Jump to content

Linus Pauling

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 71.202.210.61 (talk) at 19:12, 2 August 2013. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Linus Pauling
Born
Linus Carl Pauling

(1901-02-28)February 28, 1901
Portland, Oregon, USA
DiedAugust 19, 1994(1994-08-19) (aged 93)
Big Sur, California, USA
NationalityAmerican
Alma mater
Known for
 
Awards
Scientific career
Fields
InstitutionsAs faculty member
Caltech (1927–1963)
UC San Diego (1967–1969)
Stanford (1969–1975)

As fellow

Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions (1963–1967)
Doctoral advisorRoscoe G. Dickinson
Other academic advisors
Doctoral students
Signature
Notes
The only person to win two unshared Nobel Prizes.

Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994)[1] was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century.[2][3] Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.

For his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954. In 1962, for his peace activism, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. This makes him the only person to be awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes. He is one of only four individuals to have won more than one Nobel Prize (the others being Marie Curie, John Bardeen, and Frederick Sanger). Pauling is also one of only two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields, the other being Marie Curie (Chemistry and Physics).[4]

His promotion of orthomolecular medicine, megavitamin therapy, dietary supplements, and vitamin C have been criticized, with Paul Offit stating that Pauling "was arguably the world's greatest quack" for his assertions about dietary supplements,[5] and the medical establishment concluding that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds were quackery.[1][6] A randomized, double-blind (but not placebo-controlled) study comparing 500 mg/day supplementation to 50 mg/day supplementation reported that those who took 500 mg/day of supplemental vitamin C had a 66% lower risk for contracting three or more colds in a five-year period compared to those who took 50 mg/day of supplemental vitamin C, but that this level of supplementation, when compared to the lower level, had no apparent effect on the duration or severity of the common cold.[7] A Cochrane Review of Vitamin C supplementation for colds found that vitamin C supplementation did not shorten the duration of colds in seven placebo-controlled trials at doses ranging from 1-4 grams/day. Additionally, the same authors completed a meta-analysis of the 15 trials that assessed the effect of vitamin C on cold severity; no consistent evidence that vitamin C was beneficial in ameliorating cold symptoms was found in this analysis. The overall conclusion of this meta-analysis was that vitamin C is ineffective as a prophylactic against the common cold, but individuals under stress, such as those exposed to strenuous physical exercise or cold weather, may experience some therapeutic benefit. It did note, however, that one large trial reported equivocal benefit from an 8 gram therapeutic dose at onset of symptoms.[8] This review has been criticized for utilizing daily doses of vitamin C that would be too low to observe a therapeutic benefit[9][10] with one critic noting that "there was no mention of the revealing paper published last year by Padayatty et al., which shows that three-times greater blood concentration can be achieved with an oral dose of vitamin C than previously thought possible. Since viruses increase the demand for ascorbic acid, the oral doses used in the reviewed studies appear trivial, and would not be expected to produce any positive effect. Compare human oral dose studies to what animals synthesize throughout the day. It is obvious that a single dose of a water-soluble vitamin, regardless of the number of milligrams consumed, will not elevate blood plasma levels enough to produce a preventive or therapeutic effect."[9]; and another critic noting that "There is widespread confusion about nutritional and pharmacological levels of supplementation. Linus Pauling, typically, described nutritional gram-level doses able to provide a degree of disease prevention. By contrast, pharmacological doses used for treatment are, at minimum, an order of magnitude larger and involve frequent doses. ... Douglas and Hemilä have only confirmed that 60 years of vitamin C research has largely been wasted because of confusion between nutritional and pharmacological intakes, and because of a misunderstanding of the pharmacokinetics."[10] Additionally, results of a recent pharmacokinetic study suggest that administering doses several times throughout the day, thereby increasing dose frequency, would better sustain plasma ascorbate levels.[11]

On the effects of Vitamin C with regards to cancer, a 2009 review in the journal Anticancer Research noted that there were significant methodological differences between the Mayo Clinic's and Pauling's studies (the Mayo clinic did not use intravenous Vitamin C), that other researchers administering intravenous vitamin C to patients reported that the patients gained benefits such as increased survival, improved well-being and reduced pain, that intravenous administration is necessary to achieve high enough plasma levels for a pharmacological effect, and that convergent evidence shows that Vitamin C is effective as an anticancer agent.[12]

Early life and education

Photo of Herman Henry William Pauling, Linus Pauling's father, taken c. 1900.

Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon,[13][14] as the first-born child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926).[15] He was named "Linus Carl," in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.[16] Herman and Lucy – then 23 and 18 years old, respectively – had met at a dinner party in Condon. Six months later, the two were married.[17]

Herman Pauling was descended from Prussian farmers, who had immigrated to a German settlement in Concordia, Missouri. Carl Pauling moved his family to California, before settling in Oswego, Oregon. There he worked as an ironmonger at a foundry.[18] After completing grammar school, Herman Pauling served as an apprentice to a druggist. Upon completion of his services, he became a wholesale bread salesman.[19]

Pauling's mother, Lucy, of English/Scottish descent,[20] was the daughter of Linus Wilson Darling,[21] who had served as a teacher, farmer, surveyor, postmaster and lawyer at different points of his life.[22] He also apprenticed under a baker before becoming a schoolteacher. Linus Darling's mother died when he was 11 years old. He fell in love with a young woman named Alice from Turner, Oregon, whom he eventually married.[23] On July 17, 1888, Alice gave birth to the couple's fifth child, but he was stillborn. Less than a month later, she died, leaving Darling to take care of their four young daughters, the oldest being eleven years of age.[24]

Pauling's great-grandfather William Darling was born in 1826 in Ontario.[25] He was a Mayflower descendant through his father William Darling (1800-1872) who was the son of Phoebe Richmond (c1771-1822) and grandson of Jane Bowerman (1750- ). The Mayflower lineage continues: Ichabod Bowerman (b. 1721); Jane Clifton (b. 1697); Dority Burgess (b 1670); Patience Freeman (1648-1738); Rebecca Prence (b. 1626 - the daughter of Governor Thomas Prence who arrived on the "Fortune"); Patience Brewster (b. 1600)- who arrived on the "Anne"; Elder William Brewster. (1560-1644) of the Mayflower.[26]

Linus Pauling spent his first year living in a one-room apartment with his parents in Portland. In 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of the city.[27] They were crowded in their apartment, but could not afford more spacious living quarters in Portland. Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Lake Oswego, while Herman searched for new housing. Herman brought the family to Salem, where he took up a job as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore.[27] The business climate in Oswego was poor, so he moved his family to Condon in 1905.[28]

In 1909, Pauling's grandfather, Linus, divorced his second wife and married young schoolteacher who was almost the same age as his daughter Lucy. A few months later, he died of a heart attack, brought on by complications from nephritis.[29] Meanwhile, Herman Pauling was suffering from poor health and had regular sharp pains in his abdomen. Lucy's sister, Abbie, saw that Herman was dying and immediately called the family physician. The doctor gave Herman a sedative to reduce the pain, but it only offered temporary relief.[30] His health worsened in the coming months and he finally died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.[31]

At age nine, Linus was a voracious reader. On May 12, 1910 his father wrote a letter to The Oregonian inviting suggestions of additional books to occupy his time.[1] Pauling first planned to become a chemist after being amazed by experiments conducted with a small chemistry lab kit by his friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress.[32] At high school, Pauling continued to conduct chemistry experiments, scavenging much of the equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories. Operating from Simon's basement, the two approached local dairies to offer their services in performing butterfat samplings at cheap prices. Dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and as such, the business ended in failure.[33]

By the fall of 1916, Pauling was a 15-year-old high school senior with enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College.[34] He did not have enough credits for two required American history courses that would satisfy the requirements for earning a high school diploma. He asked the school principal if he could take these courses concurrently during the spring semester, but the principal denied his request, and Pauling decided to leave the school in June without a diploma.[35] His high school, Washington High School in Portland, awarded him the diploma 45 years later, after he had won two Nobel Prizes.[36][37] During the summer, Pauling worked part-time at a grocery store, earning eight US dollars a week. His mother set him up with an interview with a Mr. Schwietzerhoff, the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland. Pauling was hired as an apprentice machinist with a salary of 40 dollars per month. Pauling excelled at his job, and saw his salary soon raised to 50 dollars per month.[38] In his spare time, he set up a photography laboratory with two friends and found business from a local photography company. He hoped that the business would earn him enough money to pay for his future college expenses.[39] Pauling received a letter of admission from Oregon State University (informally call Oregon Agricultural College or OAC) in September 1917 and immediately gave notice to his boss and told his mother of his plans.[40]

Higher education

Pauling's graduation photo from Oregon State University, 1922.

In October 1917, Pauling lived in a boarding house on the Corvallis campus with his cousin Mervyn and another man, using the $200 he had saved from odd jobs to finance his education. In his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.[41] Pauling fell in love with a freshman girl named Irene early in the school year, and, by the end of October, he had used up $150 of his savings on her, taking her to shows and games. He soon got a job at the girls' dormitory, working 100 hours a month chopping wood for stoves, cutting up beef and mopping up the kitchen. Despite the salary of 25 cents per hour, Pauling was still having trouble managing his finances. He began eating one hot meal a day at a restaurant off campus to keep his expenses down.[41] Pauling was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity.[42] After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother, but the college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis, a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned $100 a month.[43] This allowed him to continue his studies at the college.

In his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.[43] He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry. Pauling began to neglect his studies in humanities and social sciences. He had also exhausted the course offerings in the physics and mathematics departments. Professor Samuel Graf selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a high-level mathematics course.[44] During the winter of his senior year, Pauling was approached by the college to teach a chemistry course for home economics majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.[45]

In 1922, Pauling graduated from Oregon State University (known then as Oregon Agricultural College) with a degree in chemical engineering and went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, under the guidance of Roscoe G. Dickinson. His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals. He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his PhD in physical chemistry and mathematical physics, summa cum laude, in 1925.[46]

Family Life

The Pauling children at a gathering in celebration of the 1954 Nobel Prizes in Stockholm, Sweden. Seated from left: Linus Pauling, Jr., Peter Pauling and Linda Pauling. Standing from left: An unidentified individual and Crellin Pauling.

While teaching a class called "Chemistry for Home Economic Majors" at college,[47] Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller and they married June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until Ava Pauling's death in 1981, and had three sons (Linus Jr., Peter and Edward Crellin) and a daughter (Linda).[48] Pauling's sons went on to become scientists and researchers (Linus, a psychiatrist; Peter, who died in 2003, a crystallographer; and Edward Crellin, who died in 1997, a biologist; daughter Linda married the noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist Barclay Kamb).[49]

Pauling was raised as a member of the Lutheran Church, but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church and publicly declared his atheism two years before his death.[50]

Career

Pauling was first exposed to the concepts of quantum mechanics while studying at Oregon State University. He later traveled to Europe on a Guggenheim Fellowship, which was awarded to him in 1926, to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics. Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London. Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules. He also joined Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chemistry fraternity.

In 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry. He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his X-ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created five rules now known as Pauling's rules. By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor. In 1931, the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger.[51] The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom.[52]

At Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer, who was spending part of his research and teaching schedule away from U.C. Berkeley at Caltech every year. The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. Their relationship soured when Pauling began to suspect that Oppenheimer was becoming too close to his wife, Ava Helen. Once, when Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer had come to their place and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico.[53] She flatly refused, and reported the incident to Pauling. Disquieted by this strange chemistry, and her apparent nonchalance about the incident, he immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer.

In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about the use of electrons in diffraction studies similar to the ones he had performed with X-rays. After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, L. O. Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances.

Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932. Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements – the Pauling Electronegativity Scale – which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.

Activism

Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II, but the aftermath of the war and his wife's pacifism changed his life profoundly, and he became a peace activist. During the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project, but he declined, not wanting to uproot his family. He did work on other projects that had military applications, such as explosives, rocket propellants, an oxygen meter for submarines and the patent of an armor-piercing shell; he was awarded a Presidential Medal of Merit.[54][55] In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein.[56] Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons. His political activism prompted the U.S. State Department to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London.[57][58] In a speech before the US senate on June 6 of the same year, Senator Wayne Morse publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were issued a “limited passport” to attend the aforementioned conference in England.[59][60] His passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize. Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto in 1955.[61]

In 1958, Pauling joined a petition drive in cooperation with the founders of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI). This group, headed by Washington University in St. Louis professors Barry Commoner, Eric Reiss, M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, set up a study of radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of children across North America. The "Baby Tooth Survey," headed by Dr Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass.[62][63][64] Pauling also participated in a public debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations.[65] In 1958, Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with the petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear-weapon testing. Public pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research subsequently led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On the day that the treaty went into force, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize, describing him as "Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts."[66] The Committee for Nuclear Information was never credited for its significant contribution to the test ban, nor was the ground-breaking research conducted by Dr Reiss and the "Baby Tooth Survey". The Caltech Chemistry Department, wary of his political views, did not even formally congratulate him. They did throw him a small party, showing they were more appreciative and sympathetic toward his work on radiation mutation. At Caltech he founded Sigma Xi's (The Scientific Research Society) chapter at the school, as he had previously been a member of that organization. He continued his peace activism in the following years co-founding the International League of Humanists in 1974. He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signatories of the Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement.

During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson’s policy of increasing America’s involvement in the Vietnam War caused an antiwar movement that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His effort were ignored by the government.[67] By the time Pauling turned 65 in 1966, he was without a research group or a big scientific issue to focus on. A new generation of more radical, younger activist would march, petition, and lead the movement against the Vietnam War.

Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naive spokesman for Soviet communism. He was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, which termed him "the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country." A headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as "A Weird Insult from Norway". Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970.[68]

Biological molecules

An alpha helix in ultra-high-resolution electron density contours, with O atoms in red, N atoms in blue, and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines (PDB file 2NRL, 17-32).

In the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided to strike out into new areas of interest. Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant. His early work in this area included studies of the structure of hemoglobin. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen atom. As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.

It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.

In 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planar nature of the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure.[69] This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-integer number of amino acid residues; for the alpha helix it is 3.7 amino acid residues per turn.

Pauling then proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix;[70][71] his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, Watson and Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA. They later benefited from unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis. Early in 1953 James D. Watson and Francis Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States).[72] Politics did not play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to.[73]

Pauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action. He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures. Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbrück, he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.

Molecular genetics

In November 1949, Linus Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease"[74] in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease caused by an abnormal protein, and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level. Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease had a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait had both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determined the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.

Molecular medicine, medical research, and vitamin C advocacy

Linus Pauling's book, How to Live Longer and Feel Better, advocated the very high intake of Vitamin C.

In 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a renal disease. Following the recommendations of Thomas Addis, Pauling was able to control the disease with Addis' then unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements.[75]

In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled "Molecular Medicine".[76] In the late 1950s, Pauling worked on the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. In 1965 Pauling read Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases.[77] In 1968 Pauling published a brief paper in Science entitled "Orthomolecular psychiatry"[78] that gave name and principle to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s. Pauling coined the term "orthomolecular" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.[79][80] His promotion of dietary supplements has also been criticized. In a 2013 article in The Atlantic, Paul Offit wrote that although Pauling was "so spectacularly right" that he won two Nobel Prizes, Pauling's late-career assertions about the benefits of dietary supplements were "so spectacularly wrong that he was arguably the world's greatest quack."[5]

Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds.[1] Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients.[81] Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, Cancer and Vitamin C, that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly terminal patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.[82][83] A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be "terminal" much earlier than the comparison group.[84] Later clinical trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic also found that high-dose (10,000 mg) vitamin C was no better than placebo at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C.[85][86][87] The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment also concluded his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds was quackery.[1][6] Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as "fraud and deliberate misrepresentation",[88][89] and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than intravenous vitamin C[90] (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study[6]). Pauling also criticised the Mayo clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.[91] The results were publicly debated at length with considerable acrimony between Pauling and Cameron, and Moertel (the lead author of the Mayo Clinic studies), with accusations of misconduct and scientific incompetence on both sides. Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer.[89] Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children.[92] He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regimen, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy.[93]

With Arthur B. Robinson and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, in 1973, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. In 1996, the Linus Pauling Institute moved from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, to become part of Oregon State University, where it continues to conduct research on micronutrients, phytochemicals (chemicals from plants), and other constituents of the diet in preventing and treating disease. Several researchers that had previously worked at the Linus Pauling Institute in Palo Alto, including the assistant director of research, moved on to form the Genetic Information Research Institute.

Nature of the chemical bond

In the late 1920s Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond, leading to his famous textbook on the subject published in 1939. It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances". Pauling summarized his work on the chemical bond in The Nature of the Chemical Bond, one of the most influential chemistry books ever published.[94] In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than seventy years after the first publication.

Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization.[95] While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp3 hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp2 hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene. Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.

Another area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and covalent bonding, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, between which most actual cases of bonding fall. It was here especially that Pauling's electronegativity concept was particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.[96]

The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of "the nature of the chemical bond" was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the prototype, benzene.[97] The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and double bonds, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name "resonance" was later applied to this phenomenon.[98] In a sense, this phenomenon resembles that of hybridization, described earlier, because it involves combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.

Structure of the atomic nucleus

On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words "I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei."[99] On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.[100] For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.[101][102][103][104][105][106]

The basic idea behind Pauling's spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of "clusters of nucleons". The basic nucleon clusters include the deuteron [np], helion [pnp], and triton [npn]. Even–even nuclei are described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles, as has often been done for light nuclei.[citation needed] Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model:[107]

Now recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations...

Legacy

Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 7:20 pm at home in Big Sur, California. He was 93 years old.[108][109] A grave marker for him is in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon.[109][110] Pauling’s ashes, along with those of his wife, were moved from Big Sur to the Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in 2005.[111]

Pauling was included in a list of the 20 greatest scientists of all time by the magazine New Scientist, with Albert Einstein being the only other scientist from the 20th century on the list. Gautam R. Desiraju, the author of the Millennium Essay in Nature,[112] claimed that Pauling was one of the greatest thinkers and visionaries of the millennium, along with Galileo, Newton, and Einstein. Pauling is notable for the diversity of his interests: quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine. In all these fields, and especially on the boundaries between them, he made decisive contributions. His work on chemical bonding marks the beginning of modern quantum chemistry, and many of his contributions like hybridization and electronegativity have become part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the photoelectron spectra of many molecules, and would later be eclipsed by the molecular orbital theory of Robert Mulliken, Valence Bond Theory still competes, in its modern form, with both Molecular Orbital Theory and density functional theory (DFT) for describing the chemical phenomena.[113] Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds.[citation needed] His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.[citation needed]

Francis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the "father of molecular biology"[114] His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a "molecular disease" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.[citation needed]

Pauling's work on the molecular basis of disease and its treatment is being carried on by a number of researchers, notably those at the Linus Pauling Institute, which lists a dozen principal investigators and faculty who study the role of micronutrients and phytochemicals in health and disease.

Items named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch, California,[115] Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules, California, Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America in Aliso Viejo, California, Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon, and Pauling Field, a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth. Additionally, the Linus Pauling Institute[116] and also a wing of The Valley Library at Oregon State University bear his name. There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named The Linus Pauling Quartet.

The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall, since Linus spent so much time there.

Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, is named after Pauling.[117]

On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist Victor Stabin.[118] His description reads: "A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease." The other scientists on this sheet include Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist.

California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008 that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son was asked to accept the honor in his place.

Honors and awards

Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:[119][120]

Publications

Books

  • — (1939). The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals. Cornell University Press.
  • — (1947). General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory. W. H. Freeman.
  • — (1964). The architecture of molecules. San Francisco: Freeman. ISBN 978-0716701583. {{cite book}}: |author= has numeric name (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • — (1958). No more war!. Dodd, Mead & Co. ISBN 978-1124119663.
  • — (1977). Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu. W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-0360-2.
  • — (1987). How to Live Longer and Feel Better (Avon Books) ISBN 0-380-70289-4
  • —; Wilson, E. B. (1985) Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0.
  • Cameron E. and — (1993). Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C (Camino Books) ISBN 0-940159-21-X.
  • — (1998). Linus Pauling On Peace – A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival (Rising Star Press) ISBN 0-933670-03-6
  • Hoffer, Abram (2004). Healing cancer : complementary vitamin & drug treatments. Toronto, Ont.: CCNM Press. ISBN 978-1897025116. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Ikeda, Daisaku (2008). A lifelong quest for peace : a dialogue. Edited and translated by Richard L. Gage. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-889-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Journal articles

  • — (1927). "The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many-Electron Atoms and Ions. Mole Refraction, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, and Extension in Space". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 114 (767): 181–211. Bibcode:1927RSPSA.114..181P. doi:10.1098/rspa.1927.0035.
  • — (1929). "The principles determining the structure of complex ionic crystals". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 51 (4): 1010–1026. doi:10.1021/ja01379a006.
  • — (1931). "The nature of the chemical bond. Application of results obtained from the quantum mechanics and from a theory of paramagnetic susceptibility to the structure of molecules". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (4): 1367–1400. doi:10.1021/ja01355a027.
  • — (1931). "The nature of the chemical bond. II. The one-electron bond and the three-electron bond". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (9): 3225–3237. doi:10.1021/ja01360a004.
  • — (1932). "The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (3): 988–1003. doi:10.1021/ja01342a022.
  • — (1932). "The nature of the chemical bond. IV. The energy of single bonds and the relative electronegativity of atoms". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (9): 3570–3582. doi:10.1021/ja01348a011.
  • — (1933). "The nature of the chemical bond. V. The quantum-mechanical calculation of the resonance energy of benzene and naphthalene and the hydrocarbon free radicals". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 1 (6): 362. Bibcode:1933JChPh...1..362P. doi:10.1063/1.1749304. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • — (1935). "The structure and entropy of ice and of other crystals with some randomness of atomic arrangement". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 57 (12): 2680–2684. doi:10.1021/ja01315a102.
  • — (1940). "A theory of the structure and process of formation of antibodies". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 62 (10): 2643–2657. doi:10.1021/ja01867a018.
  • — (1947). "Atomic Radii and Interatomic Distances in Metals". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 69 (3): 542–553. doi:10.1021/ja01195a024.
  • — (1949). "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease". Science. 110 (2865): 543–548. Bibcode:1949Sci...110..543P. doi:10.1126/science.110.2865.543. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • — (1951). "The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 37 (4): 205–211. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..205P. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.4.205. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Dunitz, J. D. (1996). "Linus Carl Pauling. 28 February 1901-19 August 1994". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 42: 316–338. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1996.0020.
  2. ^ "The Scientific 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present". Retrieved December 19, 2010.
  3. ^ Horgan, J (1993). "Profile: Linus C. Pauling – Stubbornly Ahead of His Time". Scientific American. 266 (3): 36–40.
  4. ^ As Watson attests, Pauling also came close to being the discoverer of DNA's structure, for which Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins received the Nobel Prize.
  5. ^ a b Paul Offit (July 19, 2013). "The Vitamin Myth: Why We Think We Need Supplements". The Atlantic. Retrieved July 19, 2013. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  6. ^ a b c Chen, Q (2007). "Ascorbate in pharmacologic concentrations selectively generates ascorbate radical and hydrogen peroxide in extracellular fluid in vivo". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (21): 8749–54. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.8749C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702854104. PMC 1885574. PMID 17502596. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Template:Cite PMID
  8. ^ Template:Cite PMID
  9. ^ a b Template:Cite PMID
  10. ^ a b Template:Cite PMID
  11. ^ Template:Cite PMID
  12. ^ Template:Cite PMID
  13. ^ "Linus Pauling's Childhood (1901-1910)". Special collections. Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  14. ^ "Linus Pauling". NNDB: Tracking the entire world. Soylent Communications. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  15. ^ Hager, p. 22.
  16. ^ Mead and Hager, p. 8.
  17. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 1.
  18. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 2.
  19. ^ Hager, p. 21.
  20. ^ "Biography". The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1954: Linus Pauling. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved April 26, 2013.
  21. ^ "The Ancestry of Linus Pauling (The Darlings)". Special collections. Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  22. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 5.
  23. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 6.
  24. ^ Hager, p. 24.
  25. ^ http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/chronology/page2.html
  26. ^ The Brewster Genealogy, 1566-1907, by Emma Coggeshall Brewster Jones (b. 1854)
  27. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 4.
  28. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 5.
  29. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 12.
  30. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 13.
  31. ^ Mead and Hager, p. 9.
  32. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 17.
  33. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 21.
  34. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 22.
  35. ^ Hager, p. 48.
  36. ^ "Linus Pauling – Biography". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved August 5, 2007.
  37. ^ Bourgoin, Suzanne M. (1998). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Thomson Gale. Vol. 12, p. 150. ISBN 0-7876-2221-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 23.
  39. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 24.
  40. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 25.
  41. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 26.
  42. ^ Swanson, Stephen (October 3, 2000). "OSU fraternity to donate Pauling treasures to campus library". Oregon State University. Retrieved April 29, 2013.
  43. ^ a b Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 29.
  44. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 30.
  45. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 31.
  46. ^ "Caltech Commencement Program" (PDF). Caltech Campus Publications. June 12, 1925. Retrieved March 29, 2013.
  47. ^ "Linus Pauling: A Biographical Timeline". Linus Pauling Institute. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  48. ^ "The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information". United States National Library of Medicine. nd. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  49. ^ "Linus Pauling Biography". Linus Pauling Institute. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  50. ^ Linus Pauling & Daisaku Ikeda (1992). A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue. Jones & Bartlett. p. 22. ISBN 0-86720-277-7. ...I [Pauling] am not, however, militant in my atheism. The great English theoretical physicist Paul Dirac is a militant atheist. I suppose he is interested in arguing about the existence of God. I am not. It was once quipped that there is no God and Dirac is his prophet.
  51. ^ Tom Hager (2004). "The Langmuir Prize". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved February 29, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  52. ^ Linus Pauling (1932). "The nature of the chemical bond. III. The transition from one extreme bond type to another". Journal of the American Chemical Society. Retrieved February 29, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  53. ^ Thomas Hager (1995). Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80909-5., pp. 152
  54. ^ "The Linus Pauling Papers: Biographical Information". United States National Library of Medicine. Retrieved February 11, 2008.
  55. ^ Paulus, John Allen (November 5, 1995). "Pauling's Prizes". New York Times. Retrieved December 9, 2007.
  56. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "Einstein". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  57. ^ "Linus Pauling". Retrieved December 11, 2007. [In] January of 1952, Pauling requested a passport to attend a meeting in England ... The passport was denied because granting it "would not be in the best interest of the United States." He applied again and wrote President Eisenhower, asking him to arrange the issuance of the passport since, "I am a loyal citizen of the United States. I have never been guilty of any unpatriotic or criminal act."
  58. ^ Linus Pauling (1952). "The Department of State and the Structure of Proteins". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved December 13, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  59. ^ Robert Paradowski (2011), Oregon State University, Special Collections p.18, Proteins, Passports, and the Prize (1950-1954), retrieved February 1, 2013
  60. ^ Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists Vol. VIII, Nr. 7 (Okt. 1952) p. 254, Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.
  61. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "Russell/Einstein". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  62. ^ Louise Zibold Reiss (November 24, 1961). "Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations" (PDF). Science. Retrieved October 13, 2009.
  63. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "Strontium-90". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  64. ^ Thomas Hager (November 29, 2007). "The Right to Petition". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  65. ^ Linus Pauling (1958). "Teller vs. Pauling". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved December 13, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  66. ^ Linus Pauling (October 10, 1963). "Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved December 13, 2007.
  67. ^ "Linus Pauling and the International Peace Movement: Vietnam". Oregon State University Libraries. 2010. Retrieved March 12, 2013.
  68. ^ Stephen F Mason (July 1999). "The Science and Humanism of Linus Pauling (1901–1994)". Ciencia Abierta. Retrieved August 4, 2009.
  69. ^ Pauling, L; Corey, RB (1951). "Configurations of Polypeptide Chains With Favored Orientations Around Single Bonds: Two New Pleated Sheets". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 37 (11): 729–40. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..729P. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.11.729. PMC 1063460. PMID 16578412.
  70. ^ "Linus Pauling's DNA Model". Retrieved August 6, 2007.
  71. ^ Pauling L, Corey RB (February 1953;). "A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 39 (2): 84–97. Bibcode:1953PNAS...39...84P. doi:10.1073/pnas.39.2.84. PMC 1063734. PMID 16578429. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  72. ^ "Pauling biography citing State Department's revocation of Pauling's passport in 1952". Retrieved December 11, 2007.
  73. ^ Hager, Thomas (1995). Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80909-5., pp. 414–415
  74. ^ Pauling, Linus (1949). "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease". Science. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  75. ^ Peitzman, Steven J. (2007). Dropsy, dialysis, transplant: a short history of failing kidneys. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 72–8, 190. ISBN 0-8018-8734-8.
  76. ^ Pauling, Linus (1951). "Molecular Medicine". Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  77. ^ Nicolle, Lorraine; Beirne, Ann Woodriff, eds. (2010). Biochemical imbalances in disease a practitioner's handbook. London: Singing Dragon. p. 27. ISBN 9780857010285.
  78. ^ Pauling L (1968). "Orthomolecular psychiatry. Varying the concentrations of substances normally present in the human body may control mental disease". Science. 160 (3825): 265–71. Bibcode:1968Sci...160..265P. doi:10.1126/science.160.3825.265. PMID 5641253. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  79. ^ Cassileth, BR (1998:67). Alternative Medicine Handbook: the Complete Reference Guide to Alternative and Complementary Therapies. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  80. ^ "Vitamin Therapy, Megadose / Orthomolecular Therapy". BC Cancer Agency. 2000. Archived from the original on February 2, 2007. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  81. ^ Ewan Cameron M.D. "Cancer bibliography". Doctoryourself.com. Retrieved August 5, 2007.
  82. ^ Cameron E, Pauling L (1976). "Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 73 (10): 3685–9. Bibcode:1976PNAS...73.3685C. doi:10.1073/pnas.73.10.3685. PMC 431183. PMID 1068480. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  83. ^ Cameron E, Pauling L (1978). "Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Reevaluation of prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 75 (9): 4538–42. Bibcode:1978PNAS...75.4538C. doi:10.1073/pnas.75.9.4538. PMC 336151. PMID 279931. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  84. ^ DeWys, WD (1982). "How to evaluate a new treatment for cancer". Your Patient and Cancer. 2 (5): 31–36.
  85. ^ Creagan ET, Moertel CG, O'Fallon JR; et al. (1979). "Failure of high-dose vitamin C (ascorbic acid) therapy to benefit patients with advanced cancer. A controlled trial". The New England Journal of Medicine. 301 (13): 687–90. doi:10.1056/NEJM197909273011303. PMID 384241. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  86. ^ Moertel CG, Fleming TR, Creagan ET, Rubin J, O'Connell MJ, Ames MM (1985). "High-dose vitamin C versus placebo in the treatment of patients with advanced cancer who have had no prior chemotherapy. A randomized double-blind comparison". The New England Journal of Medicine. 312 (3): 137–41. doi:10.1056/NEJM198501173120301. PMID 3880867. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  87. ^ Tschetter, L (1983). "A community-based study of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in patients with advanced cancer". Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology. 2: 92. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  88. ^ Ted Goertzel (1996). "Analyzing Pauling's Personality: A Three Generational, Three Decade Project". Special Collections, Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved August 5, 2007.
  89. ^ a b Trevor Pinch; Collins, Harry M. (2005). "Alternative Medicine: The Cases of Vitamin C and Cancer". Dr. Golem: how to think about medicine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 89–111. ISBN 0-226-11366-3. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  90. ^ Levine M; et al. (2006). "Intravenously administered vitamin C as cancer therapy: three cases". CMAJ. 174 (7): 937–942. doi:10.1503/cmaj.050346. PMC 1405876. PMID 16567755. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  91. ^ Linus Pauling (1986). How to Live Longer and Feel Better. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 173–175. ISBN 0-7167-1781-6.
  92. ^ Pauling, L (1978). Ralph Pelligra, ed. (ed.). "Orthomolecular enhancement of human development" (PDF). Human Neurological Development: 47–51. {{cite journal}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  93. ^ Andrew W. Saul. "Abram Hoffer, M.D., PhD 50 Years of Megavitamin Research, Practice and Publication". Doctoryourself.com. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  94. ^ Thomas Hager (2004). "The Nature of the Chemical Bond". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved February 29, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  95. ^ Linus Pauling (1928). "London's paper. General ideas on bonds". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved February 29, 2008.
  96. ^ Linus Pauling (1930s). "Notes and Calculations re: Electronegativity and the Electronegativity Scale". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved February 29, 2008.
  97. ^ Linus Pauling (January 6, 1934). "Benzene". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved February 29, 2008.
  98. ^ Linus Pauling (July 29, 1946). "Resonance". Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections. Retrieved February 29, 2008.
  99. ^ "Oregon State Special Collections". Osulibrary.oregonstate.edu. February 28, 2002. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
  100. ^ Pauling, Linus (1965). "The close-packed-spheron theory and nuclear fission". Science. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  101. ^ Pauling, Linus (1965). "The close-packed spheron model of atomic nuclei and its relation to the shell model". Science. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  102. ^ Pauling, Linus (1966). "The close-packed-spheron theory of nuclear structure and the neutron excess for stable nuclei (Dedicated to the seventieth anniversary of Professor Horia Hulubei)". Science. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  103. ^ Pauling, Linus (1967). "Magnetic-moment evidence for the polyspheron structure of the lighter atomic nuclei". Science. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  104. ^ Pauling, Linus (1969). "Orbiting clusters in atomic nuclei". Science. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  105. ^ Pauling, Linus (1975). "Rotating clusters in nuclei". Canadian Journal of Physics. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  106. ^ Pauling, Linus (1991). "Transition from one revolving cluster to two revolving clusters in the ground-state rotational bands of nuclei in the lanthanon region". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 88. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  107. ^ "Linus Pauling Interview – page 9 / 9 – Academy of Achievement". Achievement.org. February 29, 2008. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
  108. ^ Goertzel and Goertzel, p. 247.
  109. ^ a b Linus Pauling dies at 93. The Oregonian, August 20, 1994.
  110. ^ Linus C. Pauling. Find A Grave. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
  111. ^ "The Centennial: Who's Buried in Linus Pauling's Grave?" (PDF). Retrieved 26 december 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  112. ^ Desiraju, G.R. (November 23, 2000). "The all-chemist" (PDF). Nature. Retrieved August 5, 2007.
  113. ^ "A Conversation on VB vs MO Theory: A Never-Ending Rivalry?". ACS Publications. 2003. pp. 750–756. Retrieved August 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  114. ^ "Pauling Honored by Scientists at Caltech Event". Los Angeles Times. United Press International. March 1, 1986. Retrieved July 22, 2012.
  115. ^ The street in Foothill Ranch was once home to vitamin C/Emergen-C maker Alacer Corp. Founder Jay Patrick was a friend of Linus Pauling.
  116. ^ "Linus Pauling Institute". Lpi.oregonstate.edu. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
  117. ^ Moody, Glyn (2002). Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution. Perseus Books Group. p. 336. ISBN 0-7382-0670-9.
  118. ^ Odegard, Kyle (March 7, 2008). "Linus Pauling stamp debuts at university". Gazette-Times.
  119. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Pauling interview by Jeffrey L. Sturchio (1987) Chemical Heritage Foundation (click on Honors to see list)
  120. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Linus Pauling: Awards, Honors and Medals". Special Collections. Oregon State University Libraries. Retrieved April 25, 2013.
  121. ^ Pauling's awards and medals (includes image of Fermat medal).
  122. ^ "Gandhi Peace Award". Promoting Enduring Peace. Retrieved April 26, 2013.
  123. ^ "NAS Award in Chemical Sciences". National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved February 15, 2011.
  124. ^ "OSU Celebrates Linus Pauling and Release of New U.S. Postal Service Stamp". Events. Oregon State University. Retrieved April 25, 2013.

References

  • Goertzel, Ted (1995). Linus Pauling: A Life in Science and Politics. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00672-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Hager, Thomas (1995). Force of Nature: The Life of Linus Pauling. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80909-5.
  • Hager, Thomas (1998). Linus Pauling and the Chemistry of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513972-0.
  • Marinacci, Barbara (1998). Linus Pauling on Peace. Rising Star Press. ISBN 0-933670-03-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Mead, Clifford (2001). Linus Pauling: Scientist and Peacemaker. Oregon State University Press. ISBN 0-87071-489-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Serafini, Anthony (1989). Linus Pauling: A Man and His Science. Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-440-X.

Further reading

  • Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-532134-0.
  • Davenport, Derek A. (1996). "The Many Lives of Linus Pauling: A Review of Reviews". Journal of Chemical Education. 73 (9): A210. Bibcode:1996JChEd..73..210D. doi:10.1021/ed073pA210. Retrieved April 26, 2013.
  • Dunitz, Jack D. "Linus Carl Pauling February 28, 1901 — August 19, 1994". Biographical memoirs. The National Academies Press. Retrieved April 26, 2013.
  • Hargittai, István (2000). Candid science: conversations with famous chemists. Edited by Magdolna Hargittai (Reprinted ed.). London: Imperial College Press. ISBN 978-1860941511.
  • Marinacci, Barbara, ed. (1995). Linus Pauling : in his own words : selected writings, speeches, and interviews. Introduction by Linus Pauling. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0684813875.
  • Linus Pauling. Transcript of an interview by Jeffrey L. Sturchio at Executive Tower Inn, Denver, Colorado, April 6, 1987 (Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Foundation, Oral History Transcript # 0067).
Wikiquote has quotations related to Linus Pauling.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Linus C. Pauling.

Template:Persondata

Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link GA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linus_Pauling&oldid=566892918"