{cite book | author=Hillenbrand, Carole | publisher=Psychology Press | year=2000 | title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives | isbn=978-1-57958-354-5 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UalnoF5MBHMC |pages=20–21}}</ref> These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region though their control was limited and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks. |
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One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e. the French) and the Maronites. Unlike most other Christian communities in the eastern Mediterranean, who swore allegiance to [[Constantinople]] or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region. |
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===Ottoman Lebanon and French Mandate=== |
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{{see also|Emirate of Mount Lebanon|Sidon Eyalet|Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate}} |
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[[Image:DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg|thumb|[[Fakhreddine II Palace]], 17th century]] |
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[[File:Lebanon as envisaged by French General Charles-Marie-Napoléon de Beaufort d'Hautpoul Beaufort d'Hautpoul in 1862.jpg|thumb|upright|1862 map drawn by the French expedition of [[Charles-Marie-Napoléon de Beaufort d'Hautpoul|Beaufort d'Hautpoul]],<ref name="Hakim2013">{{cite book|last=Hakim|first=Carol|title=The Origins of the Lebanese National Idea, 1840-1920|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W3asKDHYERwC&pg=PA287|accessdate=2013-04-02|year=2013|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-27341-2|page=287}}</ref> later used as a template for the 1920 borders of [[Greater Lebanon]].<ref name="Firro2003">{{cite book|author=Kais Firro|title=Inventing Lebanon: Nationalism and the State Under the Mandate|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zRwOcE9wJAQC&pg=PA18|accessdate=2013-04-02|date=2003-02-08|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1-86064-857-1|page=18}}</ref>]] |
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In 1590, [[Fakhr-al-Din II]] became successor to Korkmaz. He was a skilled politician and described as a pupil of [[Machiavelli]]. Fakhr-al-Din II adjusted to the lifestyles of the Druze, Christianity and Islam, according to his needs. He paid tribute to the Sultanate of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and shared the spoils of war with his masters. Eventually, Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Emir of Mount Lebanon, with full authority. He was considered one of the greatest rulers of the region, also across the Middle of Lebanon. But, his enemies and governors angered the Ottoman Sultanate. Hence, a campaign, calling for the arrest of Fakhr-al-Din II, found the deposed leader in [[Istanbul]], where he was executed along with one or two of his sons, in 1635.<ref>[http://tjgorton.wordpress.com/prince-of-lebanon-a-druze-emir-at-the-court-of-the-medici/ ''Renaissance Emir: a Druze Warlord at the Court of the Medici''] (London: Quartet Books, 2013) p. 168.</ref> Approximately 10,000 Christians [[1860 Lebanon conflict|were killed]] by the Druzes in 1860.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+lb0026) |title=Lebanon |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, the [[Emirate of Mount Lebanon]] that lasted about 400 years was replaced by the [[Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate]], as a result of a European-Ottoman treaty called the [[Règlement Organique (Lebanon)|Règlement Organique]]. |
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In 1920, following WWI, the area of the Mutasarrifate, plus some surrounding areas which were predominantly Shia and Sunni, became a part of the state of [[Greater Lebanon]] under the [[French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon]]. In the first half of 1920, Lebanese territory was claimed as part of the [[Arab Kingdom of Syria]], but shortly the [[Franco-Syrian War]] resulted in Arab defeat and capitulation of the Hashemites. By the end of the war, famine had killed an estimated 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, about 30% of the total population.<ref>{{cite web |author=Abdul-Ilah Saadi |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/focus/arabunity/2008/02/2008525183842614205.html |title=Dreaming of Greater Syria |publisher=Al Jazeera English |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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On 1 September 1920, France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stmaron.org/marhist11.html |title=Aspects of Maronite History (Part Eleven) The twentieth century in Western Asia |author=Chorbishop Seely Beggiani |publisher=Stmaron.org |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Lebanon was a largely Christian country (mainly [[Maronites|Maronite]] territory with some [[Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon|Greek Orthodox]] enclaves) but it also included areas containing many Muslims (including [[Druze]]).{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government. |
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===Independence=== |
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[[File:Beirut's Martyrs' Square during celebrations marking the release by the French of Lebanon's government from Rashayya prison on November 22, 1943, the day of Lebanon's independence. Adib Ibrahim.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Martyrs' Square, Beirut|Martyrs' Square in Beirut]] during celebrations marking the release by the French of Lebanon's government from [[Rashayya prison]] on November 22, 1943]] |
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Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/glossary.html| title = Glossary: Cross-Channel invasion| accessdate =17 October 2009| publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service]]}}</ref> |
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General [[Henri Dentz]], the [[Vichy]] [[High Commissioner]] for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through [[Syria]] to [[Iraq]] where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that [[Nazi Germany]] would gain full control of Lebanon and [[Syria]] by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon. |
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After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General [[Charles de Gaulle]] visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General [[Georges Catroux]] announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the [[Free French]] government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943 and recognized the independence of Lebanon. |
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The [[Allies of World War II|allies]] kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten [[National Pact]] of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its [[Speaker (politics)|speaker of the parliament]] to be a [[Shi'a Islam in Lebanon|Shiite Muslim]], its prime minister be [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni Muslim]], and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be [[Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon|Greek Orthodox]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usip.org/publications/lebanons-confessionalism-problems-and-prospects|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080709034419/http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0330_lebanon_confessionalism.html|archivedate=9 July 2008|title=Lebanon's Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects|last=Harb|first=Imad|date=March 2006|work=USIPeace Briefing|publisher=United States Institute of Peace|accessdate=20 January 2009}}</ref> |
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Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on [[Beirut]]'s position as a regional center for finance and trade.<ref name="dos-2009-01">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/lebanon/116354.htm |title=Background Note: Lebanon |date=January 2009 |work=Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs |publisher=U.S. Department of State |accessdate=31 January 2010}}</ref> |
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In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=524}} Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=259}} On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army – led by the then [[Minister of Defense|Minister of National Defence]], [[Emir Majid Arslan II|Emir Majid Arslan]] – captured [[Al-Malkiyya]]. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=260}} |
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During the war, some 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon, while Israel did not permit their return at the end of hostilities.<ref name="amn">{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGMDE180102007|title=Lebanon Exiled and suffering: Palestinian refugees in Lebanon|year=2007|work=Amnesty International USA|publisher=Amnesty International|language=amn|accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref> Palestinians, previously prevented from working at all due to denial of citizenship, are now forbidden to work in some 20 professions after liberalization laws.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGMDE180102007 |title=Lebanon: Exiled and suffering: Palestinian refugees in Lebanon |publisher=Amnestyusa.org |accessdate=21 December 2010}}</ref> Today, more than 400,000 refugees remain in limbo, about half in camps.<ref name="aljazeera">{{Cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/focus/2009/05/2009527115531294628.html|title=Lebanon's Palestinian refugees |last=al-Issawi|first=Omar|date=4 August 2009|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=21 August 2009}}</ref> |
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In 1958, during the last months of President [[Camille Chamoun]]'s term, [[Lebanon crisis of 1958|an insurrection]] broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the [[United Arab Republic]]. Chamoun requested assistance, and 5,000 [[United States Marines]] were briefly dispatched to Beirut on July 15. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general [[Fuad Chehab]]. |
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With the defeat of PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their [[Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon|armed campaign]] against Israel. The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians vs. the Maronites and other Lebanese factions. |
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===Civil war and occupation=== |
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{{Main|Lebanese Civil War}} |
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[[File:Green Line, Beirut 1982.jpg|thumb|The [[Green Line (Lebanon)|Green Line]] that separated west and east Beirut, 1982]] |
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In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon. The [[Lebanese Civil War]] pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO, left-wing Druze and Muslim militias. In June 1976 Syria sent in its own troops, ostensibly to restore peace. In October 1976 the [[Arab League]] agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian [[Arab Deterrent Force]], which was charged with restoring calm.<ref name=fco-cpl>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Lebanon|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/lebanon/?profile=all|publisher=British Foreign & Commonwealth Office}}</ref> |
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In 1982, the PLO presence in Lebanon led to [[1982 Lebanon War|an Israeli invasion]]. A [[Multinational Force in Lebanon|multinational force]] of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by a British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city, to supervise the evacuation of the PLO. It returned in September 1982 after the assassination of [[Bashir Gemayel]] and subsequent fighting, during which a number of massacres were committed, such as in [[Damour massacre|Damour]],<ref>Noam Chomsky, Edward W. Said (1999): ''Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians'', South End Press, 1999, pp. 184–185</ref> in [[Sabra and Shatila massacre|Sabra and Shatila]],<ref>[http://www.counterpunch.org/fisksabra.html "Sabra and Chatila Massacres After 19 years, The Truth at Last?"] By [[Robert Fisk]], [[The Independent]], 28 November 2001</ref> and in [[War of the camps|several refugee camps]].<ref>''The War of the Camps'', Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Autumn, 1986), pp. 191–194</ref> The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984, following [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|a devastating bombing attack]] during the previous year. |
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In September 1988, the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians and the Muslims and Syrians. The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to the formation of a Saudi-Moroccan-Algerian committee to solve the crisis. On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all. A ceasefire was established, the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return.<ref name=fco-cpl/> |
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In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the [[Taif Accord]], which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalisation of the Lebanese political system.<ref name=fco-cpl/> The war ended at the end of 1990, after sixteen years. It resulting in massive loss of human life and property, and devastating the country's economy. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.<ref>{{cite news|title=After 2 Decades, Scars of Lebanon's Civil War Block Path to Dialogue|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/12/world/middleeast/after-2-decades-scars-of-lebanons-civil-war-block-path-to-dialogue.html|publisher=New York Times}}</ref> Some 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=72218 |title=Lebanon: Haven for foreign militants |publisher=UN IRIN news |date=2007-05-17 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.<ref>{{cite web|last=Salem |first=Paul |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20061101faessay85602/paul-salem/the-future-of-lebanon.html |title=The Future of Lebanon |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |date=2006-11-01 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The Taif Accord has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon’s political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines. |
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===Withdrawal and aftermath=== |
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The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of [[Hafez Al-Assad]] in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mroue |first=Bassem |url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700118094/Lebanese-mark-uprising-against-Syrian-domination.html |title=Lebanese mark uprising against Syria's domination |publisher=Deseretnews.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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[[File:Beirut-Rue Minet al Hosn-Assn R Hariri.jpg|thumb|left|Part of Rue Minet al Hosn, where [[Rafik Hariri]] was assassinated on 14 February 2005]] |
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On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister [[Rafik Hariri]] [[Assassination of Rafic Hariri|was assassinated]] in a [[car bomb]] explosion.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Ross|first=Oakland|title=Language of murder makes itself understood|date=9 October 2007|url=http://www.thestar.com/article/264773|work=Toronto Star |accessdate=2 February 2009|quote= Like a wound that just won't heal, a large expanse patch of fresh asphalt still mottles the grey surface of Rue Minet el-Hosn, where the street veers west around St. George Bay. The patch marks the exact spot where a massive truck bomb exploded 14 February 2005, killing prime minister Rafik Hariri and 22 others and gouging a deep crater in the road.}}</ref> Leaders of the [[March 14 Alliance]] accused [[Syria]] of the attack,<ref name="Syria-assassin">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/lebanon/lebanon_syria.html |title=Recent background on Syria's presence in Lebanon |publisher=CBC News Indepth |date=2007-01-30 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> while the [[March 8 Alliance]] and Syrian officials claimed that the [[Mossad]] was behind the assassination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=ia&ID=IA21005 |title=Reactions to Former Lebanese PM Al-Hariri's Assassination |publisher=Middle East Media Research Institute |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures.<ref group="nb">2005: [[Bassel Fleihan]], Lebanese legislator and Minister of Economy and Commerce; [[Samir Kassir]], Columnist and [[Democratic Left Movement (Lebanon)|Democratic Left Movement]] leader; [[George Hawi]], former head of [[Lebanese Communist Party]]; [[Gibran Tueni]], Editor in Chief of "An Nahar" newspaper. 2006: [[Pierre Gemayel]], Minister of Industry. 2007: [[Walid Eido]], MP; [[Antoine Ghanim]], MP.</ref> |
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The assassination triggered the [[Cedar Revolution]], a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. Under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4342705.stm|title=Syria begins Lebanon withdrawal |date=12 March 2005|publisher=BBC News |accessdate=11 December 2006}}</ref> and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/04/26/lebanon/ |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080726023249/http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/04/26/lebanon/ |archivedate=2008-07-26 |title=Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|newspaper=L'Orient Le Jour|date=26 April 2005}}</ref> |
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The [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1595|UNSC Resolution 1595]] called for an investigation into the assassination.<ref>{{cite pressrelease|url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8353.doc.htm|title=Press Release SC/8353|date=7 April 2005|publisher=United Nations – Security Council |accessdate=19 January 2009}}</ref> The [[UN International Independent Investigation Commission]] published its preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the [[Mehlis report]], which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hoge|first=Warren|title=Syria Involved in Killing Lebanon's Ex-Premier, U.N. Report Says|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/20/international/middleeast/20cnd-syria.html?_r=0|publisher=The New York Times|date=2005-10-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mehlis|first=Detlev|title=Report of the International Independent Investigation Commission established pursuant to Security Council resolution 1595|publisher=[[United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine]]|url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAl.NSF/fd807e46661e3689852570d00069e918/308be5d60f79289b852570a5005d0d00!OpenDocument|date=19 October 2005|quote=It is the Commission's view that the assassination of 14 February 2005 was carried out by a group with an extensive organization and considerable resources and capabilities. [...] Building on the findings of the Commission and Lebanese investigations to date and on the basis of the material and documentary evidence collected, and the leads pursued until now, there is converging evidence pointing at both Lebanese and Syrian involvement in this terrorist act.|accessdate=2 February 2009 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080228173759/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAl.NSF/fd807e46661e3689852570d00069e918/308be5d60f79289b852570a5005d0d00!OpenDocument |archivedate = 28 February 2008}}</ref><ref name="UN_S2005662">{{UN document |docid=S-2005-662 |type=Document |body=Security Council |year=2005 |document_number=662 |accessdate=2008-04-09|20 October 2005|title=Report of the International Independent Investigation Commission established pursuant to Security Council resolution 1595 (2005)}}{{dead link|date=February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/News/dh/docs/mehlisreport/ |title=Report of the International Independent Investigation Commission established pursuant to Security Council resolution 1595 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> |
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[[File:Bombed commercial centre.jpg|thumb|Building in [[Ghaziyeh]] bombed by Israeli forces during the [[2006 Lebanon War|2006 war]]]] |
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On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured a further two.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/13/world/africa/13iht-web.0713mideast.2188501.html | work=The New York Times | first1=Greg | last1=Myre | first2=Steven | last2=Erlanger | title=Clashes spread to Lebanon as Hezbollah raids Israel – Africa & Middle East – International Herald Tribune | date=12 July 2006}}</ref> Israel responded with [[airstrike]]s and [[artillery]] fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground invasion of [[southern Lebanon]], resulting in the [[2006 Lebanon War]]. The conflict was officially ended by the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701|UNSC Resolution 1701]] on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8808.doc.htm|title=Security Council calls for end to hostilities between Hizbollah, Israel |date=11 August 2006|publisher=UN – Security Council, Department of Public Information|accessdate=19 January 2009}}</ref> Some 1,191 Lebanese<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060927025252/www.lebanonundersiege.gov.lb/english/F/Main/index.asp |title=Lebanon Under Siege |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=27 September 2006 |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> and 160 Israelis<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Terrorism+from+Lebanon-+Hizbullah/Israel-Hizbullah+conflict-+Victims+of+rocket+attacks+and+IDF+casualties+July-Aug+2006.htm |title=Israel-Hizbullah conflict: Victims of rocket attacks and IDF casualties July–Aug 2006 |publisher=Mfa.gov.il |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> were killed in the conflict. Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes where Hezbollah military infrastructure was deeply embedded among the civilian population.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/07/13/mideast/index.html | work=CNN | title=Israeli warplanes hit Beirut suburb |date=2006-07-13}}</ref> |
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In 2007, the [[Nahr al-Bared]] refugee camp became the center of the [[2007 Lebanon conflict]] between the Lebanese Army and [[Fatah al-Islam]]. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=81306 |title=Life set to get harder for Nahr al-Bared refugees |publisher=UN IRIN newsg |date=2008-11-05 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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Between 2006 and 2008, [[2006–2008 Lebanese political protests|a series of protests]] led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister [[Fouad Siniora]] demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power. When [[Émile Lahoud]]'s presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president. |
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On 9 May 2008, [[Hezbollah]] and [[Amal Movement|Amal]] forces, sparked by a government declaration that [[Hezbollah]]'s communications network was illegal, seized western [[Beirut]],<ref name="Global Politician">{{Cite news|url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/24841-lebanon|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110628234738/http://www.globalpolitician.com/24841-lebanon|archivedate=2011-06-28|title=Lebanon back to Normalcy?|last=Ruff|first=Abdul|date=2008-06-01|work=Global Politician|accessdate=19 October 2009}}</ref> leading to the [[2008 conflict in Lebanon]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Beirut street clashes turn deadly|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20080509-gunmen-force-shutdown-pro-government-tv-lebanon-unrest&navi=MONDE?q=node/1671710|work=[[France 24]]|accessdate=9 May 2008}}</ref> The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tni.org/article/walking-tight-wire|title=Walking the tight wire – Conversations on the May 2008 Lebanese crisis|last=Martínez|first=Beatriz|coauthors=Francesco Volpicella|date=September 2008|publisher=Transnational Institute|accessdate=9 May 2010}}</ref> At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.<ref name="Doha NYT" /> On 21 May 2008, the signing of the [[Doha Agreement]] ended the fighting.<ref name="Global Politician"/><ref name="Doha NYT" /> As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis,<ref name = "Doha">{{Cite news|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=2&article_id=92308|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090305232232/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=2&article_id=92308|archivedate=2009-03-05|title=Lebanese rivals set to elect president after historic accord|last=Abdallah |first=Hussein|date=2008-05-22|work=[[Daily Star (Lebanon)|The Daily Star]]|accessdate=19 October 2009}}</ref> [[Michel Suleiman]] became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.<ref name="Global Politician"/> The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.<ref name="Doha NYT">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/16/world/middleeast/16lebanon.html|title=Feuding Political Camps in Lebanon Agree to Talk to End Impasse |last=Worth|first=Robert|coauthors=Nada Bakri|date=16 May 2008|work=New York Times |accessdate=19 October 2009}}</ref> |
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In early January 2011, the [[Lebanese government of November 2009|national unity government]] collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]], which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.<ref name="BBC collapse">{{cite news|title=Hezbollah and allies topple Lebanese unity government|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12170608|accessdate=12 January 2011|newspaper=BBC |date=2011-01-12}}</ref> The parliament elected [[Najib Mikati]], the candidate for the Hezbollah-led [[March 8 Alliance]], Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.<ref name="NYT collapse">{{cite news|last=Bakri|first=Nada|title=Resignations Deepen Crisis for Lebanon|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/13/world/middleeast/13lebanon.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1|accessdate=12 January 2011|newspaper=New York Times|date=12 January 2011}}</ref> Hezbollah leader [[Hassan Nasrallah]] insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2010-08-09/world/lebanon.nasrallah.israel_1_hezbollah-leader-hassan-nasrallah-israelis?_s=PM:WORLD |title=Hezbollah chief: Israel killed Hariri |publisher=CNN |date=2010-08-09 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> A report leaked by the [[Al Akhbar (Lebanon)|Al-Akhbar]] newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country in the case an indictment against its members is issued by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hezbollah Threatens an 'Explosion' in Beirut Over Tribunal|url=http://www.stratfor.com/sample/analysis/hezbollah-threatens-explosion-beirut-over-tribunal|publisher=Stratfor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Lebanese Daily: Hizbullah Drills Takeover of Lebanon|url=http://www.memri.org/report/en/0/0/0/0/0/0/4725.htm|publisher=Middle East Media Research Institute|date=2010-11-03}}</ref> |
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The 2012 [[Syrian civil war]] threatens to spill over in Lebanon, causing more [[Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon|incidents of sectarian violence]] and armed clashes between Sunnis and [[Alawi]]tes in Tripoli.<ref>{{cite news|title=Syrian War Plays Out Along a Street in Lebanon|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/world/middleeast/syrian-war-plays-out-along-a-street-in-lebanon.html?ref=middleeast|publisher=New York Times}}</ref> As of 13 February 2013, more than 182,938 Syrian refugees are in Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demographic Data of Registered Population|url=http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php|publisher=UNHCR|accessdate=14 February 2013}}</ref> As the number of Syrian refugees increases, the [[Lebanese Forces Party]], the [[Kataeb Party]], and the [[Free Patriotic Movement]] fear the country’s sectarian based political system is being undermined.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kverme|first=Kai|title=The Refugee Factor|url=http://carnegieendowment.org/2013/02/14/refugee-factor/fgl0|publisher=SADA|accessdate=14 February 2013|date=February 14, 2013}}</ref> |
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==Geography== |
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{{Main|Geography of Lebanon}} |
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[[File:Satellite image of Lebanon in March 2002.jpg|thumb|Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the [[Lebanon Mountains|western]] and [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains|eastern]] mountain ranges]] |
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Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes [[33rd parallel north|33°]] and [[35th parallel north|35° N]], and longitudes [[35th meridian east|35°]] and [[37th meridian east|37° E]]. |
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The country's surface area is {{convert|10452|sqkm}} of which {{convert|10230|sqkm}} is [[land area|land]]. Lebanon has a coastline and border of {{convert|225|km}} on the [[Mediterranean sea]] to the west, a {{convert|375|km}} border shared with [[Syria]] to the north and east and a {{convert|79|km}} long border with [[Israel]] to the south.<ref name="enbr">{{cite book | title=Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan – Middle East: region in transition | publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group | author=Etheredge, Laura S; Britannica Educational Publishing | year=2011| pages=85–159| isbn=978-1-61530-414-1}}</ref> The [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|border]] with the Israeli-occupied [[Golan Heights]] is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called [[Shebaa Farms]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Philps |first=Alan |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/lebanon/1343868/Israel%27s-withdrawal-from-Lebanon-given-UN%27s-endorsement.html |title=Israel's Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN's Endorsement |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date=2000-06-19 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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[[File:Beirut seafront.jpg|thumb|The waterfront district and the Marina]] |
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Lebanon is divided into four distinct [[Physical geography|physiographic]] regions: the coastal plain, the [[Lebanon Mountains|Lebanon mountain]] range, the [[Beqaa valley]] and the [[Anti-Lebanon mountains]]. |
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The narrow and discontinuous [[coastal plain]] stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the [[Akkar]] plain to [[Naqoura|Ras al-Naqoura]] at the border with Israel in the south. The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited [[alluvium]] alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches. |
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The Lebanon mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of [[limestone]] and [[sandstone]] that runs for most of the country's length. The mountain range varies in width between {{convert|10|km|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|56|km|0|abbr=on}}; it is carved by narrow and deep gorges. The Lebanon mountains peak at {{convert|3088|m}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] in [[Qurnat as Sawda']] in [[North Governorate|North Lebanon]] and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of {{convert|2695|m}} in [[Mount Sannine]]. |
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The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it's a part of the [[Great Rift Valley]] system. The valley is {{convert|180|km|0|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|10|to|26|km|0|abbr=on}} wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits. |
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The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in [[Mount Hermon]] at {{convert|2814|m}}.<ref name="enbr"/> |
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The mountains of Lebanon are drained by [[Intermittent stream|seasonal torrents]] and [[perennial stream|rivers]] foremost of which is the {{convert|145|km}} long [[Litani river|Leontes]] that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of [[Baalbek]] and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.<ref name="enbr"/> |
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===Climate=== |
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{{Main|Climate of Lebanon}} |
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Lebanon has a moderate [[Mediterranean climate]]. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops.<ref name="enbr"/><ref>(Bonechi et al.) (2004) ''Golden Book Lebanon'', p. 3, Florence, Italy: Casa Editrice Bonechi. ISBN 88-476-1489-9</ref> Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall, when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings, certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little because of [[rain shadow]] created by the high peaks of the western mountain range.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/lebanon/31.htm |title=Lebanon – Climate |publisher=Country Studies US |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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===Environment=== |
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[[File:American Aid Helps Lebanon Replant Its Cedar Forests.theora.ogv|thumb||[[Voice of America]] report about the replanting of the cedars as described.]] |
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In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of [[Lebanon cedar|cedar trees]], the national emblem of the country.<ref name="cedar">{{cite web|url=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/lebanon_cedar.htm |title=Lebanon Cedar – Cedrus libani |publisher=Blue Planet Biomes |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The forests cover 13.4% of the Lebanese land area;<ref name="WB">{{cite web | url=http://data.worldbank.org/country/lebanon | title=Lebanon | Data | publisher=The World Bank | work=Data indicators by country | year=2012 | accessdate=13 January 2012 | author=The world bank}}</ref> they are under constant threat from [[wildfire]]s caused by the long dry summer season.<ref name="IPSs">{{cite web | url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=47890 | title=Global Warming Makes Mischief Worse | publisher=Inter Press Service | date=2009-07-30 | accessdate=13 January 2012 | author=Alami, Mona}}</ref> |
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As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old Cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests. The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting by creating the right conditions for [[germination]] and growth. The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the [[Al Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve|Shouf Biosphere Reserve]], the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the [[Tannourine]] Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the [[Cedars of God]] near [[Bsharri]].<ref>Talhouk, S. N. & Zurayk, S. 2003. Conifer conservation in Lebanon. ''Acta Hort.'' 615: 411–414.</ref><ref>Semaan, M. & Haber, R. 2003. In situ conservation on ''Cedrus libani'' in Lebanon. ''Acta Hort.'' 615: 415–417.</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Khaldoun Baz |url=http://www.shoufcedar.org/ |title=Cedars of Lebanon Nature Reserve |publisher=Shoufcedar.org |date=10 August 2011 |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> |
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In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20% that is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year.<ref name="dailystar1">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Article.aspx?id=155258 |title=Lebanon begins landmark reforestation campaign |publisher=The Daily Star |date=2011-11-26 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The plan, which was funded the U.S. development agency, [[USAID]], and overseen by the [[U.S. Forest Service]], and the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative, was inaugurated in 2011 by planting of seedlings, such as cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir and oak, in five regions around Lebanon.<ref name="dailystar1"/> |
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==Government and politics== |
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{{Main|Politics of Lebanon|Human rights in Lebanon}} |
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[[File:BeirutParliament.jpg|thumb|The [[Lebanese parliament]] building at the Place de l'Étoile.]] |
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[[File:Protester at Pierre Amine Gemayel's funeral.jpg|thumb|One of the many protests that occurred at Martyrs' Square.]] |
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Lebanon is a [[parliamentary democracy]], which implements a special system known as [[confessionalism (politics)|confessionalism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/18281.htm |title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2002: Lebanon |publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor |date=2003-03-31 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> This system is intended to deter sectarian conflict and attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of the 18 recognized religious groups in government.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Lijphart, Arend|title=Consociational Democracy|journal=World Politics|volume=21|issue= 2|year=1969|doi=10.2307/2009820|pages=207–225}}</ref><ref>Lijphart, Arend. ''Multiethnic democracy'', in S. Lipset (ed.), "The Encyclopedia of Democracy". London, Routledge, 1995, Volume III, pp. 853–865 ISBN 0871878887.</ref> High-ranking offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The [[President of Lebanon|President]], for example, has to be a [[Maronite]] Christian, the [[Prime Minister of Lebanon|Prime Minister]] a [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni Muslim]], the [[Speaker of the Parliament of Lebanon|Speaker of the Parliament]] a [[Shi'a Islam in Lebanon|Shi’a Muslim]], the [[Deputy Prime Minister]] and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament [[Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon|Eastern Orthodox]].<ref name="confessional">{{cite web|url=http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0330_lebanon_confessionalism.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090322103601/http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/0330_lebanon_confessionalism.html |archivedate=2009-03-22 |title=Lebanon's Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects |publisher=United States Institute of Peace |date=2009-03-22 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prio.no/files/file46602_zahar_-_power_sharing_in_lebanon.doc |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110613143921/http://www.prio.no/files/file46602_zahar_-_power_sharing_in_lebanon.doc |archivedate=2011-06-13 |title=Chapter 9 Power sharing in Lebanon: Foreign protectors, domestic peace, and democratic failure |author=Marie-Joëlle Zahar. |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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Until 1975, [[Freedom House]] considered Lebanon to be one of only two (together with Israel) [[Political freedom|politically free]] countries in the Middle East and North Africa region.<ref name=fh-historic>{{cite web|title=Freedom in the World, Country Ratings by Region, 1972-2013|publisher=Freedom House|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Country%20Status%20and%20Ratings%20By%20Region%2C%201973-2013_0.xls}}</ref> The country lost this status with the outbreak of the Civil War, and never regained it again. Lebanon was rated as "Partly Free" in 2013.<ref name=fh-historic/> |
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Lebanon's national legislature is the [[unicameral]] [[Parliament of Lebanon]]. Its 128 seats are [[Reserved political positions|divided]] equally between Christians and Muslims, proportionately between the 18 different denominations and proportionately between its 26 regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alarabiya.net/save_pdf.php?cont_id=75167 |title=Eager Lebanese race to polls to cast their ballots |publisher=AlArabbia |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the [[Taif Accord]], which put an end to the 1975–1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.<ref name="confessional" /> The Parliament is elected for a four-year term by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation.<ref name="cia">{{CIA World Factbook link|le|Lebanon}}</ref> |
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The executive branch consists of the President, the [[head of state]], and the Prime Minister, the [[head of government]]. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-third majority. The president appoints the Prime Minister,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?cid=9&t=3 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110718200246/http://www.pogar.org/countries/theme.aspx?cid=9&t=3 |archivedate=2011-07-18 |title=Democratic Governance, Elections, Lebanon |publisher=UNDP |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> following consultations with the parliament. The President and the Prime Minister form the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism. |
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The next nation-wide elections are scheduled for early June [[Lebanese general election, 2013|2013]].<ref>{{cite web|title=France concerned over Lebanon elections: Gemayel|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Politics/2013/Jan-31/204446-france-concerned-over-lebanon-elections-gemayel.ashx#axzz2Jjn5oCOd|publisher=The Daily Star|date=January 31, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electionguide.org/search-results.php?type=&country=120&search_year=any&submitted=1&submit.x=49&submit.y=15&submit=Search |title=Elections in Lebanon IFES |publisher=Electionguide.org |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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===Law=== |
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There are 17 official religions in Lebanon, each with its own family law and religious courts. Law of 16 July 1962 concurring in the project of organization of the Sharia, with Sunni and Ja'afari Shii jurisdictions.<ref name="unesco1">{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/SHS/pdf/Women_in_Personal_Status_Laws.pdf |title=Women In Personal Status Laws |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-03-26}}</ref> |
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The Lebanese legal system is based on the [[Law of France|French system]], and is a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] country, with the exception for matters related to personal status (heritage, marriage, divorce, etc.), which are governed by a separate set of laws designed for each sectarian community. For instance, the Islamic personal status laws are inspired by the [[Sharia]] law.<ref name="globalex"/> For Muslims, these tribunals deal with questions of marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance and wills. For non-Muslims. personal status jurisdiction is split: the law of inheritance and wills falls under national civil jurisdiction, while Christian and Jewish religious courts are competent for marriage, divorce, and custody. Catholics can additionally appeal before the [[Roman Rota|Vatican Rota court]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mallat.com/articles/T/The%20Lebanese%20Legal%20System.pdf |title=The Lebanese Legal System |author=Chibli Mallat |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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The most notable set of codified laws is the Code des Obligations et des Contrats promulgated in 1932 and equivalent to the [[French Civil Code]].<ref name="globalex">{{cite web|url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Lebanon.htm |title=The Lebanese Legal System and Research |author=El Samad, Firas |publisher=Nyulawglobal.org |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> [[Capital punishment]] is still used to sanction certain crimes.<ref name="globalex"/> |
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The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. The Constitutional Council rules on constitutionality of laws and electoral frauds. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage and inheritance.<ref name="Carnegie">{{Cite journal | publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] | last = Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | title = Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms – Lebanon | accessdate =4 July 2009 | url = http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Lebanon_APS.doc}}</ref> |
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===Foreign relations=== |
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{{Main|Foreign relations of Lebanon}} |
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Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the [[World Trade Organization]]. |
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Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, Syria and Iraq), and hosted an [[Arab League]] Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon is a member of the [[Francophone]] countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002 as well as the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. |
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===Military=== |
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{{Main|Lebanese Armed Forces}} |
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[[File:Lebanese Armed Forces.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the Lebanese army, 2009]] |
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The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has 72,000 active personnel,<ref name="Lebanon">{{cite news|title=Lebanese Armed Forces, CSIS (Page 78) |date=10 February 2009|url=http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/090210_lafsecurity3.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> including 1,100 in the air force, and 1,000 in the navy.<ref name="Stinson">{{Cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-08-01-lebanon-forces_x.htm|title=Lebanese forces may play bigger role in war|last=Stinson|first=Jefferey|date=1 August 2006|work=USA TODAY |accessdate=22 August 2009}}</ref> |
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The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities, and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions.<ref name="lafmission">{{cite web|url=http://www.lebarmy.gov.lb/english/mission.asp|title=LAF Mission |publisher=Lebanese Armed Forces|accessdate=19 May 2009}}</ref> |
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Lebanon is a major recipient of foreign military aid.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gfs5KFnHsffexKiQgh0f4eWb4Nbw|title=US military aid at stake in Lebanon elections|last=Lanteaume |first=Sylvie|date=4 August 2009|agency=Agence France-Presse |accessdate=22 August 2009}}</ref> With $400 million since 2005, it is the second largest per capita recipient of American military aid behind Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php?CID=2933|title=The Future of U.S. Military Aid to Lebanon|last=Schenker|first=David|date=3 October 2008|work=[[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]]|accessdate=9 August 2009}}</ref> |
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===Governorates and districts=== |
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{{Main|Governorates of Lebanon|Districts of Lebanon|Municipalities of Lebanon}} |
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Lebanon is divided into six [[governorate]]s (''mohaafazaat'', {{lang-ar|محافظات —}};singular ''[[mohafazah]]'', {{lang-ar|محافظة}}) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (''aqdya''—singular: ''[[qadaa]]'').<ref>{{cite web|author=Elias Haddad |url=http://lebanon.usaid.gov/(jakkco45gisweaychxvyoq55)/files/activities.aspx |title=Definitions of Terms used |publisher=USAID Lebanon |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below: |
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{{Lebanon Labelled Map|float=right}} |
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* [[Beirut Governorate]] |
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** The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of [[Beirut]] |
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* [[Nabatieh Governorate]] (''Jabal Amel'') |
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** [[Bint Jbeil District|Bint Jbeil]] |
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** [[Hasbaya District|Hasbaya]] |
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** [[Marjeyoun District|Marjeyoun]] |
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** [[Nabatieh District|Nabatieh]] |
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* [[Beqaa Governorate]] |
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** [[Baalbek District|Baalbek]] |
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** [[Hermel District|Hermel]] |
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** [[Rashaya District|Rashaya]] |
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** [[Western Beqaa District|Western Beqaa]] (''al-Beqaa al-Gharbi'') |
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** [[Zahle District|Zahle]] |
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* [[North Governorate]] (''al-Shamal'') |
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** [[Akkar District|Akkar]] |
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** [[Batroun District|Batroun]] |
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** [[Bsharri District|Bsharri]] |
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** [[Koura District|Koura]] |
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** [[Miniyeh-Danniyeh District|Miniyeh-Danniyeh]] |
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** [[Tripoli District|Tripoli]] |
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** [[Zgharta District|Zgharta]] |
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* [[Mount Lebanon Governorate]] (''Jabal Lubnan'') |
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** [[Aley District|Aley]] |
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** [[Baabda District|Baabda]] |
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** [[Byblos]] (''Jbeil'') |
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** [[Chouf District|Chouf]] |
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** [[Keserwan District|Keserwan]] |
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** [[Matn District|Matn]] |
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* [[South Governorate]] (''al-Janoub'') |
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** [[Jezzine District|Jezzine]] |
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** [[Sidon District|Sidon]] (''Saida'') |
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** [[Tyre District|Tyre]] (''Sur'') |
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==Economy== |
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{{Main|Economy of Lebanon}} |
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[[File:Lebanon Export Treemap.jpg|thumb|Graphical depiction of Lebanon 's product exports in 28 color-coded categories.]] |
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Lebanon’s economy follows a [[laissez-faire]] model.<ref name="expus"/> Most of the economy is [[dollarized]], and the country has no restrictions on the movement of capital across its borders.<ref name="expus"/> The Lebanese government’s intervention in foreign trade is minimal.<ref name="expus"/> |
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The Lebanese economy grew 8.5% in 2008 and a revised 9% in 2009<ref name="revised 2009 growth">{{Cite news|url=http://www.beirut-online.net/portal/article.php?id=6619|title=Lebanon central bank sees GDP growth topping 5 percent in 2010|last=Bayoumy |first=Yara|date=2 February 2010|work=Reuters|publisher=Beirut Online|accessdate=1 March 2010}}</ref> despite a [[Late 2000s recession|global recession]].<ref name="Bloomberg Economic growth ">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601104&sid=a3.ULyFK18Pk|title=Foreign Funds to Spur Growth in Lebanon, Salameh Says|last=Derhally|first=Massoud|date=21 January 2010|work=Bloomberg|accessdate=1 February 2010}}</ref> Real GDP growth is estimated to have slowed from 7.5% in 2010 to 1.5% in 2011, according to IMF preliminary estimates, with nominal GDP estimated at $41.5 billion in 2011.<ref name="expus">{{cite web|url=http://export.gov/lebanon/static/Doing%20Business%20in%20Lebanon_Latest_eg_lb_037171.doc |title=Doing Business in Lebanon |publisher=Export.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The [[Banque du Liban]] projects real GDP growth could reach 4% in 2012, with 6% inflation (versus 4% in 2011).<ref name="expus"/> The political and security instability in the Arab world, especially in Syria, is expected to have a negative impact on the domestic business and economic environment.<ref name="expus"/> |
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Lebanon has a very high level of public debt and large external financing needs.<ref name="expus"/> The 2010 public debt exceeded 150.7% of GDP, ranking fourth highest in the world as a percentage of GDP, though down from 154.8% in 2009.<ref name="cia" /> Finance minister [[Mohamad Chatah]] stated that the debt reached $47 billion in 2008 and would increase to $49 billion if privatization of two telecoms companies did not occur.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/asiaCompanyAndMarkets/idINL217217120090102?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0|title=RPT-UPDATE 1-Lebanon public debt at $47 bln end-2008-minister|last=Bayoumy|first=Yara|date=2 January 2009|agency=Reuters |accessdate=18 October 2009}}</ref> The [[Daily Star (Lebanon)|Daily Star]] wrote that exorbitant debt levels have "slowed down the economy and reduced the government's spending on essential development projects."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cggl.org/scripts/new.asp?id=227|title=IMF: Lebanon's debt alarming |last=Daily Star Staff|date=20 May 2004|work=The Daily Star |publisher=Center for Democracy and the Rule of Law|accessdate=18 October 2009}}</ref> |
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The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/nea/lebanon9401.html |title=Header: People, 4th paragraph |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/documents/41e1aa0d7d676.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090325004042/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/documents/41e1aa0d7d676.pdf |archivedate=2009-03-25 |title=Background Note: Lebanon |publisher=washingtoninstitute.org |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Remittances from Lebanese abroad total $8.2 billion<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/pid/426 |title=Lebanon – Facts and Figures |publisher=Iom.int |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> and account for one fifth of the country's economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/wtMostRead/idUSTRE5570SJ20090608 |title=Facts on Lebanon's economy |publisher=Reuters.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Lebanon has the largest proportion of skilled labor among Arab States.<ref>[[United Nations Population Fund]]. {{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.unfpa.org/profile/lebanon.cfm?Section=1|title=Lebanon – Overview|date=20080207015156}}</ref> |
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The [[Investment Development Authority of Lebanon]] was established with the aim of promoting investment in Lebanon. In 2001, Investment Law No.360<ref>{{cite web|title=Investment Law No.360|url=http://www.idal.com.lb/OurProfile.aspx?ID=76|accessdate=29 July 2011}}</ref> was enacted to reinforce the organisation's mission. |
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The [[Agriculture in Lebanon|agricultural sector]] attracts only 12% of the total [[workforce]].<ref name="workforce">Jean Hayek et al, 1999. The Structure, Properties, and Main Foundations of the Lebanese Economy. In ''The Scientific Series in Geography, Grade 11'', 110–114. Beirut: Dar Habib.</ref> Agriculture contributed to 5.9% of the country's GDP in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agriculture, value added (% of GDP)|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS/countries/1W-LB?display=graph|publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Lebanon's proportion of cultivable land is the highest in the Arab world,<ref name="agriculture">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/lebanon/71.htm |title=Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, U.S.A. 1986–1988 |publisher=Countrystudies.us |date=1978-06-13 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Major produce includes apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.<ref name="dos-2010-03-22" /> |
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[[Petroleum|Oil]] has recently been discovered inland and in the seabed between Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel and Egypt and talks are underway between [[Cyprus]] and [[Egypt]] to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources. The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2061187,00.html | work=Time | title=The Next Big Lebanon-Israel Flare-Up: Gas | date=6 April 2011}}</ref> |
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Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses that reassemble and package imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,<ref name="workforce"/> and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.<ref name="dos-2010-03-22" /> |
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Nearly 65% of the Lebanese workforce attain employment in the services sector.<ref name="workforce"/> The GDP contribution, accordingly, amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.<ref name="dos-2010-03-22" /> However, dependence on the tourism and banking sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to political instability.<ref name="Canada">{{cite web|url=http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/lebanon|title=Lebanon|date=28 May 2009|work=Canadian International Development Agency|publisher=Government of Canada|format = Governmental|accessdate=24 August 2009}}</ref> |
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Lebanese banks are high on liquidity and reputed for their security.<ref name = "Lebanon Banks immune">{{Cite news|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7764657.stm|title= Lebanon 'immune' to financial crisis|publisher=BBC News |date= 5 December 2008|accessdate=28 January 2010}}</ref> Lebanon was one of the only seven countries in the world in which the value of the stock markets increased in 2008.<ref name = "Lebanon 2008 profit">{{Cite news|url= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/money/investment/article4881201.ece|title= Where on earth can you make a decent return?|work=The Sunday Times |location=London |date= 5 October 2008|accessdate=28 January 2010 | first=Kathryn | last=Cooper}}</ref> |
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On May 10, 2013 the Lebanese minister of energy and water clarified that seismic images of the Lebanese's sea bed are undergoing detailed explanation of their contents and that up till now, approximately 10% have been covered. Preliminary inspection of the results showed, with more than 50% probability, that 10% of Lebanon's exclusive economic zone contained up to 660million barrel's of oil and up to 30×10<sup>12</sup> cu ft of gas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lebanonfiles.com/news/543122 |title=ČÇÓíá: Íáă ÇáäÝŘ ŐÇŃ ćÇŢÚÇ ćĂäĚŇäÇ ßá ÇáÎŘćÇĘ ÇáĂÓÇÓíÉ Ýí ÝĘŃÉ ŢíÇÓíÉ |publisher=Lebanonfiles.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> |
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===History=== |
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[[File:Lebanese real GDP Growth in %.PNG|thumb|Lebanese GDP real economic Growth]] |
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The 1975–1990 civil war heavily damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure,<ref name="Stinson"/> cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian [[entrepôt]] and banking hub.<ref name="cia" /> The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in [[Beirut]], begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.<ref name="cia2001">{{cite web|url=http://teacherlink.ed.usu.edu/tlresources/reference/2001WorldFactbook/LEBANON.PDF |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070604195718/http://teacherlink.ed.usu.edu/tlresources/reference/2001WorldFactbook/LEBANON.PDF |archivedate=2007-06-04 |title=CIA World Factbook 2001 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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Until July 2006, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.csbe.org/saliba/essay1.htm| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110725210323/http://www.csbe.org/saliba/essay1.htm| archivedate=2011-07-25| title=Deconstructing Beirut's Reconstruction: 1990–2000| publisher=Center for the Study of the Built Environment| accessdate=31 October 2006}}</ref> and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.<ref name="tourism"/> The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars,<ref name="economy-stat">{{cite web|url=http://www.audi.com.lb/geteconomy/quarterly/lebanon.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081123013845/http://www.audi.com.lb/geteconomy/quarterly/lebanon.pdf |archivedate=2008-11-23 |title=Lebanon Economic Report: 2nd quarter, 2006 |publisher=Bank Audi |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> [[Market capitalization]] was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006.<ref name="economy-stat" /> The month-long [[2006 Lebanon War|2006 war]] severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese [[Ministry of Finance]] on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lebanonundersiege.gov.lb/documents/ImpactonfinanceReport-Englishversion-06.pdf |title=Impact of the July Offensive on the Public Finances in 2006 |publisher=Lebanese Ministry of Finance |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include [[Saudi Arabia]] (with US$ 1.5 billion pledged),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cynews.com/news/7005070415/ |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070928180742/http://www.cynews.com/news/7005070415/ |archivedate=2007-09-28 |title=Saudi Arabia Key Contributor To Lebanon's Reconstruction |author=Joseph S. Mayton |publisher=Cyprus News |date=2007-09-28 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> the European Union (with about $1 billion)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reliefweb.int/node/434440 |title=Donors pledge more than $940 million for Lebanon |publisher=Reliefweb.int |date=2006-08-31 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ain-al-yaqeen.com/issues/20060825/feat2en.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061020061315/http://www.ain-al-yaqeen.com/issues/20060825/feat2en.htm |archivedate=2006-10-20 |title=The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Reviews with the Jordanian King the Situation in Lebanon... |publisher=Ain-Al-Yaqeen |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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====Tourism==== |
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{{Main|Tourism in Lebanon}} |
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[[File:Baalbek - temple of Jupiter.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Baalbek]], temple of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]]] |
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The tourism industry accounts for about 10% of GDP.<ref name=lebtourecon/> Lebanon managed to attract around 1,333,000 tourists in 2008, thus placing it as rank 79 out of 191 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_tou_arr-economy-tourist-arrivals |title=Tourist arrivals statistics – Countries Compared |publisher=NationMaster |accessdate=4 November 2011}}</ref> In 2009, the New York Times ranked Beirut the No. 1 travel destination worldwide due to its Unique Nightlife and Hospitality.<ref>{{cite news|author=Zach Wise and Miki Meek/The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2009/01/11/travel/20090111_DESTINATIONS.html |title=The 44 Places to Go in 2009 – Interactive Graphic |work=The New York Times |date=11 January 2009 |accessdate=21 December 2010}}</ref> In January 2010, the Ministry of Tourism announced that 1,851,081 tourists had visited Lebanon in 2009, a 39% increase from 2008.<ref name="lebanon-tourism1">{{cite web|url=http://www.lebanon-tourism.gov.lb/Ministry/Statistics.aspx |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100111043318/http://www.lebanon-tourism.gov.lb/Ministry/Statistics.aspx |archivedate=2010-01-11 |title=Ministry of Tourism :: Destination Lebanon |publisher=Lebanon-tourism.gov.lb |accessdate=7 January 2012}}</ref> In 2009, Lebanon hosted the largest number of tourists to date, eclipsing the previous record set before the Lebanese Civil War.<ref name="ABC 2009 Tourism Record">{{cite news|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wireStory?id=9601315|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100122014016/http://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wireStory?id=9601315|archivedate=2010-01-22|title=Lebanon Says 2009 Was Best on Record for Tourism|date=19 January 2010|agency=Associated Press|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=1 February 2010}}</ref> Tourist arrivals reached 2 million in 2010, but fell by 37% for the first 10 months of 2012, a decline caused by the war in neighbouring Syria.<ref name=lebtourecon>{{cite news|title=Lebanon’s tourists: Can they be lured back?|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/01/lebanon%E2%80%99s-tourists|publisher=The Economist|date=2013-01-11}}</ref> |
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[[Saudi Arabia]], Jordan, and Japan are the three most popular origin countries of foreign tourists to Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Lebanon/2011/Jul-16/Hospitality-revenues-plunge-40-percent-in-2011.ashx#axzz1SE0e7i00 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110716210658/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Business/Lebanon/2011/Jul-16/Hospitality-revenues-plunge-40-percent-in-2011.ashx#axzz1SE0e7i00 |archivedate=2011-07-16 |title=Business :: Lebanon :: Hospitality revenues plunge 40 percent in 2011 |publisher=The Daily Star |date=2011-07-16|author=Qiblawi, Tamara |accessdate=4 November 2011}}</ref> The recent influx of Japanese tourists is probably the reason for the recent rise in popularity of [[Japanese Cuisine]] in Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lb.emb-japan.go.jp/ |title=Lebanese Cuisine With a Japanese Twist |publisher=Embassy of Japan in Lebanon |date=12 September 2012 |accessdate=12 December 2012}}</ref> |
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==Demographics== |
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{{Main|Demographics of Lebanon|Lebanese people}} |
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The population of Lebanon was estimated to be 4,125,247 in July 2010,<ref name="cia" /> however no official census has been taken since 1932 due to the sensitive [[Confessionalism (politics)|confessional political balance]] between Lebanon's various religious groups.<ref>{{cite web|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,COUNTRYPROF,LBN,4562d8cf2,4954ce52c,0.html |title=Lebanon : Overview Minority Rights Group International |publisher=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Identifying all Lebanese as ethnically Arab is a widely employed example of [[panethnicity]] since in reality, the Lebanese “are descended from many different peoples who have occupied, invaded, or settled this corner of the world,” making Lebanon, “a mosaic of closely interrelated cultures”.<ref name="Stokes, Jamie page 406">{{cite book|author=Jamie Stokes|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East: L to Z|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA406|accessdate=11 December 2011|date=June 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7158-6|page=406}}</ref> While at first glance, this ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity might seem to cause civil and political unrest, “for much of Lebanon’s history this multitudinous diversity of religious communities has coexisted with little conflict”.<ref name="Stokes, Jamie page 406"/> |
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The [[fertility rate]] fell from 5.00 in 1971 to 1.75 in 2004. Fertility rates vary considerably among the different religious groups: in 2004 it was 2.10 for Shiites, 1.76 Sunnis and 1.61 for Maronites.<ref name=demo-reality /> |
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Lebanon has witnessed a series of migration waves: over 1,500,000 people emigrated from the country in the 1975–2011 period.<ref name=demo-reality /> Millions of [[Lebanese diaspora|people of Lebanese descent]] are spread throughout the world, mostly Christians,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hamline.edu/cla/academics/international_studies/diaspora2002/Lebanese/Paper.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090115011357/http://www.hamline.edu/cla/academics/international_studies/diaspora2002/Lebanese/Paper.htm |archivedate=2009-01-15 |title=Senior Seminar: Transnational Migration and Diasporic Communities |publisher=Hamline University |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> especially in [[Latin America]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.managementtoday.co.uk/news/648273/ |title=The world's successful diasporas |publisher=Management Today |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> [[Brazil]] has the largest expatriate population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://melbourne.indymedia.org/news/2006/07/117345.php |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20061013002652/http://melbourne.indymedia.org/news/2006/07/117345.php |archivedate=2006-10-13 |title=Brazil Has More Lebanese than Lebanon |author=Marina Sarruf |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> ''(See [[Lebanese Brazilian]]s)''. Large numbers of Lebanese migrated to [[West Africa]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Tenacity and risk – the Lebanese in West Africa |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8479134.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=10 January 2010}}</ref> particularly to the [[Ivory Coast]] (home to over 100,000 Lebanese)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/ivory-coast/72.htm |title=Ivory Coast – The Levantine Community |publisher=Countrystudies.us |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> and [[Senegal]] (roughly 30,000 [[Lebanese people in Senegal|Lebanese]]).<ref>{{cite web|last=Schwarz |first=Naomi |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-07/2007-07-10-voa46.cfm?CFID=213232878&CFTOKEN=70264387 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080323142904/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-07/2007-07-10-voa46.cfm?CFID=213232878&CFTOKEN=70264387 |archivedate=2008-03-23 |title=Lebanese Immigrants Boost West African Commerce |publisher=Web.archive.org |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> [[Australia]] is home to over 270,000 [[Lebanese Australian|Lebanese]] (1999 est.).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elecpress.monash.edu.au/pnp/free/pnpv7n4/v7n4_3price.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110719124226/http://elecpress.monash.edu.au/pnp/free/pnpv7n4/v7n4_3price.pdf |archivedate=2011-07-19 |title=Australian Population: Ethnic Origins |author=Price, Charles |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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As of 2012, Lebanon was host to over 460,000 [[refugee]]s and [[Right of asylum|asylum]] seekers: 405,425 Palestinians,<ref name="cia"/> 50,000–60,000 from [[Iraq]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report/75172/LEBANON-Iraqi-refugees-face-prison-and-deportation |title=Lebanon: Iraqi refugees face prison and deportation |publisher=Irinnews.org |date=2007-11-06 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/4a69ad639.pdf |title=Surviving in the city: A review of UNHCR's operation for Iraqi refugees in urban areas of Jordan, Lebanon and Syria|format=PDF |accessdate=21 December 2010}}</ref> over 80,000 from [[Refugees of the Syrian civil war|Syria]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Registered Syrian refugees in surrounding states triple in three months|url=http://www.unhcr.org/506ac00c9.html|accessdate=10 October 2012|newspaper=UNHCR – United Nations Refugee Agency|date=2 October 2012}}</ref> and 4,500 from [[Sudan]]. Their primary sources of income are [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East|UNRWA]] aid and menial labor sought in competition with about 300,000 Syrian [[guest worker]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report/83900/LEBANON-SYRIA-Wretched-conditions-for-Syrian-workers |title=Lebanon-Syria: Wretched conditions for Syrian workers |publisher=Irinnews.org |date=2009-04-13 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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In the last three decades, lengthy and destructive [[armed conflict]]s have ravaged the country. The majority of Lebanese have been affected by armed conflict; those with direct personal experience include 75% of the population, and most others report suffering a range of hardships. In total, almost the entire population (96%) has been affected in |
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some way – either personally or because of the wider consequences of armed conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/views-from-field-report-240609/$File/Our-World-Views-from-Lebanon-I-ICRC.pdf |title=Lebanon, Opinion survey 2009 |publisher=ICRC and Ipsos |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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===Religion=== |
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{{main|Religion in Lebanon|Freedom of religion in Lebanon|Secularism in Lebanon}} |
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[[File:Lebanon religious groups distribution.jpg|thumbnail|Distribution of main religious groups of Lebanon according to last municipal election data.<ref>{{cite web|title=Based on data published by Lebanon Demographic|url=http://www.katagogi.com/LV2009/LebMap.aspx?l=EN}}</ref>]] |
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Lebanon is the most religiously diverse country in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Economics and Geopolitics of the Middle East |last=Dralonge |first=Richard N. |year=2008 |publisher=Nova Science Publishers |location=New York |isbn= 1-60456-076-2 |page=150 |quote=Lebanon, with a population of 3.8 million, has the most religiously diverse society in the Middle East, comprising 17 recognized religious sects. |accessdate=25 May 2010}}</ref> The [[CIA World Factbook]] estimates that the population is 59.7% [[Islam in Lebanon|Muslim]] and 39% [[Christianity in Lebanon|Christian]], with other religions and non-believers accounting for the remaining 1.3%.<ref name=cia /> A study conducted by the Lebanese Information Center and based on voter registration numbers shows that by 2011 the Christian population fell to 34.35%, while the Muslims rose to 65.47%.<ref>{{cite web|title=Study shows stable Christian population in Lebanon|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/2013/Feb-07/205420-study-shows-stable-christian-population-in-lebanon.ashx#axzz2QMcBHqNM|author=The Daily Star|date=February 7, 2013|publisher=[[The Daily Star (Lebanon)|The Daily Star]]|accessdate=April 13, 2013}}</ref> |
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Over the past 60 years, there has been a steady decline in the ratio of Christians to Muslims, due to higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population.<ref name="freedom"/> When the last census was held in 1932, Christians made up 53% of Lebanon's population.<ref name=demo-reality>{{cite web|title=The Lebanese Demographic Reality|url=http://www.lstatic.org/PDF/demographenglish.pdf|publisher=Lebanese Information Center Lebanon|date=2013-01-14}}</ref> In 1956 it was estimated that the population was 54% Christian and 44% Muslim.<ref name=demo-reality/> |
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A demographic study conducted by the research firm [[Statistics Lebanon]] found that approximately 27% of the population was [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni]], 27% [[Shi'a Islam in Lebanon|Shi'a]], 21% [[Maronite Church|Maronite]], 8% [[Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon|Greek Orthodox]], 5% Druze, and 5% [[Greek Catholic]], with the remaining 7% mostly belonging to smaller Christian denominations.<ref name=freedom>{{cite web |title=Lebanon |work=International Religious Freedom Report 2010 |publisher=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor |url=http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148830.htm}}</ref> |
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Because the relative size of confessional groups remains a sensitive issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932.<ref name="freedom"/> There are 18 state-recognized religious sects – 4 [[Muslim]], 12 [[Christian]], 1 [[Druze]], and 1 [[Jewish]].<ref name="freedom"/> |
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The Shi'a community primarily resides in South Beirut, the [[Beqaa Valley]], and [[southern Lebanon]].<ref name="LOC_glossary">{{Cite book |last=McGowen |first=Afaf Sabeh|editor-last=Collelo|editor-first=Thomas|title=Lebanon: A Country Study|chapter=Glossary|series=Area Handbook Series|edition=3rd|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=The Division|publication-date=1989|oclc=18907889|url=http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/cntrystd.lb|accessdate=30 September 2010}}</ref> |
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Sunni residents primarily live in West Beirut, the southern coast of Lebanon, and northern Lebanon.<ref name="LOC_glossary"/> [[Kurds in Lebanon|Kurds]] in Lebanon are Sunni Muslims. |
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Maronite residents tend to live in East Beirut and the mountains of Lebanon.<ref name="LOC_glossary"/> They are the largest Christian community in Lebanon.<ref name="LOC_glossary"/> |
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The Greek Orthodox primarily live in Koura, Beirut, Zahleh, Rachaya, Matn, Aley, Akkar, Tripoli, Hasbaya and Marjeyoun. |
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===Language=== |
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Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the [[French language]] may be used".<ref name="article_11">{{cite web|author=Prof. Dr. Axel Tschentscher, LL.M. |url=http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/le00000_.html#A011_ |title=Article 11 of the Lebanese Constitution |publisher=Servat.unibe.ch |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The majority of Lebanese people speak [[Lebanese Arabic]], while [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is mostly used in magazines, newspapers, and formal broadcast media. Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered [[francophone]], and another 15% "partial francophone," and 70% of Lebanon's secondary schools use French as a second language of instruction.<ref name="NadeauBarlow2008">{{cite book |title=The Story of French |coauthors=Jean-Benoît Nadeau, Julie Barlow |year=2008 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-34184-8 |page=311 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NN5oc0HFC7QC&pg=PA311 |accessdate=14 December 2010}}</ref> By comparison, English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon's secondary schools.<ref name="NadeauBarlow2008" /> The use of French is a legacy of the post-World War I League of Nations mandate over Lebanon given to France; as of 2004, some 20% of the population used French on a daily basis.<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia| year=2011| title=Lebanon| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica| url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/334152/Lebanon}}</ref> The use of Arabic by Lebanon's educated youth is declining, as they prefer to speak in French and English.<ref>{{cite web|title=Campaign to save the Arabic language in Lebanon|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10316914 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=24 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Arabic – a dying language?|url=http://observers.france24.com/content/20100625-arabic-dying-language-lebanon-beirut |publisher=observers.france24.com |accessdate=25 June 2010}}</ref> |
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English is increasingly used in science and business interactions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plus ça change |coauthors=Jean-Benoît Nadeau, Julie Barlow |year=2006 |publisher=Robson |isbn=1-86105-917-5 |page=483 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=F_luCRxg6Q4C&pg=PA317 |accessdate=26 January 2010 |author1=Nadeau, Jean-Benoît}}</ref> As of 2007 the presence of English in Lebanon has increased.<ref>Hodeib, Mirella. "[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Local-News/Jan/19/English-assumes-greater-importance-in-Lebanese-linguistic-universe.ashx##axzz2LJ9F7y9b English assumes greater importance in Lebanese linguistic universe]." ''[[Daily Star (Lebanon)|Daily Star]]'' (Lebanon). January 19, 2007. Retrieved on February 19, 2013.</ref> Lebanese people of [[Armenians in Lebanon|Armenian]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]], or [[Greek diaspora|Greek]] descent often speak [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Neo-Aramaic]], or [[Greek language|Greek]] with varying degrees of fluency. There are currently around 150,000 Armenians in Lebanon, or around 5% of the population.<ref>{{cite news|last=Antelava |first=Natalia |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8000507.stm |title=Armenians jump Lebanon's divide |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-04-16 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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==Culture== |
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{{Main|Culture of Lebanon}} |
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[[File:Baalbek-Bacchus.jpg|thumb|[[Temple of Bacchus]] is considered one of the best preserved [[Roman Empire|Roman]] temples in the world, c. 150 AD]] |
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The culture of Lebanon is the cross culture of various civilizations over thousands of years. Originally home to the [[Phoenicia]]ns, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the [[Assyria]]ns, the [[Persia]]ns, the [[Greeks]], the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], the Arabs, the Crusaders, the [[Ottoman Turks]] and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine. |
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Despite the ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they “share an almost common culture”.<ref name="StokesJamie">Stokes, Jamie. ''Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East'', Facts On File, 2009, p. 406 ISBN 0816071586</ref> [[Lebanese Arabic]] is universally spoken while food, music, and literature are deep-rooted “in wider Mediterranean and Levantine norms”.<ref name="StokesJamie" /> |
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===Arts=== |
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In literature, [[Khalil Gibran]] is particularly known for his book ''[[The Prophet (book)|The Prophet]]'' (1923), which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lr/2003/01/05/stories/2003010500320500.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100812094242/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lr/2003/01/05/stories/2003010500320500.htm |archivedate=2010-08-12 |title=Called by life |publisher=The Hindu |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including [[Elias Khoury]], [[Amin Maalouf]], [[Hanan al-Shaykh]], and [[Georges Schehadé]]. |
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In visual arts, [[Moustafa Farroukh]] was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaftoun.com/component/content/article/197-moustafa-farroukh/358-moustafa-farroukh |title=Moustafa Farroukh |publisher=Kaftoun.com |date=2 July 2010 |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> Many more contemporary artists are currently active, such as [[Walid Raad]], a contemporary media artist currently residing in New York.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medienkunstnetz.de/artist/raad/biography/ |title=Media Art Net | Ra'ad, Walid: Biography |publisher=Medienkunstnetz.de |accessdate=5 May 2012}}</ref> |
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In the field of photography, the [[Arab Image Foundation]] has a collection of +400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East. The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection. |
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===Popular culture=== |
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[[File:Votive statue from eshmun.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Beige marble statue of a stout young child aged about two years old lying on his left side. The child's head is shaved, his eyes gaze over the viewer's shoulder and his lower body is covered in a draping cloth that hangs limply between his flexed feet. The child supports his torso with his left hand in which he holds an unidentifiable object, he also holds a small bird in his right hand. The sculpture rests on a heavy socle inscribed with barely visible letters spanning the upper part of the socle vertically. |Votive marble statue of a royal child, inscribed in Phoenician, from the [[Eshmun]] sanctuary, c. 400s BC]] |
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The [[Music of Lebanon]] is pervasive in Lebanese society.<ref name="MusicLP">{{Cite book|last=Carter|first=Terry|coauthors=Dunston Lara|others=Thomas Amelia|title=Lonely Planet Syria & Lebanon|publisher=Lonely Planet|date=15 July 2008|edition=3|series=[[Lonely Planet]]|pages=254–255|chapter=Arts|isbn=978-1-74104-609-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=_R-I_Gx5OgQC&pg=PA255|accessdate=19 September 2009}}</ref> While traditional folk music remains popular in Lebanon, modern music reconciling Western and traditional Arabic styles, pop, and [[Fusion (music)|fusion]] are rapidly advancing in popularity.<ref name="Traditional">{{Cite book|last=Sheehan|first=Sean|coauthors=Latif Zawiah|title=Lebanon|publisher=Marshall Cavendish Children's Books|date=30 August 2007|edition=2|series=Cultures of the World|page=105|chapter=Arts|isbn=978-0-7614-2081-1|url=http://books.google.com/?id=cA-RDzlwVVAC&pg=PA105|accessdate=19 September 2009}}</ref> Radio stations feature a variety of music, including traditional Lebanese, classical Arabic, Armenian<ref>McKenzie, Robert. ''Comparing Media from Around the World'', Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2006, p. 372 ISBN 0-205-40242-9</ref> and modern French, English, American, and [[Latin America|Latin]] tunes.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kamalipour|first=Yahya|coauthors=Rampal Kuldip|title=Media, sex, violence, and drugs in the global village|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.|date=15 November 2001|page=265|chapter=Between Globalization and Localization|isbn=978-0-7425-0061-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=yL3l0GwdNcsC&pg=PA265|accessdate=19 September 2009}}</ref> |
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[[Cinema of Lebanon]], according to film critic and historian, Roy Armes, was the only other cinema in the Arabic-speaking region, beside Egypt's, that could amount to a national cinema.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roy Armes|title=Arab filmmakers of the Middle East: a dictionary|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rHT8LjR_kC4C&pg=PA26|accessdate=11 December 2011|date=23 August 2010|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35518-8|pages=26–}}</ref> Cinema in Lebanon has been in existence since the 1920s, and the country has produced over 500 films,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/251761/day3creative%20Industry%20WB_version%201.pdf |title=Knowledge Intensive Industries: Four Case Studies of Creative Industries in Arab Countries |page=16 |publisher=World Bank |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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The [[Media of Lebanon]] is not only a regional center of production but also the most liberal and free in the Arab world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Migliorino, Nicola |title=(Re)constructing Armenia in Lebanon and Syria: ethno-cultural diversity and the state in the aftermath of a refugee crisis |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=y_Sd32i-0owC |accessdate=11 December 2011 |year=2008 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-84545-352-7 |page=122}}</ref> According to Press freedom's [[Reporters Without Borders]], "the media have more freedom in Lebanon than in any other Arab country".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/country_profiles/791071.stm |title=Lebanon profile – Overview |publisher=BBC News |date=24 August 2011 |accessdate=4 November 2011}}</ref> Despite its small population and geographic size, Lebanon plays an influential role in the production of information in the Arab world and is "at the core of a regional media network with global implications".<ref name=b1>{{cite book|author1=Dale F. Eickelman|author2=Jon W. Anderson|title=New media in the Muslim world: the emerging public sphere|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Moh2l5d85OYC&pg=PA63|accessdate=11 December 2011|date=1 July 2003|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34252-2|pages=63–65}}</ref> |
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===Holidays and Festivals=== |
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{{Main|Public holidays in Lebanon}} |
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[[File:Beiteddine Palace InnerCourtyard.jpg|thumb|[[Beiteddine Palace]], venue of the [[Beiteddine Festival]]]] |
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Lebanon celebrates national and both [[Christianity in Lebanon|Christian]] and [[Islam in Lebanon|Muslim]] holidays. Christian holidays are celebrated following both the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and [[Julian Calendar]]. Greek Orthodox (with the exception of Easter), Catholics, Protestant, and Melkite Christians follow the Gregorian Calendar and thus celebrate Christmas on 25 December. Armenian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on 6 January, as they follow the Julian Calendar. Muslim holidays are followed based on the Islamic lunar calendar. Muslim holidays that are celebrated include Eid al-Fitr (the three-day feast at the end of the Ramadan month), Eid al-Adha (The Feast of the Sacrifice) which is celebrated during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and also celebrates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son to God,the Birth of the Prophet Muhammad, and Ashura (the Shiite Day of Mourning). Lebanon's National Holidays include Workers Day, Independence day, and Martyrs Day. |
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Music festivals, often hosted at historical sites, are a customary element of Lebanese culture.<ref name = "Festivals">{{Cite book|last=Sheehan|first=Sean|coauthors=Latif |others=Zawiah|title=Lebanon|publisher=Marshall Cavendish Children's Books|date=30 August 2007|series=Cultures of the World|volume=13|page=123|chapter=Leisure|isbn=978-0-7614-2081-1|url=http://books.google.com/?id=cA-RDzlwVVAC&pg=PA123}}</ref> Among the most famous are [[Baalbeck International Festival]], [[Byblos International Festival]], [[Beiteddine Festival|Beiteddine International Festival]], Broumana Festival, Batroun Festival, Dhour Chwer Festival and Tyr Festival.<ref name="Festivals" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Carter|first=Terry|coauthors=Dunston Lara|others= Humphreys Andrew|title=Syria & Lebanon|publisher=Lonely Planet|date=1 August 2004|edition=2|series=Guidebook Series|page=11|chapter=Getting Started|isbn=978-1-86450-333-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=EskzgI-229IC&pg=PA11}}</ref> These festivals are promoted by Lebanon's [[Ministry of Tourism (Lebanon)|Ministry of Tourism]]. Lebanon hosts about 15 concerts from international performers each year, ranking 1st for nightlife in the Middle East, and 6th worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lebanon-tourism.gov.lb/news/Details.aspx?NewsId=10 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110722145040/http://www.lebanon-tourism.gov.lb/news/Details.aspx?NewsId=10 |archivedate=2011-07-22 |title=Lebanon Summer & Winter Festivals |publisher=Lebanese Ministry of Tourism |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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===Sports=== |
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{{Main|Sport in Lebanon}} |
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Lebanon has six [[Skiing in Lebanon|ski resorts]]. Because of Lebanon's unique geography, it is possible to go skiing in the morning and swimming in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the afternoon.<ref name="Aikman2009">{{cite book|author=David Aikman|title=The Mirage of Peace: Understanding the Never-Ending Conflict in the Middle East|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RI0o-bfRAvIC&pg=PA48|accessdate=2 February 2013|date=14 August 2009|publisher=Gospel Light Publications|isbn=978-0-8307-4605-7|page=48}}</ref> At the competitive level, basketball and [[Association football|football]] are among Lebanon’s most popular sports. [[Canoeing]], cycling, [[rafting]], [[climbing]], swimming, sailing and [[caving]] are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. The [[Beirut Marathon]] is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beirutmarathon.org/about-bma/ |title=About BMA | Marathon |publisher=Beirutmarathon.org |date=2003-10-19 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> |
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[[Rugby league in Lebanon|Rugby league]] is a relatively new but growing sport in Lebanon. The [[Lebanon national rugby league team]] participated in the [[2000 Rugby League World Cup]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Hadfield |first=Dave |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/general/rugby-league/lebanese-rugby-league-team-in-storm-over-funny-substances-636051.html |title=Lebanese rugby league team in storm over funny substances - Rugby League - More Sports |publisher=The Independent |date=2000-10-24 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> and narrowly missed qualification for the [[2008 Rugby League World Cup|2008]]<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/sport/nrl/samoa-into-world-cup/story-e6frep5x-1111114882761 |title=Samoa beats Lebanon to be last team in league world cup |publisher=The Courier-Mail |date=2007-11-14 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> and [[2013 Rugby League World Cup|2013]] tournaments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/Sports/Rugby/2011/Oct-31/152639-lebanons-rugby-world-cup-bid-ends-with-draw.ashx#axzz1cLMWLHdf |title=Lebanon’s Rugby World Cup bid ends with draw | Sports , Rugby |publisher=The Daily Star |date=2011-10-31 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> Lebanon also took part in the [[2009 European Cup]] where, after narrowly failing to qualify for the final, the team defeated [[Ireland national rugby league team|Ireland]] to finish 3rd in the tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rugbyleagueplanet.com/rugby-league-nations/91-rugby-league-test-match-or-international-game/862-2009-rugby-league-european-cup-flashback |title=2009 Rugby League European Cup Flashback |publisher=Rugby League Planet |date= |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> |
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Lebanon participates in [[Basketball]]. The [[Lebanon national basketball team|Lebanese National Team]] qualified for the [[FIBA World Championship]] 3 times in a row.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://london2012.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/12/olym/team/p/sid/5195/tid/317/profile.html |title=Team Lebanon Profile - 2011 FIBA Asia Championship | FIBA.COM |publisher=London2012.fiba.com |date=2011-08-23 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/10/fwcm/team/p/sid/4728/tid/317/profile.html |title=Team Lebanon Profile - 2010 FIBA World Championship |publisher=Fiba.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> Dominant Basketball teams in Lebanon are [[Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiba.com/pages/eng/fc/news/lateNews/p/newsid/47119/arti.html |title=FIBA Asia - Thrilla in Manila Part II: Riyadi down Mahram again, this time in final [video |publisher=Fiba.Com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> who are the current Arab and Asian champions, [[Hekmeh|Club Sagesse]] who were able to earn the Asian and Arab championships before. [[Fadi El Khatib]] is the most decorated player in the Lebanese National Basketball League. |
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[[Football in Lebanon|Football]] is also one of the more popular sports in the country with the [[Lebanese Premier League]] with its most successful clubs being [[Al-Ansar Club]] and [[Nejmeh SC]] with notable players being [[Roda Antar]] and [[Youssef Mohamad]], the first Arab to captain a European premier league team. |
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In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the [[AFC Asian Cup]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rsssf.com/tables/00asch.html |title=Asian Nations Cup 2000 |publisher=Rsssf.com |date=2011-03-04 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> and the [[Pan Arab Games]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goalzz.com/main.aspx?c=208 |title=2nd Pan Arab Games |publisher=goalzz.com |date= |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.footballdatabase.eu/football.competition.pan-arab-games.international.1996-1997...en.html |title=Football - Competition : Pan Arab Games 1997 |publisher=Footballdatabase.eu |date=1997-07-27 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> Lebanon hosted the [[2009 Jeux de la Francophonie]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.france24.com/en/20090927-culture-sports-lebanon-beirut-games-francophone-youth |title=Nine days of sport and culture in Beirut |publisher=FRANCE 24 |date=2009-09-27 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> from 27 September to 6 October, and [[Lebanon at the Olympics|have participated]] in every [[Olympic Games]] since its independence, winning a total of four medals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympic.org/athletes |title=Athletes | Famous Olympic Athletes | Medals | Gold Medalists | Heroes |publisher=Olympic.org |date=2012-06-26 |accessdate=2013-05-28}}</ref> |
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Prominent Lebanese bodybuilders include [[Samir Bannout]], [[Mohammad Bannout]] and [[Ahmad Haidar]]. |
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==Education== |
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{{Main|Education in Lebanon}} |
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[[File:Beirut Universitet Haigazian.jpg|thumb|[[Haigazian University]] in Beirut.]] |
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Listed by the World Economic Forum’s 2013 Global Information Technology Report, Lebanon has been ranked globally as the fifth best country for math and science education, and as the tenth best overall for quality of education. |
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In Quality of management schools, the country was ranked 13th worldwide.<ref>http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GITR_Report_2013.pdf</ref> |
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The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008. The index, which is determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the country 88th out of the 177 countries participating.<ref name=undp>{{cite web|url=http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_LBN.html |title=Human development indicators Lebanon |accessdate=17 November 2008 |work=United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Reports}}</ref> |
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All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the [[Ministry of Education and Higher Education (Lebanon)|Ministry of Education]]. Some of the 1400 private schools offer [[IB program]]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samidoun.org/?q=node/812 |title=Aid groups scramble to fix buildings; fill backpacks before school bell rings |publisher=Samidoun |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> and may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The first eight years of education are, by law, compulsory.<ref name="dos-2010-03-22" /> |
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Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opportunities.com.lb/Lebanon/bhb/initdoc.asp?catId=21 |title=Business Information |publisher=Lebanon Opportunities |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.higher-edu.gov.lb/Marasim.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20071211044854/http://www.higher-edu.gov.lb/Marasim.html |archivedate=2007-12-11 |title=Decrees |publisher=Lebanese Directory of Higher Education |date=2007-12-11 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The [[American University of Beirut]] (AUB) and the [[Université Saint-Joseph]] (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively.<ref>[http://www.eifl.net/docs/collaborative_management_of_electronic_resources.ppt "Country Report: Lebanon". Retrieved 14 December 2006. eIFL.net Regional Workshop (2005)]{{Dead link|date=October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usj.edu.lb/english/history.php |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060706105323/http://www.usj.edu.lb/english/history.php |archivedate=2006-07-06 |title=125 years of history – A timeline |publisher=Université Saint-Joseph |date=2006-07-06 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Universities in Lebanon, both public and private, largely operate in French or English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yalla10.yalla.com.lb/students/abroad/english/lebanon.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080618225916/http://yalla10.yalla.com.lb/students/abroad/english/lebanon.html |archivedate=2008-06-18 |title=Yalla! Students |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=2008-06-18 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> |
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According to the [[Webometrics Ranking of World Universities]], the top-ranking universities in the country are the American University of Beirut (951st worldwide), [[Université Saint Joseph de Beyrouth]] (2332nd) and the [[Lebanese American University]] (2630th).<ref>{{cite web|title=Lebanon|url=http://www.webometrics.info/en/aw/Lebanon|publisher=Ranking Web of Universities|accessdate=26 February 2013}}</ref> |
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==Health== |
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In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 7.03% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 31.29 physicians and 19.71 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Health|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=32&cat_code=8|publisher=SESRIC}}</ref> The life expectancy at birth was 72.59 years in 2011, or 70.48 years for males and 74.80 years for females.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demography|url=http://www.sesrtcic.org/oic-member-countries-infigures.php?c_code=32&cat_code=7|publisher=SESRIC}}</ref> |
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By the end of the civil war, only one third of the country’s public hospitals were operational, each with an average of only 20 beds. By 2009 the country had 28 |
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public hospitals, with a total of 2,550 beds.<ref name=healthref>{{cite web|title=Health Reform In Lebanon: Key Achievements at a glance|url=http://www.moph.gov.lb/Media/Documents/dg08014.pdf|publisher=Ministry of Public Health}}</ref> At public hospitals, hospitalized uninsured patients pay 5% of the bill, in comparison with 15% in private hospitals, with the [[Ministry of Public Health]] reimbursing the remainder.<ref name=healthref/> The Ministry of Public Health contracts with 138 private hospitals and 25 public hospitals.<ref name=statbul11/> |
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In 2011, there were 236,643 subsidized admissions to hospitals; 164,244 in private hospitals, and 72,399 in public hospitals. More patients visit private hospitals than public hospitals, because the private beds supply is higher.<ref name=statbul11>{{cite web|title=Statistical Bulletin 2011|url=http://www.moph.gov.lb/Publications/Documents/Statistical%20Bulletin%202011.pdf|publisher=Ministry of Public Health}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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{{portal|Lebanon}}{{Wikipedia books|Lebanon}} |
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*[[Index of Lebanon-related articles]] |
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*[[List of Lebanese people (diaspora)]] |
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*[[Outline of Lebanon]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|group=nb}} |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==Bibliography== |
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*{{Cite book|last=Morris|first=Benny|title=1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War|publisher=Yale University Pres|date=April 2008|isbn=978-0-300-12696-9|url=http://books.google.com/?id=CC7381HrLqcC|ref=harv}} |
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==Further reading== |
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{{refbegin|30em}} |
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*Arkadiusz, Plonka. ''L’idée de langue libanaise d’après Sa‘īd ‘Aql'', Paris, Geuthner, 2004 (French) ISBN 2-7053-3739-3 |
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* Firzli, Nicola Y. ''Al-Baath wa-Lubnân'' [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"). Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973 |
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* Fisk, Robert. ''Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon.'' New York: Nation Books, 2002. |
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*[[Charles Glass|Glass, Charles]], "Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East", Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), 1990 ISBN 0-436-18130-4 |
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* Gorton, TJ and Feghali Gorton, AG. ''Lebanon: through Writers' Eyes.'' London: Eland Books, 2009. |
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* [[Philip Khuri Hitti|Hitti Philip K.]] ''History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol. 2'' (2002) (ISBN 1-931956-61-8) |
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* Holst, Sanford. ''Phoenicians: Lebanon's Epic Heritage.'' Los Angeles: Cambridge and Boston Press, 2005. |
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* Norton, Augustus R. ''Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon.'' Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987. |
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* Sobelman, Daniel. New Rules of the Game: Israel and Hizbollah After the Withdrawal From Lebanon, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 2004. |
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* Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. |
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* Salibi, Kamal. ''A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. |
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* Schlicht, Alfred. The role of Foreign Powers in the History of Syria and Lebanon 1799–1861 in: Journal of Asian History 14 (1982) |
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{{refend}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Sister project links|voy=Lebanon}} |
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*[http://www.informs.gov.lb/informs_en/pages/home.aspx Lebanon] ''official government portal'' |
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*[http://lebanese-economy-forum.com/world-facts/show/le/ Lebanon] ''Lebanon – Country Profile'' |
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*{{CIA World Factbook link|le|Lebanon}} |
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*{{GovPubs|lebanon}} |
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*{{ArabDecision|coun_sel_3_4.htm}} |
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*{{dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Lebanon}} |
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*{{wikiatlas|Lebanon}} |
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{{Geographic location |
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| Northwest = ''Mediterranean'' |
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| North = {{flag|Syria}} |
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| Northeast = {{flag|Syria}} |
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| West = ''Mediterranean'' |
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| Centre = {{flagicon|Lebanon}} [[Outline of Lebanon|Lebanon]] |
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Revision as of 08:59, 6 June 2013
Lebanese Republic
| |
---|---|
Anthem:
| |
![]() | |
Capital and largest city | Beirut |
Official languages | Arabica |
Demonym(s) | Lebanese |
Government | Unitary confessionalist parliamentary republic[1] |
Michel Suleiman | |
Najib Mikati | |
Tammam Salam | |
Legislature | Chamber of Deputies |
Establishment | |
1 September 1920 | |
• Constitution | 23 May 1926 |
• Independence declared | 8 November 1943 |
• Independence recognized by France | 22 November 1943 |
• Withdrawal of French forces | 31 December 1946 |
Area | |
• Total | 10,452 km2 (4,036 sq mi) (166th) |
• Water (%) | 1.8 |
Population | |
• 2008 estimate | 4,224,000[2] (126th) |
• Density | 404/km2 (1,046.4/sq mi) (25th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2011 estimate |
• Total | $61.444 billion[3] (83rd) |
• Per capita | $15,522[3] (57th) |
GDP (nominal) | 2011 estimate |
• Total | $39.039 billion[3] (80th) |
• Per capita | $9,862[3] (63rd) |
HDI (2013) | ![]() high (72nd) |
Currency | Lebanese pound (LBP) |
Time zone | UTC+2 (EET) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+3 (EEST) |
Drives on | right[5] |
Calling code | +961[6] |
ISO 3166 code | LB |
Internet TLD | .lb |
|
Lebanon (/ˈlɛbənɒn/ or /ˈlɛbənən/; Arabic: لبنان Libnān or Lubnān, Lebanese Arabic: [lɪbˈneːn], Aramaic לבנאנ ), officially the Lebanese Republic[nb 1] (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية Al-Jumhūrīyah Al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.[7]
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history.[8] Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for over a thousand years (c.1550–539 BC). In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, and eventually became one of the Empire's leading centers of Christianity. In the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion and identity. However, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, a religious divide that would last for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites established strong ties with the Roman Catholic invaders, ties that influenced the region into the modern era.
The region eventually came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, a political situation that lasted for centuries. Following the collapse of the Empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronites and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing a unique political system – "confessionalism" – that is a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities. Bechara El Khoury (independent Lebanon's first President) and Riad El-Solh (Lebanon's first Prime Minister) are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.[9]
Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), the country experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, and banking.[10] Because of its financial power and diversity, Lebanon was known in its heyday as the "Switzerland of the East".[11] It attracted so many tourists that the capital, Beirut, was referred to as "Paris of the Middle East."[12] At the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[13]
Etymology
The name Lebanon comes from the Semitic root LBN (لبن), meaning "white", likely a reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.[14]
Occurrences of the name have been found in different texts from the library of Ebla,[15] which date to the third millennium BC, nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (perhaps as early as 2100 BC).[16]
The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L.[17]
History
Ancient Lebanon
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/PhoenicianTrade.png/220px-PhoenicianTrade.png)
Evidence of an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, which is considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world,[8] and date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[18]
Lebanon was a part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants – the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.[19] Their most famous colonies were Carthage in today’s Tunisia and Cadiz in today’s Spain. The Phoenicians are best known as the inventors of the alphabet, among many other things. After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Egyptian Empire, Persian, Assyrian, Hellenistic, Roman, Armenian, Eastern Roman, Arab (Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid), Seljuk, Mamluk, the Crusader's state of County of Tripoli founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse that encompassed most of present day Lebanon, and the Ottoman Empire.
Maronites, Druze, and the Crusades
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Siege_of_Tripoli_Painting_%281289%29.jpg/180px-Siege_of_Tripoli_Painting_%281289%29.jpg)
The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the early spread of the religion. During the late 4th and early 5th century, a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition, focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism, near the Syrian mountain range known as Mount Lebanon. The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among the Syrians in the region. These Christians came to be known as Maronites and moved into mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.[20]
During the 7th century the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria establishing a new regime to replace the Romans (or Byzantines as the Eastern Romans are sometimes called). Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime, the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the Syriac language. The Maronite community in particular clung stubbornly to its faith and managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Syria.
During the 11th century the Druze faith emerged from a branch of Shia Islam. The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon. The Maronites and the Druze divided Mount Lebanon until the modern era. The major cities on the coast, Acre, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by Arab culture.
Following the fall of Roman/Christian Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Romans put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century. The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks in Western Europe to reclaim the former Roman territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the Levant). The First Crusade succeeded in temporarily establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast.[21] These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region though their control was limited and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks.
One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e. the French) and the Maronites. Unlike most other Christian communities in the eastern Mediterranean, who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region.
Ottoman Lebanon and French Mandate
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg/220px-DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Lebanon_as_envisaged_by_French_General_Charles-Marie-Napol%C3%A9on_de_Beaufort_d%27Hautpoul_Beaufort_d%27Hautpoul_in_1862.jpg/170px-Lebanon_as_envisaged_by_French_General_Charles-Marie-Napol%C3%A9on_de_Beaufort_d%27Hautpoul_Beaufort_d%27Hautpoul_in_1862.jpg)
In 1590, Fakhr-al-Din II became successor to Korkmaz. He was a skilled politician and described as a pupil of Machiavelli. Fakhr-al-Din II adjusted to the lifestyles of the Druze, Christianity and Islam, according to his needs. He paid tribute to the Sultanate of the Ottoman Empire and shared the spoils of war with his masters. Eventually, Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Emir of Mount Lebanon, with full authority. He was considered one of the greatest rulers of the region, also across the Middle of Lebanon. But, his enemies and governors angered the Ottoman Sultanate. Hence, a campaign, calling for the arrest of Fakhr-al-Din II, found the deposed leader in Istanbul, where he was executed along with one or two of his sons, in 1635.[24] Approximately 10,000 Christians were killed by the Druzes in 1860.[25] Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mount Lebanon that lasted about 400 years was replaced by the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, as a result of a European-Ottoman treaty called the Règlement Organique.
In 1920, following WWI, the area of the Mutasarrifate, plus some surrounding areas which were predominantly Shia and Sunni, became a part of the state of Greater Lebanon under the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon. In the first half of 1920, Lebanese territory was claimed as part of the Arab Kingdom of Syria, but shortly the Franco-Syrian War resulted in Arab defeat and capitulation of the Hashemites. By the end of the war, famine had killed an estimated 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, about 30% of the total population.[26]
On 1 September 1920, France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria.[27] Lebanon was a largely Christian country (mainly Maronite territory with some Greek Orthodox enclaves) but it also included areas containing many Muslims (including Druze).[citation needed] On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government.
Independence
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Beirut%27s_Martyrs%27_Square_during_celebrations_marking_the_release_by_the_French_of_Lebanon%27s_government_from_Rashayya_prison_on_November_22%2C_1943%2C_the_day_of_Lebanon%27s_independence._Adib_Ibrahim.jpg/150px-thumbnail.jpg)
Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.[28] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943 and recognized the independence of Lebanon.
The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shiite Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox.[29]
Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.[30]
In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.[31] Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.[32] On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army – led by the then Minister of National Defence, Emir Majid Arslan – captured Al-Malkiyya. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.[33]
During the war, some 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon, while Israel did not permit their return at the end of hostilities.[34] Palestinians, previously prevented from working at all due to denial of citizenship, are now forbidden to work in some 20 professions after liberalization laws.[35] Today, more than 400,000 refugees remain in limbo, about half in camps.[36]
In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic. Chamoun requested assistance, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on July 15. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab.
With the defeat of PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their armed campaign against Israel. The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians vs. the Maronites and other Lebanese factions.
Civil war and occupation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg/220px-Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg)
In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO, left-wing Druze and Muslim militias. In June 1976 Syria sent in its own troops, ostensibly to restore peace. In October 1976 the Arab League agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian Arab Deterrent Force, which was charged with restoring calm.[37]
In 1982, the PLO presence in Lebanon led to an Israeli invasion. A multinational force of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by a British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city, to supervise the evacuation of the PLO. It returned in September 1982 after the assassination of Bashir Gemayel and subsequent fighting, during which a number of massacres were committed, such as in Damour,[38] in Sabra and Shatila,[39] and in several refugee camps.[40] The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984, following a devastating bombing attack during the previous year.
In September 1988, the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians and the Muslims and Syrians. The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to the formation of a Saudi-Moroccan-Algerian committee to solve the crisis. On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all. A ceasefire was established, the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return.[37]
In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Accord, which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalisation of the Lebanese political system.[37] The war ended at the end of 1990, after sixteen years. It resulting in massive loss of human life and property, and devastating the country's economy. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.[41] Some 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes.[42] Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[43] The Taif Accord has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon’s political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines.
Withdrawal and aftermath
The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of Hafez Al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.[44]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Beirut-Rue_Minet_al_Hosn-Assn_R_Hariri.jpg/220px-Beirut-Rue_Minet_al_Hosn-Assn_R_Hariri.jpg)
On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion.[45] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack,[46] while the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials claimed that the Mossad was behind the assassination.[47] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures.[nb 2]
The assassination triggered the Cedar Revolution, a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. Under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing,[48] and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria.[49][50]
The UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into the assassination.[51] The UN International Independent Investigation Commission published its preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services.[52][53][54][55]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg/220px-Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg)
On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured a further two.[56] Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon, resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War. The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire.[57] Some 1,191 Lebanese[58] and 160 Israelis[59] were killed in the conflict. Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes where Hezbollah military infrastructure was deeply embedded among the civilian population.[60]
In 2007, the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize.[61]
Between 2006 and 2008, a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power. When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president.
On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut,[62] leading to the 2008 conflict in Lebanon.[63] The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.[64] At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.[65] On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting.[62][65] As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis,[66] Michel Suleiman became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.[62] The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.[65]
In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.[67] The parliament elected Najib Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance, Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.[68] Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.[69] A report leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country in the case an indictment against its members is issued by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon.[70][71]
The 2012 Syrian civil war threatens to spill over in Lebanon, causing more incidents of sectarian violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.[72] As of 13 February 2013, more than 182,938 Syrian refugees are in Lebanon.[73] As the number of Syrian refugees increases, the Lebanese Forces Party, the Kataeb Party, and the Free Patriotic Movement fear the country’s sectarian based political system is being undermined.[74]
Geography
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Satellite_image_of_Lebanon_in_March_2002.jpg/220px-Satellite_image_of_Lebanon_in_March_2002.jpg)
Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N, and longitudes 35° and 37° E.
The country's surface area is 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi) of which 10,230 square kilometres (3,950 sq mi) is land. Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 kilometres (140 mi) on the Mediterranean sea to the west, a 375 kilometres (233 mi) border shared with Syria to the north and east and a 79 kilometres (49 mi) long border with Israel to the south.[75] The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms.[76]
Lebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the Lebanon mountain range, the Beqaa valley and the Anti-Lebanon mountains.
The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south. The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches. The Lebanon mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country's length. The mountain range varies in width between 10 km (6 mi) and 56 km (35 mi); it is carved by narrow and deep gorges. The Lebanon mountains peak at 3,088 metres (10,131 ft) above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Mount Sannine. The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it's a part of the Great Rift Valley system. The valley is 180 km (112 mi) long and 10 to 26 km (6 to 16 mi) wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits. The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at 2,814 metres (9,232 ft).[75]
The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the 145 kilometres (90 mi) long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.[75]
Climate
Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops.[75][77] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall, when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings, certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little because of rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range.[78]
Environment
In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of cedar trees, the national emblem of the country.[79] The forests cover 13.4% of the Lebanese land area;[80] they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season.[81]
As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old Cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests. The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting by creating the right conditions for germination and growth. The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri.[82][83][84]
In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20% that is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year.[85] The plan, which was funded the U.S. development agency, USAID, and overseen by the U.S. Forest Service, and the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative, was inaugurated in 2011 by planting of seedlings, such as cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir and oak, in five regions around Lebanon.[85]
Government and politics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/BeirutParliament.jpg/220px-BeirutParliament.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Protester_at_Pierre_Amine_Gemayel%27s_funeral.jpg/220px-Protester_at_Pierre_Amine_Gemayel%27s_funeral.jpg)
Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy, which implements a special system known as confessionalism.[86] This system is intended to deter sectarian conflict and attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of the 18 recognized religious groups in government.[87][88] High-ranking offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament Eastern Orthodox.[89][90]
Until 1975, Freedom House considered Lebanon to be one of only two (together with Israel) politically free countries in the Middle East and North Africa region.[91] The country lost this status with the outbreak of the Civil War, and never regained it again. Lebanon was rated as "Partly Free" in 2013.[91]
Lebanon's national legislature is the unicameral Parliament of Lebanon. Its 128 seats are divided equally between Christians and Muslims, proportionately between the 18 different denominations and proportionately between its 26 regions.[92] Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975–1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.[89] The Parliament is elected for a four-year term by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation.[6]
The executive branch consists of the President, the head of state, and the Prime Minister, the head of government. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-third majority. The president appoints the Prime Minister,[93] following consultations with the parliament. The President and the Prime Minister form the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.
The next nation-wide elections are scheduled for early June 2013.[94][95]
Law
There are 17 official religions in Lebanon, each with its own family law and religious courts. Law of 16 July 1962 concurring in the project of organization of the Sharia, with Sunni and Ja'afari Shii jurisdictions.[96]
The Lebanese legal system is based on the French system, and is a civil law country, with the exception for matters related to personal status (heritage, marriage, divorce, etc.), which are governed by a separate set of laws designed for each sectarian community. For instance, the Islamic personal status laws are inspired by the Sharia law.[97] For Muslims, these tribunals deal with questions of marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance and wills. For non-Muslims. personal status jurisdiction is split: the law of inheritance and wills falls under national civil jurisdiction, while Christian and Jewish religious courts are competent for marriage, divorce, and custody. Catholics can additionally appeal before the Vatican Rota court.[98]
The most notable set of codified laws is the Code des Obligations et des Contrats promulgated in 1932 and equivalent to the French Civil Code.[97] Capital punishment is still used to sanction certain crimes.[97]
The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. The Constitutional Council rules on constitutionality of laws and electoral frauds. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage and inheritance.[99]
Foreign relations
Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization.
Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, Syria and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002 as well as the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009.
Military
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Lebanese_Armed_Forces.jpg/220px-Lebanese_Armed_Forces.jpg)
The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has 72,000 active personnel,[100] including 1,100 in the air force, and 1,000 in the navy.[101]
The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities, and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions.[102]
Lebanon is a major recipient of foreign military aid.[103] With $400 million since 2005, it is the second largest per capita recipient of American military aid behind Israel.[104]
Governorates and districts
Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —;singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).[105] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Lebanon_districts.png/360px-Lebanon_districts.png)
- Beirut Governorate
- The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut
- Nabatieh Governorate (Jabal Amel)
- Beqaa Governorate
- Baalbek
- Hermel
- Rashaya
- Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi)
- Zahle
- North Governorate (al-Shamal)
- Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan)
- South Governorate (al-Janoub)
Economy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Lebanon_Export_Treemap.jpg/220px-Lebanon_Export_Treemap.jpg)
Lebanon’s economy follows a laissez-faire model.[106] Most of the economy is dollarized, and the country has no restrictions on the movement of capital across its borders.[106] The Lebanese government’s intervention in foreign trade is minimal.[106]
The Lebanese economy grew 8.5% in 2008 and a revised 9% in 2009[107] despite a global recession.[108] Real GDP growth is estimated to have slowed from 7.5% in 2010 to 1.5% in 2011, according to IMF preliminary estimates, with nominal GDP estimated at $41.5 billion in 2011.[106] The Banque du Liban projects real GDP growth could reach 4% in 2012, with 6% inflation (versus 4% in 2011).[106] The political and security instability in the Arab world, especially in Syria, is expected to have a negative impact on the domestic business and economic environment.[106]
Lebanon has a very high level of public debt and large external financing needs.[106] The 2010 public debt exceeded 150.7% of GDP, ranking fourth highest in the world as a percentage of GDP, though down from 154.8% in 2009.[6] Finance minister Mohamad Chatah stated that the debt reached $47 billion in 2008 and would increase to $49 billion if privatization of two telecoms companies did not occur.[109] The Daily Star wrote that exorbitant debt levels have "slowed down the economy and reduced the government's spending on essential development projects."[110]
The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[111] Emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[112] Remittances from Lebanese abroad total $8.2 billion[113] and account for one fifth of the country's economy.[114] Lebanon has the largest proportion of skilled labor among Arab States.[115]
The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon was established with the aim of promoting investment in Lebanon. In 2001, Investment Law No.360[116] was enacted to reinforce the organisation's mission.
The agricultural sector attracts only 12% of the total workforce.[117] Agriculture contributed to 5.9% of the country's GDP in 2011.[118] Lebanon's proportion of cultivable land is the highest in the Arab world,[119] Major produce includes apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[10]
Oil has recently been discovered inland and in the seabed between Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel and Egypt and talks are underway between Cyprus and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources. The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas.[120]
Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses that reassemble and package imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[117] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[10]
Nearly 65% of the Lebanese workforce attain employment in the services sector.[117] The GDP contribution, accordingly, amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[10] However, dependence on the tourism and banking sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to political instability.[121]
Lebanese banks are high on liquidity and reputed for their security.[122] Lebanon was one of the only seven countries in the world in which the value of the stock markets increased in 2008.[123]
On May 10, 2013 the Lebanese minister of energy and water clarified that seismic images of the Lebanese's sea bed are undergoing detailed explanation of their contents and that up till now, approximately 10% have been covered. Preliminary inspection of the results showed, with more than 50% probability, that 10% of Lebanon's exclusive economic zone contained up to 660million barrel's of oil and up to 30×1012 cu ft of gas.[124]
History
The 1975–1990 civil war heavily damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure,[101] cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[6] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.[125]
Until July 2006, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,[126] and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.[12] The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars,[127] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006.[127] The month-long 2006 war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.[128]
Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$ 1.5 billion pledged),[129] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[130] and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[131]
Tourism
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Baalbek_-_temple_of_Jupiter.jpg/170px-Baalbek_-_temple_of_Jupiter.jpg)
The tourism industry accounts for about 10% of GDP.[132] Lebanon managed to attract around 1,333,000 tourists in 2008, thus placing it as rank 79 out of 191 countries.[133] In 2009, the New York Times ranked Beirut the No. 1 travel destination worldwide due to its Unique Nightlife and Hospitality.[134] In January 2010, the Ministry of Tourism announced that 1,851,081 tourists had visited Lebanon in 2009, a 39% increase from 2008.[135] In 2009, Lebanon hosted the largest number of tourists to date, eclipsing the previous record set before the Lebanese Civil War.[136] Tourist arrivals reached 2 million in 2010, but fell by 37% for the first 10 months of 2012, a decline caused by the war in neighbouring Syria.[132]
Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Japan are the three most popular origin countries of foreign tourists to Lebanon.[137] The recent influx of Japanese tourists is probably the reason for the recent rise in popularity of Japanese Cuisine in Lebanon.[138]
Demographics
The population of Lebanon was estimated to be 4,125,247 in July 2010,[6] however no official census has been taken since 1932 due to the sensitive confessional political balance between Lebanon's various religious groups.[139] Identifying all Lebanese as ethnically Arab is a widely employed example of panethnicity since in reality, the Lebanese “are descended from many different peoples who have occupied, invaded, or settled this corner of the world,” making Lebanon, “a mosaic of closely interrelated cultures”.[140] While at first glance, this ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity might seem to cause civil and political unrest, “for much of Lebanon’s history this multitudinous diversity of religious communities has coexisted with little conflict”.[140]
The fertility rate fell from 5.00 in 1971 to 1.75 in 2004. Fertility rates vary considerably among the different religious groups: in 2004 it was 2.10 for Shiites, 1.76 Sunnis and 1.61 for Maronites.[141]
Lebanon has witnessed a series of migration waves: over 1,500,000 people emigrated from the country in the 1975–2011 period.[141] Millions of people of Lebanese descent are spread throughout the world, mostly Christians,[142] especially in Latin America.[143] Brazil has the largest expatriate population.[144] (See Lebanese Brazilians). Large numbers of Lebanese migrated to West Africa,[145] particularly to the Ivory Coast (home to over 100,000 Lebanese)[146] and Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese).[147] Australia is home to over 270,000 Lebanese (1999 est.).[148]
As of 2012, Lebanon was host to over 460,000 refugees and asylum seekers: 405,425 Palestinians,[6] 50,000–60,000 from Iraq,[149][150] over 80,000 from Syria,[151] and 4,500 from Sudan. Their primary sources of income are UNRWA aid and menial labor sought in competition with about 300,000 Syrian guest workers.[152]
In the last three decades, lengthy and destructive armed conflicts have ravaged the country. The majority of Lebanese have been affected by armed conflict; those with direct personal experience include 75% of the population, and most others report suffering a range of hardships. In total, almost the entire population (96%) has been affected in some way – either personally or because of the wider consequences of armed conflict.[153]
Religion
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution.jpg/220px-Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution.jpg)
Lebanon is the most religiously diverse country in the Middle East.[155] The CIA World Factbook estimates that the population is 59.7% Muslim and 39% Christian, with other religions and non-believers accounting for the remaining 1.3%.[6] A study conducted by the Lebanese Information Center and based on voter registration numbers shows that by 2011 the Christian population fell to 34.35%, while the Muslims rose to 65.47%.[156]
Over the past 60 years, there has been a steady decline in the ratio of Christians to Muslims, due to higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population.[157] When the last census was held in 1932, Christians made up 53% of Lebanon's population.[141] In 1956 it was estimated that the population was 54% Christian and 44% Muslim.[141]
A demographic study conducted by the research firm Statistics Lebanon found that approximately 27% of the population was Sunni, 27% Shi'a, 21% Maronite, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Druze, and 5% Greek Catholic, with the remaining 7% mostly belonging to smaller Christian denominations.[157]
Because the relative size of confessional groups remains a sensitive issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932.[157] There are 18 state-recognized religious sects – 4 Muslim, 12 Christian, 1 Druze, and 1 Jewish.[157]
The Shi'a community primarily resides in South Beirut, the Beqaa Valley, and southern Lebanon.[158]
Sunni residents primarily live in West Beirut, the southern coast of Lebanon, and northern Lebanon.[158] Kurds in Lebanon are Sunni Muslims.
Maronite residents tend to live in East Beirut and the mountains of Lebanon.[158] They are the largest Christian community in Lebanon.[158]
The Greek Orthodox primarily live in Koura, Beirut, Zahleh, Rachaya, Matn, Aley, Akkar, Tripoli, Hasbaya and Marjeyoun.
Language
Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language may be used".[159] The majority of Lebanese people speak Lebanese Arabic, while Modern Standard Arabic is mostly used in magazines, newspapers, and formal broadcast media. Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered francophone, and another 15% "partial francophone," and 70% of Lebanon's secondary schools use French as a second language of instruction.[160] By comparison, English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon's secondary schools.[160] The use of French is a legacy of the post-World War I League of Nations mandate over Lebanon given to France; as of 2004, some 20% of the population used French on a daily basis.[161] The use of Arabic by Lebanon's educated youth is declining, as they prefer to speak in French and English.[162][163]
English is increasingly used in science and business interactions.[164] As of 2007 the presence of English in Lebanon has increased.[165] Lebanese people of Armenian, Assyrian, or Greek descent often speak Armenian, Neo-Aramaic, or Greek with varying degrees of fluency. There are currently around 150,000 Armenians in Lebanon, or around 5% of the population.[166]
Culture
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Baalbek-Bacchus.jpg/220px-Baalbek-Bacchus.jpg)
The culture of Lebanon is the cross culture of various civilizations over thousands of years. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine.
Despite the ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they “share an almost common culture”.[167] Lebanese Arabic is universally spoken while food, music, and literature are deep-rooted “in wider Mediterranean and Levantine norms”.[167]
Arts
In literature, Khalil Gibran is particularly known for his book The Prophet (1923), which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.[168] Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf, Hanan al-Shaykh, and Georges Schehadé.
In visual arts, Moustafa Farroukh was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career.[169] Many more contemporary artists are currently active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media artist currently residing in New York.[170]
In the field of photography, the Arab Image Foundation has a collection of +400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East. The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection.
Popular culture
![Beige marble statue of a stout young child aged about two years old lying on his left side. The child's head is shaved, his eyes gaze over the viewer's shoulder and his lower body is covered in a draping cloth that hangs limply between his flexed feet. The child supports his torso with his left hand in which he holds an unidentifiable object, he also holds a small bird in his right hand. The sculpture rests on a heavy socle inscribed with barely visible letters spanning the upper part of the socle vertically.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Votive_statue_from_eshmun.jpg/220px-Votive_statue_from_eshmun.jpg)
The Music of Lebanon is pervasive in Lebanese society.[171] While traditional folk music remains popular in Lebanon, modern music reconciling Western and traditional Arabic styles, pop, and fusion are rapidly advancing in popularity.[172] Radio stations feature a variety of music, including traditional Lebanese, classical Arabic, Armenian[173] and modern French, English, American, and Latin tunes.[174]
Cinema of Lebanon, according to film critic and historian, Roy Armes, was the only other cinema in the Arabic-speaking region, beside Egypt's, that could amount to a national cinema.[175] Cinema in Lebanon has been in existence since the 1920s, and the country has produced over 500 films,[176]
The Media of Lebanon is not only a regional center of production but also the most liberal and free in the Arab world.[177] According to Press freedom's Reporters Without Borders, "the media have more freedom in Lebanon than in any other Arab country".[178] Despite its small population and geographic size, Lebanon plays an influential role in the production of information in the Arab world and is "at the core of a regional media network with global implications".[179]
Holidays and Festivals
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Beiteddine_Palace_InnerCourtyard.jpg/220px-Beiteddine_Palace_InnerCourtyard.jpg)
Lebanon celebrates national and both Christian and Muslim holidays. Christian holidays are celebrated following both the Gregorian Calendar and Julian Calendar. Greek Orthodox (with the exception of Easter), Catholics, Protestant, and Melkite Christians follow the Gregorian Calendar and thus celebrate Christmas on 25 December. Armenian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on 6 January, as they follow the Julian Calendar. Muslim holidays are followed based on the Islamic lunar calendar. Muslim holidays that are celebrated include Eid al-Fitr (the three-day feast at the end of the Ramadan month), Eid al-Adha (The Feast of the Sacrifice) which is celebrated during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and also celebrates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son to God,the Birth of the Prophet Muhammad, and Ashura (the Shiite Day of Mourning). Lebanon's National Holidays include Workers Day, Independence day, and Martyrs Day.
Music festivals, often hosted at historical sites, are a customary element of Lebanese culture.[180] Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Byblos International Festival, Beiteddine International Festival, Broumana Festival, Batroun Festival, Dhour Chwer Festival and Tyr Festival.[180][181] These festivals are promoted by Lebanon's Ministry of Tourism. Lebanon hosts about 15 concerts from international performers each year, ranking 1st for nightlife in the Middle East, and 6th worldwide.[182]
Sports
Lebanon has six ski resorts. Because of Lebanon's unique geography, it is possible to go skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean Sea in the afternoon.[183] At the competitive level, basketball and football are among Lebanon’s most popular sports. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and caving are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad.[184]
Rugby league is a relatively new but growing sport in Lebanon. The Lebanon national rugby league team participated in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup,[185] and narrowly missed qualification for the 2008[186] and 2013 tournaments.[187] Lebanon also took part in the 2009 European Cup where, after narrowly failing to qualify for the final, the team defeated Ireland to finish 3rd in the tournament.[188]
Lebanon participates in Basketball. The Lebanese National Team qualified for the FIBA World Championship 3 times in a row.[189][190] Dominant Basketball teams in Lebanon are Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut,[191] who are the current Arab and Asian champions, Club Sagesse who were able to earn the Asian and Arab championships before. Fadi El Khatib is the most decorated player in the Lebanese National Basketball League.
Football is also one of the more popular sports in the country with the Lebanese Premier League with its most successful clubs being Al-Ansar Club and Nejmeh SC with notable players being Roda Antar and Youssef Mohamad, the first Arab to captain a European premier league team.
In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the AFC Asian Cup[192] and the Pan Arab Games.[193][194] Lebanon hosted the 2009 Jeux de la Francophonie[195] from 27 September to 6 October, and have participated in every Olympic Games since its independence, winning a total of four medals.[196]
Prominent Lebanese bodybuilders include Samir Bannout, Mohammad Bannout and Ahmad Haidar.
Education
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Beirut_Universitet_Haigazian.jpg/220px-Beirut_Universitet_Haigazian.jpg)
Listed by the World Economic Forum’s 2013 Global Information Technology Report, Lebanon has been ranked globally as the fifth best country for math and science education, and as the tenth best overall for quality of education. In Quality of management schools, the country was ranked 13th worldwide.[197]
The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008. The index, which is determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the country 88th out of the 177 countries participating.[198]
All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Some of the 1400 private schools offer IB programs,[199] and may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The first eight years of education are, by law, compulsory.[10]
Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.[200][201] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively.[202][203] Universities in Lebanon, both public and private, largely operate in French or English.[204]
According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the American University of Beirut (951st worldwide), Université Saint Joseph de Beyrouth (2332nd) and the Lebanese American University (2630th).[205]
Health
In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 7.03% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 31.29 physicians and 19.71 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[206] The life expectancy at birth was 72.59 years in 2011, or 70.48 years for males and 74.80 years for females.[207]
By the end of the civil war, only one third of the country’s public hospitals were operational, each with an average of only 20 beds. By 2009 the country had 28 public hospitals, with a total of 2,550 beds.[208] At public hospitals, hospitalized uninsured patients pay 5% of the bill, in comparison with 15% in private hospitals, with the Ministry of Public Health reimbursing the remainder.[208] The Ministry of Public Health contracts with 138 private hospitals and 25 public hospitals.[209]
In 2011, there were 236,643 subsidized admissions to hospitals; 164,244 in private hospitals, and 72,399 in public hospitals. More patients visit private hospitals than public hospitals, because the private beds supply is higher.[209]
See also
Notes
- ^ Republic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic is a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Lebanese Arabic is the most common language spoken among the citizens of Lebanon.
- ^ 2005: Bassel Fleihan, Lebanese legislator and Minister of Economy and Commerce; Samir Kassir, Columnist and Democratic Left Movement leader; George Hawi, former head of Lebanese Communist Party; Gibran Tueni, Editor in Chief of "An Nahar" newspaper. 2006: Pierre Gemayel, Minister of Industry. 2007: Walid Eido, MP; Antoine Ghanim, MP.
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Lebanon, with a population of 3.8 million, has the most religiously diverse society in the Middle East, comprising 17 recognized religious sects.
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- ^ Prof. Dr. Axel Tschentscher, LL.M. "Article 11 of the Lebanese Constitution". Servat.unibe.ch. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ a b The Story of French. Macmillan. 2008. p. 311. ISBN 978-0-312-34184-8. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
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- ^ Antelava, Natalia (16 April 2009). "Armenians jump Lebanon's divide". BBC News. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
- ^ a b Stokes, Jamie. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Facts On File, 2009, p. 406 ISBN 0816071586
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Bibliography
- Morris, Benny (April 2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Pres. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9.
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Further reading
- Arkadiusz, Plonka. L’idée de langue libanaise d’après Sa‘īd ‘Aql, Paris, Geuthner, 2004 (French) ISBN 2-7053-3739-3
- Firzli, Nicola Y. Al-Baath wa-Lubnân [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"). Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973
- Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Nation Books, 2002.
- Glass, Charles, "Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East", Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), 1990 ISBN 0-436-18130-4
- Gorton, TJ and Feghali Gorton, AG. Lebanon: through Writers' Eyes. London: Eland Books, 2009.
- Hitti Philip K. History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol. 2 (2002) (ISBN 1-931956-61-8)
- Holst, Sanford. Phoenicians: Lebanon's Epic Heritage. Los Angeles: Cambridge and Boston Press, 2005.
- Norton, Augustus R. Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987.
- Sobelman, Daniel. New Rules of the Game: Israel and Hizbollah After the Withdrawal From Lebanon, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 2004.
- Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
- Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
- Schlicht, Alfred. The role of Foreign Powers in the History of Syria and Lebanon 1799–1861 in: Journal of Asian History 14 (1982)
External links
- Lebanon official government portal
- Lebanon Lebanon – Country Profile
- "Lebanon". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
- Lebanon web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- Lebanon profiles of people and institutions provided by the Arab Decision project
- Articles with dead external links from October 2008
- Countries of the Mediterranean Sea
- French-speaking countries
- Member states of La Francophonie
- Lebanon
- Arabic-speaking countries and territories
- Member states of the Arab League
- Eastern Mediterranean countries
- Western Asian countries
- Fertile Crescent
- Levant
- Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
- Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean
- Member states of the United Nations
- Middle Eastern countries
- Near Eastern countries
- Republics
- States and territories established in 1943
- Western Asia
- Southern Levant