Teochew Min

Teochew
Chaozhou
潮州話/潮汕話/潮語
Native to	Chaozhou
Region	Eastern Guangdong (Chaozhou), Southern Fujian (Zhao'an)
Ethnicity	Teochew people
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Min Coastal Min Southern Min Chaoshan Min (Teo-Swa) Teochew
Language codes
ISO 639-3	(tws is proposed)
Glottolog	chao1238
Linguasphere	79-AAA-ji

Teochew Min
Traditional Chinese	潮州話
Simplified Chinese	潮州话
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Cháozhōu huà Wu Romanization zau tseu ghae ho Hakka Romanization Tshèu-chû-fa Yue: Cantonese Jyutping Ciu4 zau1 waa2 Southern Min Hokkien POJ Tiê-chiu-uē Teochew Peng'im Diê⁵ziu¹ uê⁷/Dio⁵ziu¹ uê⁷ Eastern Min Fuzhou BUC Dièu-ciŭ-uâ

Teochew or Chaozhou (Chinese: 潮州話; pinyin: Cháozhōuhuà, Chinese: 潮汕話; pinyin: Cháoshànhuà, Chinese: 潮語; pinyin: Cháoyǔ, Teochew endonym: Diê⁵ziu¹ uê⁷, Shantou dialect: Dio⁵ziu¹ uê⁷) is a dialect of Chaoshan Min, a Southern Min language, that is spoken by the Teochew people in the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong and by their diaspora around the world. It is sometimes referred to as Chiuchow, its Cantonese rendering, due to the English romanisation by colonial officials and explorers. It is closely related to some dialects of Hokkien, as it shares some cognates and phonology with Hokkien. The two are mutually unintelligible, but it is possible to understand some words.

Teochew preserves many Old Chinese pronunciations and vocabulary that have been lost in some of the other modern varieties of Chinese. As such, Teochew is described as one of the most conservative Chinese languages.

Languages in contact

Mandarin

In China, Teochew children are introduced to Standard Chinese as early as in kindergarten; however, the Teochew language remains the primary medium of instruction. In the early years of primary education, Mandarin becomes the sole language of instruction, but students typically continue to speak to one another in Teochew. Mandarin in widely understood by the Teochew youth, but the elderly may have difficulty with Mandarin due to growing up speaking Teochew.

Chaozhou accent in Mandarin

Native Teochew-speakers find the neutral tone in Mandarin the most difficult tone to master. Teochew has lost the alveolar nasal ending [-n] and so Teochew-speakers often replace it with the velar nasal [-ŋ] when they speak Mandarin. The southern Min dialects all have no front rounded vowel and so a typical Teochew accent supplants the unrounded counterpart [i] for [y]. Teochew, like its ancient ancestor, lacks labio-dentals and so its speakers use [h] or [hu] instead of [f] when they speak Mandarin. Teochew has no retroflex consonants in its northern dialects and so [ts], [tsʰ], [s], and [z] replace [tʂ], [tʂʰ], [ʂ] and [ʐ] in the Teochew accent in Mandarin.

Hakka

Since Chao'an, Raoping, and Jieyang border the Hakka-speaking region in the north, some people there speak Hakka but they can usually speak Teochew as well. Teochew people have historically had a great deal of contact with the Hakka people, but Hakka has had little, if any, influence on Teochew. Similarly, in Dabu and Fengshun, where the Teochew- and the Hakka-speaking regions meet, Teochew is also spoken, but Hakka remains the primary form of Chinese spoken there.

Cantonese

Because of the strong influence of Hong Kong soap operas, Guangdong provincial television programs and Cantonese pop songs, many young Chaoshan peoples can understand quite a lot of Cantonese even if they cannot speak it with much fluency.

Hmong-Mien languages

In the mountainous area of Fenghuang (鳳凰山), the She language, an endangered Hmong–Mien language, is spoken by the She people, who are an officially recognised non-Han ethnic minority. They predominantly speak Hakka (Shehua) and Teochew; only about 1,000 She still speak their eponymous language.

Thai

The majority of Thai Chinese are Teochew; Teochew is known to have provided a number of loanwords into Thai: Thai language § Vocabulary.

Khmer (Cambodian)

The majority of Chinese Cambodians are Teochew; Teochew is known to have provided a number of loanwords into Khmer.

Cambodian Teochew also incorporates a number of loanwords from Khmer, including a function word pi (Khmer: ពី).

Phonetics and phonology

Consonants

Teochew, like other Southern Min varieties, is one of the few modern Sinitic languages which have voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates); however, unlike Wu and Xiang Chinese, the Teochew voiced stops and fricatives did not evolve from Middle Chinese voiced obstruents, but from nasals. The voiced stops [b] and [ɡ] and also [l] are voicelessly prenasalised [ᵐ̥b], [ᵑ̊ɡ], [ⁿ̥ɺ], respectively. The voiced affricate dz, initial in such words as 字 (dzi˩), 二 (dzi˧˥), 然 (dziaŋ˥), 若 (dziak˦) loses its affricate property with some younger speakers abroad, and is relaxed to [z].

Southern Min dialects and varieties are typified by a lack of labiodentals, as illustrated below:

Teochew consonants

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Velar	Glottal
Voiced (no frictions)	nasal	m 毛 b 米	n 年 l 來/內	ŋ 雅 g 鵝/牙
	plosive or lateral
Voiceless stops	aspirated	pʰ 皮	tʰ 台	kʰ 可
	plain	p 比	t 都	k 歌	ʔ
Voiceless affricates	aspirated		tsʰ 菜/樹
	plain		ts 書/指/食
Fricatives			s 士/速		h 海/系
			(d)z 爾/貳

Syllable

Syllables in Teochew contain an onset consonant, a medial glide, a nucleus, usually in the form of a vowel, but can also be occupied by a syllabic consonant like [ŋ], and a final consonant. All the elements of the syllable except for the nucleus are optional, which means a vowel or a syllabic consonant alone can stand as a fully-fledged syllable.

Onsets

All the consonants except for the glottal stop ʔ shown in the consonants chart above can act as the onset of a syllable; however, the onset position is not obligatorily occupied.

Finals

Teochew finals consist maximally of a medial, nucleus and coda. The medial can be i or u, the nucleus can be a monophthong or diphthong, and the coda can be a nasal or a stop. A syllable must consist minimally of a vowel nucleus or syllabic nasal.

Nucleus		-a-			-e̞-		-o̞-		-ə-	-i-	-u-	-ai-		-au-	-oi-	-ou-		-ui-	-iu-	∅-
Medial		∅-	i-	u-	∅-	u-	∅-	i-	∅-	∅-	∅-	∅-	u-	∅-	∅-	∅-	i-	∅-	∅-
Coda	-∅	a	ia	ua	e	ue	o	io	ɨ	i	u	ai	uai	au		ou	iou	ui	iu
	-◌̃	ã	ĩã	ũã	ẽ	ũẽ		ĩõ	ɨ̃	ĩ		ãĩ	ũãĩ	ãũ	õĩ	õũ		ũĩ	ĩũ
	-ʔ	aʔ	iaʔ	uaʔ	eʔ	ueʔ	oʔ	ioʔ		iʔ				auʔ	oiʔ
	-m	am	iam	uam						im										m̩
	-ŋ	aŋ	iaŋ	uaŋ	eŋ		oŋ	ioŋ	əŋ	iŋ	uŋ									ŋ̩
	-p	ap	iap	uap						ip
	-k	ak	iak	uak	ek		ok	iok	ək	ik	uk

Tones

Citation tones

Teochew, like other Chinese varieties, is a tonal language. It has a set of eight distinct sounds, but only six of them are considered unique tones. This discrepancy occurs because two of the eight sounds are reduced to stopped syllables, despite already sharing the same pitch as the six main tones. Additionally, depending on the position of a word in a phrase, the tones can change and adopt extensive tone sandhi.

Teochew tones

Tone number	Tone name	Pitch contour	Description	Sandhi
1	yin level (陰平)	˧ (3)	mid	1
2	yin rising (陰上)	˥˨ (52)	falling	6
3	yin departing (陰去)	˨˩˧ (213)	low rising	2 or 5
4	yin entering (陰入)	˨̚ (2)	low checked	8
5	yang level (陽平)	˥ (5)	high	7
6	yang rising (陽上)	˧˥ (35)	high rising	7
7	yang departing (陽去)	˩ (1)	low	7
8	yang entering (陽入)	˦̚ (4)	high checked	4

As with sandhi in other Min Nan dialects, the checked tones interchange. The yang tones all become low. Sandhi is not accounted for in the description below.

Grammar

The grammar of Teochew is similar to other Min languages, as well as some southern varieties of Chinese, especially with Hakka, Yue and Wu. The sequence 'subject–verb–object' is typical, like Standard Mandarin, although the 'subject–object–verb' form is also possible using particles.

Morphology

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns in Teochew, like in other Chinese languages, do not show case marking, therefore 我 [ua] means both I and me and 伊人 [iŋ] means they and them. The southern Min dialects, like some northern dialects, have a distinction between an inclusive and exclusive we, meaning that when the addressee is being included, the inclusive pronoun 俺 [naŋ] would be used, otherwise 阮 [ŋ] is employed. Outside Southern Min varieties like Teochew, no other southern Chinese variety has this distinction.

Personal Pronouns in Teochew

	Singular		Plural
1st person	我 ua˥˨	I / me	Inclusive	俺 naŋ˥˨	we / us
			Exclusive	阮 uaŋ˥˨ (uŋ˥˨ / ŋ˥˨)	we / us
2nd person	汝 lɨ˥˨	you	恁 niŋ˥˨		you (plural)
3rd person	伊 i˧	he/she/it/him/her	伊儂 iŋ˧ (i˧ naŋ˥)		they/them

Possessive pronouns

Teochew does not distinguish the possessive pronouns from the possessive adjectives. As a general rule, the possessive pronouns or adjectives are formed by adding the genitive or possessive marker 個 [kai5] to their respective personal pronouns, as summarised below:

Possessive Pronouns in Teochew

	Singular		Plural
1st person	我個 ua˥˨ kai˥	my / mine	Inclusive	俺個 naŋ˥˨ kai˥	our / ours
			Exclusive	阮個 uaŋ˥˨ (uŋ˥˨ / ŋ˥˨) kai˥	ours / ours
2nd person	汝個 lɨ˥˨ kai˥	your / yours	恁個 niŋ˥˨ kai˥		your / yours (plural)
3rd person	伊個 i˧ kai˥	his / his; her / hers; its / its	伊儂個 iŋ˧ (i˧ naŋ˥) kai˥		their / theirs

本

puŋ˥˨

書

tsɨ˧

是

si˧˥

我

ua˥˨

個。

kai˥

本 書 是 我 個。

puŋ˥˨ tsɨ˧ si˧˥ ua˥˨ kai˥

The book is mine.

As 個 [kai˥] is the generic measure word, it may be replaced by other more appropriate classifiers:

我

ua˥˨

條

tiou˥

裙

kuŋ˥

我 條 裙

ua˥˨ tiou˥ kuŋ˥

my skirt

Demonstrative pronouns

Teochew has the typical two-way distinction between the demonstratives, namely the proximals and the distals, as summarised in the following chart:

The Teochew Demonstratives

		Proximal		Distal
General	Singular	只個 [tsi˥˨ kai˥]	this	許個 [hɨ˥˨ kai˥]	that
	Plural	只撮 [tsi˥˨ tsʰoʔ˦]	these	許撮 [hɨ˥˨ tsʰoʔ˦]	those
Spatial		只塊 [tsi˥˨ ko˨˩˧]	here	許塊 [hɨ˥˨ ko˨˩˧]	there
		只內 [tsi˥˨ lai˧˥]	inside	許內 [hɨ˥˨ lai˧˥]	inside
		只口 [tsi˥˨ kʰau˩]	outside	許口 [hɨ˥˨ kʰau˩]	outside
Temporal		只陣 / 當 [tsi˥˨ tsuŋ˥ / təŋ˨˩˧]	now; recently	許陣 / 當 [hɨ˥˨ tsuŋ˥ / təŋ˨˩˧]	then
Adverbial		這生 [tse˥˨ sẽ˧]	like this	向生 [hia˥˨ sẽ˧]	like that
Degree		只樣 [tsĩõ˨˩˧]	this	向樣 [hĩõ˨˩˧]	that
Type		者個 [tsia˥˨ kai˥]	this kind	向個 [hia˥˨ kai˥]	that kind

Interrogative pronouns

The Teochew Interrogative Pronouns

who / whom		值珍 [ti tiaŋ]
		值儂 [ti naŋ]
what		乜個 [miʔ kai]
what (kind of) + noun		乜 + N [miʔ]
which		值 + NUM + CL + (N) [ti]
		值個 [ti kai]
where		值塊 [ti ko]
when		珍時 [tiaŋ si]
how	manner	怎呢 [tso ni]
	state	在些(樣) [tsai sẽ ĩõ]
		乜些樣 [miʔ sẽ ĩõ]
		什乜樣 [si miʔ ĩõ]
how many		幾 + CL + N [kui]
		若多 + (CL) + (N) [dzieʔ tsoi]
how much		若多 [dzieʔ tsoi]
why		怎呢 [tso ni]

Numerals

Teochew numeral system

Pronunciation	Financial	Normal	Value	Notes
liŋ5	零	〇	0	〇 is an informal way to represent zero, but 零 is more commonly used, especially in schools. also 空 [kang3]
tsek8	壹	一	1	also 蜀 [tsek8] (original character) also 弌 (obsolete) also [ik4] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 二十一 [dzi6 tsap8 ik4] or days of a month e.g. 一號 [ik4 ho7] or as an ordinal number e.g. 第一 [tõĩ6 ik4] also 么(T) or 幺(S) [iou1] when used in phone numbers etc.
no6	兩(T)	二	2	also 弍 (obsolete) also 貳(T) also [dzi6] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 三十二 [sã1 tsap8 dzi6] or days of a month e.g. 二號 [dzi6 ho7] or as an ordinal number e.g. 第二 [tõĩ6 dzi6].
sã1	叄(T)	三	3	also 弎 (obsolete) also 參 [sã1].
si3	肆	四	4
ŋou6	伍	五	5
lak8	陸	六	6
tsʰik4	柒	七	7
poiʔ4	捌	八	8
kau2	玖	九	9
tsap8	拾	十	10	Although some people use 什, It is not acceptable because it can be written over into 伍.

Note: (T): Traditional characters; (S): Simplified characters.

Ordinal numbers are formed by adding 第 [tõĩ˧˥] in front of a cardinal number.

Voice

In Teochew passive construction, the agent phrase by somebody always has to be present, and is introduced by either 乞 [kʰoiʔ˦] (some speakers use [kʰəʔ] or [kʰiəʔ] instead) or 分 [puŋ˧], even though it is in fact a zero or indefinite agent as in:

伊

i˧

分

puŋ˧

儂

naŋ˥

治

tʰai˥

掉。

tiou˩

伊 分 儂 治 掉。

i˧ puŋ˧ naŋ˥ tʰai˥ tiou˩

S/he was killed (by someone).

While in Mandarin one can have the agent introducer 被; bèi or 給; gěi alone without the agent itself, it is not grammatical to say

*

 

個

kai˥

杯

pue˧

分

puŋ˧

敲

kʰa˧

掉。

tiou˩

* 個 杯 分 敲 掉。

{} kai˥ pue˧ puŋ˧ kʰa˧ tiou˩

The cup was broken.

cf. Mandarin 杯子給打破了; bēizi gěi dǎ pòle)

Instead, we have to say:

個

kai˥

杯

pue˧

分

puŋ˧

儂

naŋ˥

敲

kʰa˧

掉。

tiou˩

個 杯 分 儂 敲 掉。

kai˥ pue˧ puŋ˧ naŋ˥ kʰa˧ tiou˩

The cup was broken.

Even though this 儂 [naŋ˥] is unknown.

The agent phrase 分儂 [puŋ˧ naŋ˥] always comes immediately after the subject, not at the end of the sentence or between the auxiliary and the past participle like in some European languages (e.g. German, Dutch)

Comparison

Comparative construction with two or more nouns

Teochew uses the construction "X ADJ 過 [kue˨˩˧] Y", which is believed to have evolved from the Old Chinese "X ADJ 于 (yú) Y" structure to express the idea of comparison:

伊

i˧

雅

ŋia˥˨

過

kue˨˩˧

汝。

lɨ˥˨

伊 雅 過 汝。

i˧ ŋia˥˨ kue˨˩˧ lɨ˥˨

She is more beautiful than you.

Cantonese uses the same construction:

佢

Keoi⁵

靚

leng³

過

gwo³

你。

nei⁵.

佢 靚 過 你。

Keoi5 leng3 gwo3 nei5.

She is more beautiful than you.

However, due to modern influences from Mandarin, the Mandarin structure "X 比 Y ADJ" has also gained popularity over the years. Therefore, the same sentence can be re-structured and becomes:

伊

i˩

比

pi˥˨

汝

lɨ˥˨

雅。

ŋia˥˨

伊 比 汝 雅。

i˩ pi˥˨ lɨ˥˨ ŋia˥˨

She is more beautiful than you.

cf. Mandarin 她比你漂亮; tā bǐ nǐ piàoliang

Comparative construction with only one noun

The 過- or 比-construction must involve two or more nouns to be compared; an ill-formed sentence will be yielded when only one is being mentioned:

* 伊雅過 (?)

Teochew is different from English, where the second noun being compared can be left out ("Tatyana is more beautiful (than Lisa)". In cases like this, the 夭-construction must be used instead:

伊

i¹

夭

iou⁶

雅。

ŋia²

伊 夭 雅。

i1 iou6 ŋia2

She is more beautiful.

The same holds true for Mandarin and Cantonese in that another structure needs to be used when only one of the nouns being compared is mentioned. Teochew and Mandarin both use a pre-modifier (before the adjective) while Cantonese uses a post-modifier (after the adjective).

• Mandarin

她

tā

比較

bǐjiào

漂亮

piàoliang

她 {比較} 漂亮

tā bǐjiào piàoliang

• Cantonese

佢

keoi5

靚

leng3

啲

di1

佢 靚 啲

keoi5 leng3 di1

There are two words which are intrinsically comparative in meaning, i.e. 贏 [ĩã5] "better" and 輸 [su1] "worse". They can be used alone or in conjunction with the 過-structure:

只

tsi²

領

nĩã²

裙

kuŋ⁵

輸

su¹

(過)

kue³

許

hɨ²

領。

nĩã²

只 領 裙 輸 (過) 許 領。

tsi2 nĩã2 kuŋ5 su1 kue3 hɨ2 nĩã2

This skirt is not as good as that one.

我

ua²

內

lai⁶

個

kai⁷

電

tiaŋ⁶

腦

nau²

贏

ĩã⁵

伊

i¹

個

kai⁷

好

hoʔ²

多。

tsoi⁷

我 內 個 電 腦 贏 伊 個 好 多。

ua2 lai6 kai7 tiaŋ6 nau2 ĩã5 i1 kai7 hoʔ2 tsoi7

My computer (at home) is far better than his.

Note the use of the adverbial 好多 [hoʔ2 tsoi7] at the end of the sentence to express a higher degree.

Equal construction

In Teochew, the idea of equality is expressed with the word 平 [pẽ5] or 平樣 [pẽ5 ĩõ7]:

只

tsi²

本

puŋ²

書

tsɨ¹

佮

kaʔ⁴

許

hɨ²

本

puŋ²

平

pẽ⁵

重。

taŋ⁶

只 本 書 佮 許 本 平 重。

tsi2 puŋ2 tsɨ1 kaʔ4 hɨ2 puŋ2 pẽ5 taŋ6

This book is as heavy as that one.

伊

i¹

兩

no⁶

儂

naŋ⁵

平

pẽ⁵

平

pẽ⁵

樣。

ĩõ⁷

伊 兩 儂 平 平 樣。

i1 no6 naŋ5 pẽ5 pẽ5 ĩõ7

They are the same. (They look the same./They're as good as each other./They're as bad as each other.) lit. The two people are the same same way.

Superlative construction

To express the superlative, Teochew uses the adverb 上 [siaŋ5] or 上頂 [siaŋ5 teŋ2]. 上頂 is usually used with a complimentary connotation.

只

tsi²

間

kõĩ¹

物

mueʔ⁸

上

siaŋ⁵

頂

teŋ²

好

ho²

食。

tsiaʔ⁸

只 間 物 上 頂 好 食。

tsi2 kõĩ1 mueʔ8 siaŋ5 teŋ2 ho2 tsiaʔ8

This (restaurant) is (absolutely) the most delicious.

伊

i¹

儂

naŋ⁵

對

tui³

我

ua²

上

siaŋ⁵

好。

ho²

伊 儂 對 我 上 好。

i1 naŋ5 tui3 ua2 siaŋ5 ho2

They treat me best. lit. The people treat me very well.

Vocabulary

The vocabulary of Teochew shares a lot of similarities with Cantonese because of their continuous contact with each other. Like Cantonese, Teochew has a great deal of monosyllabic words. However, ever since the standardisation of Modern Standard Chinese, Teochew has absorbed a lot of Putonghua vocabulary, which is predominantly polysyllabic. Also, Teochew varieties in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia have also borrowed extensively from Malay.

Archaic vocabulary

Teochew and other Southern Min varieties, such as Hokkien, preserve a good deal of Old Chinese vocabulary, such as 目 [mak] eye (Chinese: 眼睛; pinyin: yǎnjīng, Hokkien: 目 ba̍k), 灱 [ta] dry (Chinese: 乾; pinyin: gān, Hokkien: 焦 ta), and 囥 [kʰəŋ] hide (cf. Chinese: 藏; pinyin: cáng; Hokkien: 囥 khǹg).

Romanisation

Main articles: Peng'im and Pe̍h-ūe-jī

Teochew was romanised by the Provincial Education Department of Guangdong in 1960 to aid linguistic studies and the publication of dictionaries, although Pe̍h-ūe-jī can also be used because Christian missionaries invented it for the transcription of varieties of Southern Min.

Initials

Initial consonants of Teochew, are represented in the Guangdong Romanization system as: B, BH, C, D, G, GH, H, K, L, M, N, NG, P, R, S, T, and Z.

Examples:

• B [p] - bag (北 north)
• Bh [b]- bhê (馬 horse)
• C [tsʰ] - cên (青 green), cǔi (嘴 mouth), ciên (槍 gun)
• D [t] - diê (潮 tide)
• G [k] - giê (橋 bridge)
• GH [g] - gho (鵝 goose)
• H [h] - hung (雲 cloud)
• K [kʰ] - ke (去 to go)
• L [l] - lag (六 six)
• M [m] - mêng (明 bright)
• N [n] - nang (人 person)
• NG [ŋ] - ngou (五 five)
• P [pʰ] - peng (平 peace)
• R [(d)z] - riêg/ruah (熱 hot)
• S [s] - sên (生 to be born)
• T [tʰ] - tin (天 sky)
• Z [ts] - ziu (州 region/state)

Finals

Vowels

Vowels and vowel combinations in the Teochew dialect include: A, E, Ê, I, O, U, AI, AO, IA, IAO, IO, IU, OI, OU, UA, UAI, UE, and UI.

Examples:

• A - ma (媽 mother)
• E - de (箸 chopsticks)
• Ê - sên (生 to be born)
• I - bhi (味 smell/taste)
• O - to (桃 peach)
• U - ghu (牛 cow)

Many words in Teochew are nasalized. This is represented by the letter "n" in the Guangdong Pengim system.

Example (nasalized):

• suan (山 mountain)
• cên (青 green)

Ending

Ending consonants in Teochew include M and NG as well as the stops discussed below.

Examples:

• M - iam (鹽 salt)
• NG - bhuang (萬 ten thousand)

Teochew retains many consonant stops lost in Mandarin. These stops include a labial stop: "b"; velar stop: "g"; and glottal stop: "h".

Examples:

• B - zab (十 ten)
• G - hog (福 happiness)
• H - tih (鐵 iron)

See also

• Southern Min
• Hokkien
  • Amoy Hokkien
  • Taiwanese Hokkien
• Languages of China
• List of Chinese dialects
• Thai Chinese
• Chinese in Singapore
• Malaysian Chinese
• Indonesian Chinese

Sources

• Beijing da xue Zhongguo yu yan wen xue xi yu yan xue jiao yan shi. (2003). Han yu fang yin zi hui. (Chinese dialectal vocabulary) Beijing: Yu wen chu ban she (北京大學中國語言文學系語言學教研室, 2003. 漢語方音字彙. 北京: 語文出版社) ISBN 7-80184-034-8
• Cai Junming. (1991). Putonghua dui zhao Chaozhou fang yan ci hui. (Chaozhou dialectal vocabulary, contrasted with Mandarin) Hong Kong: T. T. Ng Chinese Language Research Centre (蔡俊明, 1991. 普通話對照潮州方言詞彙. 香港: 香港中文大學吳多泰中國語文研究中心) ISBN 962-7330-02-7
• Chappell, Hilary (ed.) (2001). Sinitic grammar : synchronic and diachronic perspectives. Oxford; New York: OUP ISBN 0-19-829977-X
• Chen, Matthew Y. (2000). Tone Sandhi: patterns across Chinese dialects. Cambridge, England: CUP ISBN 0-521-65272-3
• DeFrancis, John. (1984). The Chinese language: fact and fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press ISBN 0-8248-1068-6
• Li, Xin Kui. (1994). Guangdong di fang yan. (Dialects of Guangdong) Guangzhou, China: Guangdong ren min chu ban she (李新魁, 1994. 廣東的方言. 廣州: 廣東 人民出版社) ISBN 7-218-00960-3
• Li, Yongming. (1959). Chaozhou fang yan. (Chaozhou dialect) Beijing: Zhonghua. (李永明, 1959. 潮州方言. 北京: 中華)
• Lin, Lun Lun. (1997). Xin bian Chaozhou yin zi dian. (New Chaozhou pronunciation dictionary) Shantou, China: Shantou da xue chu ban she. (林倫倫, 1997. 新編潮州音字典. 汕頭: 汕頭大學出版社) ISBN 7-81036-189-9
• Norman, Jerry. [1988] (2002). Chinese. Cambridge, England: CUP ISBN 0-521-29653-6
• Ramsey, S. Robert (1986). Languages of China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-06694-9
• Xu, Huiling (2007). Aspects of Chaoshan grammar: A synchronic description of the Jieyang dialect. Monograph Series Journal of Chinese Linguistics 22
• Yap, FoongHa; Grunow-Hårsta, Karen; Wrona, Janick (ed.) (2011). "Nominalization in Asian Languages: Diachronic and typological perspectives". Hong Kong Polytechnic University /Oxford University : John Benjamins Publishing Company ISBN 978-9027206770

Further reading

• Josiah Goddard (1883). A Chinese and English vocabulary: in the Tie-chiu dialect (2 ed.). Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. pp. 237. Retrieved 10 February 2012. (the New York Public Library) (digitized April 2, 2008)

• Kū-ieh sàn-bú-zṳ́ ē-kńg tshûan-tsṳ e̍k-tsò tiê-chiu pe̍h-ūe. Swatow: printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society at the English Presbyterian Mission Press. 1898. Retrieved 10 February 2012. (11 Samuel. (Tie-chiu dialect.)) (Harvard University) (digitized December 17, 2007)

External links

• 1883 American Presbyterian mission press – "A pronouncing and defining dictionary of the Swatow dialect, arranged according to syllables and tones" – by Fielde, Adele Marion (in English)Link to download(3,022 × 4,010 pixels, file size: 42.21 MB, MIME type: image/vnd.djvu, 648 pages)
• Database of Pronunciations of Chinese Dialects (in English, Chinese and Japanese)
• Teochew People - Teochew dialect (in Chinese)
• Glossika - Chinese Languages and Dialects
• Mogher (in Chinese, English and French)
• Omniglot
• Shantou University Chaozhou Studies Resources (in Chinese)
• Teochew Web (in Chinese and English)
• Tonal harmony and register contour in Chaozhou