List of German inventions and discoveries
"What the world is today, good and bad, it owes to Gutenberg. Everything can be traced to this source, but we are bound to bring him homage, … for the bad that his colossal invention has brought about is overshadowed a thousand times by the good with which mankind has been favored."
American writer Mark Twain (1835−1910)[1]
Part of a series on the |
Culture of Germany |
---|
![]() |
Festivals |
Music |
German inventions and discoveries are ideas, objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, in Germany or abroad by a person from Germany (that is, someone born in Germany – including to non-German parents – or born abroad with at least one German parent and who had the majority of their education or career in Germany). Often, things discovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg/220px-Einstein_1921_by_F_Schmutzer_-_restoration.jpg)
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors, discoverers and engineers, including Carl von Linde, who developed the modern refrigerator;[2] Paul Nipkow, who laid the foundation of the television with his Nipkow disk;[3] Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer (Z3) and the first commercial digital computer (Z4).[4][5] Such German inventors, engineers and industrialists as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin,[6] Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology. Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket at Peenemünde and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.[7]
Albert Einstein introduced the special relativity and general relativity theories for light and gravity in 1905 and 1915 respectively. Along with Max Planck, he was instrumental in the introduction of quantum mechanics, in which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born later made major contributions.[8] Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.[9] Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radiochemistry and discovered nuclear fission, while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology.
The movable-type printing press was invented by German blacksmith Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. In 1997, Time Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium.[10] In 1998, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg as the most influential person of the second millennium on their "Biographies of the Millennium" countdown.[10]
The following is a list of inventions, innovations or discoveries known or generally recognised to be German.
Anatomy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/1PSO.png/100px-1PSO.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Alzheimer%27s_disease_brain_comparison.jpg/100px-Alzheimer%27s_disease_brain_comparison.jpg)
- 17th century: First description of duct of Wirsung by Johann Georg Wirsung.[11]
- 1720: Discovery of the ampulla of Vater by Abraham Vater.[12]
- 1745: First description of crypts of Lieberkühn by Johann Nathanael Lieberkühn.[13]
- 19th century: First description of Auerbach's plexus by Leopold Auerbach.[14]
- 19th century: First description of Meissner's plexus by Georg Meissner.[15]
- 19th century: Discovery of Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system by Theodor Schwann.[16]
- 1836: Discovery and study of pepsin by Theodor Schwann.[17]
- 1840: First medical report on poliomyelitis (Heine-Medin disease), and the first to recognize the illness as a clinical entity, by Jakob Heine.[18]
- 1852: First description of tactile corpuscle by Georg Meissner and Rudolf Wagner.[19]
- 1868: Discovery of Langerhans cell by Paul Langerhans.[20]
- 1869: Discovery of islets of Langerhans by Paul Langerhans.[21]
- 1875: First description of Merkel cell by Friedrich Sigmund Merkel.[22]
- 1906: Discovery of the Alzheimer's disease by Alois Alzheimer.[23]
- 1909: First description of Brodmann's areas by Korbinian Brodmann.[24]
- 1977: Plastination by Gunther von Hagens.[25]
Animals
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Carl_Hagenbeck.jpg/100px-Carl_Hagenbeck.jpg)
- 1907: Modern zoo (Tierpark Hagenbeck) by Carl Hagenbeck in Hamburg.[26]
- 1916: Guide dog; the world's first training school, established by Dr. Gerhard Stalling in Oldenburg.[27]
Archaeology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg/100px-Archaeopteryx_lithographica_%28Berlin_specimen%29.jpg)
- 1825: Rhamphorhynchus by Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring.[28]
- 1834: Plateosaurus by Johann Friedrich Engelhardt near Nuremberg, described in 1837 by Hermann von Meyer.[29]
- 1856: Neanderthal 1 near Düsseldorf.[30]
- 1856–1857: First description of the Neanderthal by Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen.[31]
- 1860: Teratosaurus by Sixt Friedrich Jakob von Kapff near Stuttgart, described in 1861 by Hermann von Meyer.[32]
- 1861: Archaeopteryx by Hermann von Meyer near Solnhofen.[33]
- 1868–1879: Troy by Heinrich Schliemann.[34]
- c. 1900: Gordium by Alfred and Gustav Körte.[35]
- 1906–1913: Hattusa by Hugo Winckler.[36]
- 1908: Homo heidelbergensis by Daniel Hartmann and Otto Schoetensack near Heidelberg.[37]
- 1912: The Nefertiti Bust by Ludwig Borchardt.[38]
- 1915: Description of Spinosaurus, the largest known theropod, by Ernst Stromer.[39]
- 1925: Stomatosuchus by Ernst Stromer.[40]
- 1931: Description of Carcharodontosaurus by Ernst Stromer.[41]
- 1932: Aegyptosaurus by Ernst Stromer.[42]
- 1934: Bahariasaurus by Ernst Stromer.[43]
- 1991: Ötzi by Helmut and Erika Simon from Nuremberg.[44]
Arts
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Bauhaus-Signet.svg/100px-Bauhaus-Signet.svg.png)
- 15th century: Drypoint by the Housebook Master, a south German artist.[45]
- 1525: Ray tracing by Albrecht Dürer.[46]
- 1642: Mezzotint by Ludwig von Siegen.[47]
- 1708: Meissen porcelain, the first European hard-paste porcelain, by Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus in Meissen.[48]
- 1810: Theory of Colours by Johann Wolfgang Goethe.[49]
- Early 1900s: The modernist movement Expressionism.[50]
- 1919: Bauhaus by Walter Gropius.[51]
Astronomy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Kepler-second-law.gif/100px-Kepler-second-law.gif)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Neptune.jpg/100px-Neptune.jpg)
- 1609–1619: Kepler's laws of planetary motion by Johannes Kepler.[52]
- 1781: Discovery of Uranus, with two of its major moons (Titania and Oberon), by German-born William Herschel.[53]
- 1846: Discovery of Neptune by Johann Galle.[54]
- 1902: Discovery of the stratosphere by Richard Assmann.[55]
- 1909: Discovery of cosmic ray by Theodor Wulf.[56]
- 1916: Schwarzschild metric[57] and Schwarzschild radius[58] by Karl Schwarzschild.
Biology, genetics and memory
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Three_cell_growth_types.svg/100px-Three_cell_growth_types.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Citric_acid_cycle_with_aconitate_2.svg/100px-Citric_acid_cycle_with_aconitate_2.svg.png)
- 1759: Description of mesonephros by Caspar Friedrich Wolff.[59]
- 1790s: Recapitulation theory by Johann Friedrich Meckel and Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer.[60]
- Late 1790s/early 1800s: Humboldtian science by Alexander von Humboldt.[61]
- 1834: Humboldt penguin by Franz Meyen, after its initial discovery by Alexander von Humboldt.[62]
- 1835: Cell division by Hugo von Mohl.[63]
- 1835: Discovery and description of mitosis by Hugo von Mohl.[64]
- 1839: Cell theory by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden (with contributions from Rudolf Virchow).[65]
- 1845: Odic force by Carl Reichenbach.[66]
- 1851: Discovery of alternation of generations as a general principle in plant life by Wilhelm Hofmeister.[67]
- 1876: Discovery and description of meiosis by Oscar Hertwig.[68]
- 1880s: Bacteriology by Robert Koch.[69]
- Late 19th century: Isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", determining the chemical composition of nucleic acids, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases by Albrecht Kossel.[70]
- 1885: Forgetting curve and learning curve by Hermann Ebbinghaus.[71]
- 1888: Description and naming of the centrosome by Theodor Boveri.[72]
- 1890: Description of mitochondrion by Richard Altmann.[73]
- 1892: Weismann barrier and germ plasm by August Weismann.[74]
- 1908: Hardy–Weinberg principle by Wilhelm Weinberg.[75]
- 1928: First reliable pregnancy test by Selmar Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek.[76]
- 1932: Urea cycle by Kurt Henseleit and Hans Adolf Krebs.[77]
- 1937: Citric acid cycle by Hans Adolf Krebs.[78]
- 1974: First genetically modified animal (a mouse) by Rudolf Jaenisch.[79]
Chemistry
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/276_Beta_vulgaris_L.jpg/100px-276_Beta_vulgaris_L.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Hamburg_Museum_2010-1207-217.jpg/100px-Hamburg_Museum_2010-1207-217.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Fritz_Haber.png/100px-Fritz_Haber.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Szalka_petriego.jpg/100px-Szalka_petriego.jpg)
- 1625: Glauber's salt by German-born Johann Rudolf Glauber.[80]
- 1669: Discovery of phosphorus by Hennig Brand in Hamburg.[81]
- 1706: Prussian blue by Heinrich Diesbach in Berlin.[82]
- 1724: Temperature scale Fahrenheit by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit.[83]
- 1746: Basic theory of isolating zinc by Andreas Marggraf.[84]
- c. 1770 – c. 1785: Identification of molybdenum, tungsten, barium and chlorine by Carl Wilhelm Scheele.[85]
- 1773 or earlier: discovery of oxygen (although Joseph Priestley published his findings first) by Carl Wilhelm Scheele.[86]
- 1789: Discovery of the elements uranium[87] and zirconium[88] by Martin Heinrich Klaproth.
- 1799: Production of sugar from sugar beets, the beginning of the modern sugar industry,[89] by Franz Karl Achard, after foundations were laid by Andreas Marggraf.[90]
- 19th century: Eupione by Carl Reichenbach.[91]
- 1817: Discovery of cadmium by Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann and Friedrich Stromeyer.[92]
- 1820s: Oechsle scale by Ferdinand Oechsle.[93]
- 1823: Döbereiner's lamp, often hailed as the first lighter,[94][95] by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner.
- 1828: Discovery of creosote by Carl Reichenbach.[96]
- 1828, 1893: Isolation (1828) of nicotine by Wilhelm Heinrich Posselt and Karl Ludwig Reimann.[97] The structure (1893) of nicotine was later discovered by Adolf Pinner and Richard Wolffenstein.[98]
- 1828: Synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler (Wöhler synthesis).[99]
- 1830: Creation of paraffin wax by Carl Reichenbach.[100]
- 1832: Discovery of pittacal by Carl Reichenbach.[101]
- 1834: Melamine by Justus von Liebig.[102]
- 1834: Discovery of phenol by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge.[103]
- 1836 (or 1837): Discovery of diatomaceous earth (Kieselgur in German) by Peter Kasten on the northern slopes of the Haußelberg hill, in the Lüneburg Heath in North Germany.[104]
- 1838: Fuel cell by Christian Friedrich Schönbein.[105]
- 1839: Discovery of ozone by Christian Friedrich Schönbein.[106]
- 1839, 1930: Discovery of polystyrene by Eduard Simon, was made a commercial product by IG Farben in 1930.[107]
- c. 1840: Nitrogen-based fertiliser by Justus von Liebig,[108][109] important innovations were later made by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch (Haber process) in the 1900s.[110]
- 1846: Discovery of guncotton by Christian Friedrich Schönbein.[111]
- 1850s: Siemens-Martin process by Carl Wilhelm Siemens.[112]
- c. 1855: Bunsen burner by Robert Bunsen and Peter Desaga.[113]
- 1855: Chromatography by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge.[114]
- 1857: Siemens cycle by Carl Wilhelm Siemens.[115]
- 1859: Pinacol coupling reaction by Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig.[116]
- 1860–61: Discovery of caesium and rubidium by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff.[117]
- 1860: Erlenmeyer flask by Emil Erlenmeyer.[118]
- 1863–64: Discovery of indium by Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymous Theodor Richter.[119][120][121]
- 1863: First synthesis of trinitrotoluene (TNT) by Julius Wilbrand.[122]
- 1864: First synthesis of barbiturate by Adolf von Baeyer, first marketed by Bayer under the name "Veronal" in 1903.[123]
- 1865: Synthetic indigo dye by Adolf von Baeyer, first marketed by BASF in 1897.[124]
- c. 1870: Brix unit by Adolf Brix.[125]
- 1872: Synthesis of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) by Eugen Baumann.[126]
- 1877: Poly(methyl methacrylate) by Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, was made a commercial product (Plexiglas) by Otto Röhm in 1933.[127]
- 1882: Tollens' reagent by Bernhard Tollens.[128]
- 1883: Claus process by Carl Friedrich Claus.[129]
- 1884: Paal–Knorr synthesis by Carl Paal and Ludwig Knorr.[130]
- 1885–1886: Discovery of germanium by Clemens Winkler.[131]
- 1887: Petri dish by Julius Richard Petri.[132]
- 1888: Büchner flask and Büchner funnel by Ernst Büchner.[133]
- 1895: Hampson–Linde cycle by Carl von Linde.[115]
- 1897: Galalith by Wilhelm Krische.[134]
- 1898: Polycarbonate by Alfred Einhorn, was made an commercial product by Hermann Schnell at Bayer in 1953 in Uerdingen.[135]
- 1898: Synthesis of polyethylene, the most common plastic, by Hans von Pechmann.[136]
- Early 20th century: Schlenk flask by Wilhelm Schlenk.[137]
- 1900s: Haber process by Carl Bosch and Fritz Haber.[110]
- 1902: Ostwald process by Wilhelm Ostwald.[138]
- 1903: First commercially successful decaffeination process by Ludwig Roselius (later of Café HAG), after foundations were laid by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge in 1820.[139]
- 1907: Thiele tube by Johannes Thiele.[140]
- 1913: Coal liquefaction (Bergius process) by Friedrich Bergius.[141][142]
- 1913: Identification of protactinium by Oswald Helmuth Göhring.[143]
- 1925: Discovery of rhenium by Otto Berg, Ida Noddack and Walter Noddack.[144]
- 1928: Diels–Alder reaction by Kurt Alder and Otto Diels.[145]
- 1929: Discovery of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by Karl Lohmann.[146]
- 1929: Creation of styrene-butadiene (synthetic rubber) by Walter Bock.[147]
- 1935: Karl Fischer titration by Karl Fischer.[148]
- 1937: Creation of polyurethane by Otto Bayer at IG Farben in Leverkusen.[149]
- 1953: Ziegler–Natta catalyst by Karl Ziegler.[150]
- 1954: Wittig reaction by Georg Wittig.[151]
- 1981–1996: Discovery and creation of bohrium by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt.[152]
- 1982: Discovery and creation of meitnerium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research.[153]
- 1984: Discovery and creation of hassium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research.[152]
- 1994: Discovery and creation of darmstadtium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research.[154]
- 1994: Discovery and creation of roentgenium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research.[155]
- 1996: Discovery and creation of copernicium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research.[156]
Clothing, cosmetics and fashion
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Jeans.jpg/100px-Jeans.jpg)
- 13th century: Functional buttons with buttonholes for fastening or closing clothes.[157]
- 18th century or earlier: Dirndl, Lederhosen and Tracht.[158]
- 1709: Eau de Cologne by Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) in Cologne.[159]
- 1871–1873: Jeans by German-born Levi Strauss (together with Russian-American Jacob Davis).[160]
- 1905: Permanent wave that was suitable for use on people, by German-born Karl Nessler.[161]
- 1911: Nivea, the first modern cream,[162] by Beiersdorf AG.[163]
- 1960s: BB cream by Christine Schrammek.[164]
Computing
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg/100px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz%2C_Bernhard_Christoph_Francke.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/100px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg)
- Late 17th century: Modern binary numeral system by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.[165]
- 1918–1923: Enigma machine by Arthur Scherbius.[166]
- 1920s: Hellschreiber (precursor of the impact dot matrix printers and faxes) by Rudolf Hell.[167][168]
- 1941: First programmable, fully automatic digital computer (Z3) by Konrad Zuse.[169]
- 1942–1945: Programming language Plankalkül, the first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer,[170] by Konrad Zuse.
- 1945: The world's first commercial digital computer (Z4) by Konrad Zuse.[5]
- 1957: Stack (abstract data type) by Klaus Samelson and Friedrich L. Bauer of Technical University Munich.[171]
- 1960s: Smart card by Jürgen Dethloff and Helmut Gröttrup.[172]
Construction, architecture and shops
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Wvs_1885.jpg/100px-Wvs_1885.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Electric-chainsaw.jpg/100px-Electric-chainsaw.jpg)
- 1831–1834: Wire rope by Wilhelm Albert[173][174][175]
- 1858: Hoffmann kiln by Friedrich Hoffmann.[176][177]
- 1880: The world's first electric elevator by Werner von Siemens.[178]
- 1895: Electrically-driven hand drill by Carl and Wilhelm Fein in Stuttgart.[179]
- 1895: Exothermic welding process by Hans Goldschmidt.[180]
- 1926–1927: Portable electric (by Andreas Stihl in 1926 in Cannstatt) and the first petrol chainsaw (by Emil Lerp in 1927).[181] A precursor of chainsaws was made around 1830 by Bernhard Heine (osteotome).[182]
- 1927: Concrete pump by Max Giese and Fritz Hull.[183]
- 1930s: Particle board by Max Himmelheber.[184]
- 1954: Angle grinder by Ackermann + Schmitt (FLEX-Elektrowerkzeuge GmbH) in Steinheim an der Murr.[185][186]
- 1958: Modern (plastic) wall plug (Fischer Wall Plug) by Artur Fischer.[187][188][189]
- 1962: The world's first sex shop by Beate Uhse AG in Flensburg.[190]
- 1963–1967: First hydraulic breaker by Krupp in Essen.[191]
- 1988–1990: The concept of the Passivhaus (Passive house) standard by Wolfgang Feist in Darmstadt.[192]
Cuisine
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Black_Forest_gateau.jpg/100px-Black_Forest_gateau.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Currywurst-1.jpg/100px-Currywurst-1.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Oursons_g%C3%A9latine_march%C3%A9_Rouffignac.jpg/100px-Oursons_g%C3%A9latine_march%C3%A9_Rouffignac.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/RedDot_Burger.jpg/100px-RedDot_Burger.jpg)
- Altbier
- Angostura bitters by Johann Gottlieb Benjamin Siegert in Venezuela, 1824.[193]
- First automat restaurant (Quisisana) in Berlin, 1895.[194]
- Baumkuchen
- Modern beer – Reinheitsgebot[195][196] and "developing the beverage [beer] to its highest perfection".[197]
- Berliner (doughnut)
- Bethmännchen
- Berliner Weisse
- Bienenstich
- Black Forest cake
- Bock
- Bratwurst
- Braunschweiger
- Currywurst by Herta Heuwer.[198]
- Dominostein by Herbert Wendler.[199]
- Donauwelle
- Modern doner kebab sandwich in Berlin, 1972.[200]
- Dortmunder Export
- Fanta
- Frankfurter Kranz
- Frankfurter Würstchen
- Gummy bear
- Hamburger (the "founder" is unknown, but it has German origins).[201][202]
- Hamburg steak
- Hedgehog slice (Kalter Hund)
- Helles
- Hot Dog[203][204]
- Jägermeister
- Kölsch
- Lager[205]
- Lebkuchen
- Marmite by Justus von Liebig.[206][207]
- Märzen
- Meat extract by Justus von Liebig.[208]
- Obatzda
- Parboiled rice (Huzenlaub Process) by Erich Gustav Huzenlaub.[209]
- Pilsener by Josef Groll.[210][211]
- Pinkel
- Potato salad (Kartoffelsalat)[212][213]
- Pretzel (the origin is disputed, but the earliest recorded evidence of pretzels appeared in Germany).[214]
- Prinzregententorte
- Pumpernickel
- Radler
- Riesling wine[215]
- Rye beer
- Saumagen
- Schwarzbier
- Strammer Max
- Stollen
- Streuselkuchen
- Teewurst
- Thuringian sausage
- Toast Hawaii
- Welf pudding
- Wheat beer
- Zwieback
- Zwiebelkuchen
Education, language and printing
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/PrintMus_038.jpg/100px-PrintMus_038.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Senefelder.jpg/100px-Senefelder.jpg)
- 12th century: Lingua Ignota, the first entirely artificial language, by St. Hildegard of Bingen, OSB.[216]
- c. 1440: Printing press with movable type by Johannes Gutenberg.[10]
- 1605: First newspaper (Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien) by Johann Carolus in Strasbourg (then part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation).[217]
- 1774: The process of deinking by Justus Claproth.[218]
- 1796: Lithography by Alois Senefelder.[219]
- Early 19th century: Humboldtian model of higher education by Wilhelm von Humboldt.[220]
- 1812–1858: Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm.[221]
- 1830s: Kindergarten concept by Friedrich Fröbel.[222]
- 1844: Wood pulp process for use in papermaking by Friedrich Gottlob Keller.[223]
- 1879–80: The constructed language Volapük by Johann Martin Schleyer.[224]
- 1884–1886: Linotype machine by Ottmar Mergenthaler.[225]
- 1905: The Morse code distress signal SOS ( ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ).[226][227]
- 1919: Waldorf education by Emil Molt and Rudolf Steiner in Stuttgart.[228]
- 1937–1951: Interlingua by German-born Alexander Gode.[229]
Entertainment, electronics and media
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Nipkow_disk.svg/100px-Nipkow_disk.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Oscilloscopic_tube.jpg/100px-Oscilloscopic_tube.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/SMS-mobile.jpg/100px-SMS-mobile.jpg)
- c. 1151: The earliest known morality play (Ordo Virtutum) by St. Hildegard of Bingen, OSB.[230]
- 1505: The world's first (pocket) watch (Watch 1505) by Peter Henlein.[231][232]
- 1663: First magazine (Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen).[233]
- 1885: Nipkow disk (fundamental component in the earliest televisions) by Paul Gottlieb Nipkow.[3]
- 1895: First moving picture show to a paying audience, and thereby creating the first cinema, by Emil and Max Skladanowsky in the Berlin Wintergarten theatre.[234]
- 1897: Cathode-ray tube (CRT) and the oscilloscope by Ferdinand Braun.[235]
- 1903: Printed circuit board by Albert Hanson of Berlin.[236]
- 1907: Earplug by Max Negwer (Ohropax).[237]
- 1907: Pigeon photography by Julius Neubronner.[238]
- 1920s: Small format camera (35mm format) by Oskar Barnack.[239]
- 1928: Magnetic tape in Dresden, later developed and commercialized by AEG.[240]
- 1930s: (Modern) tape recorder by BASF (then part of the chemical giant IG Farben) and AEG in cooperation with the state radio RRG.[241][242]
- 1934: Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow (TV Station Paul Nipkow) in Berlin, first public television station in the world.[243][244]
- 1942: Closed-circuit television (CCTV) by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemünde.[245]
- 1949: Integrated circuit by Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG).[246][247]
- 1961: Phase Alternating Line (PAL), a colour encoding system for analogue television, by Walter Bruch of Telefunken in Hanover.[248]
- 1970: Twisted nematic field effect by Wolfgang Helfrich (with Swiss physicist Martin Schadt).[249]
- 1983: Controller Area Network (CAN bus) by Robert Bosch GmbH.[250]
- 1984: Short Message Service (SMS) concept by Friedhelm Hillebrand.[251]
- Late 1980s and early 1990s: MP3 compression algorithm (fundamental for MP3 players) by i.a. Karlheinz Brandenburg (Fraunhofer Society).[252]
- 1990: First radio-controlled wristwatch (MEGA 1) by Junghans.[253]
- 1991: SIM card by Giesecke & Devrient in Munich.[254][255]
- 2005: YouTube by German-born Jawed Karim (together with Steve Chen and Chad Hurley).[256]
Geography, geology and mining
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_continents.svg/100px-Pangaea_continents.svg.png)
- 1812: Mohs scale of mineral hardness by Friedrich Mohs.[257]
- 1855: Stauroscope by Wolfgang Franz von Kobell.[258]
- 1884: Köppen climate classification by Wladimir Köppen.[259] Changes were later made by Rudolf Geiger (it is thus sometimes hailed as the "Köppen–Geiger climate classification system").[260]
- 1912: Theory of continental drift and postulation of the existence of Pangaea by Alfred Wegener.[261]
- 1933: Central place theory by Walter Christaller.[262]
- 1935: Richter magnitude scale by German-born Beno Gutenberg (together with Charles Francis Richter).[263]
Household and office appliance
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Justus_von_Liebig_NIH.jpg/100px-Justus_von_Liebig_NIH.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Food_into_a_refrigerator_-_20111002.jpg/100px-Food_into_a_refrigerator_-_20111002.jpg)
- 1767: Washing machine by Jacob Christian Schäffer.[264][265][266]
- 19th century: Meat grinder by Karl Drais.[267]
- 1835: Modern (silvered-glass) mirror by Justus von Liebig.[268][269][270]
- 1864: Ingrain wallpaper by Hugo Erfurt.[271]
- 1870–1895: Modern refrigerator and modern refrigeration by Carl von Linde.[272][273][274][2][275]
- 1886: Hole punch and ring binder by Friedrich Soennecken in Bonn.[276]
- 1886: Folding ruler by Anton Ullrich in Maikammer.[277]
- 1901: Adhesive tape by company Beiersdorf AG.[278]
- 1907: (Modern) Laundry detergent (Persil) by Henkel.[279]
- 1908: Paper coffee filter by Melitta Bentz.[280]
- 1909: Egg slicer by Willy Abel in Berlin.[281]
- 1929, 1949: First machine-produced tea bag (1929) and the modern tea bag (1949) by Adolf Rambold and Teekanne.[282][283]
- 1930s: Ink eraser by Pelikan.[284]
- 1941: Chemex Coffeemaker by German-born Peter Schlumbohm.[285]
- 1954: Wigomat, the first electrical drip coffee maker.[286]
- 1969: Glue stick by Henkel.[287]
Mathematics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Venn_A_intersect_B.svg/100px-Venn_A_intersect_B.svg.png)
- 1611: Kepler conjecture by Johannes Kepler.[288]
- 1623: Mechanical calculator by Wilhelm Schickard.[289][290]
- Late 17th century: Calculus[291] and Leibniz's notation[292] by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
- 1673–1676: Leibniz formula for π by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.[293]
- 1675: Integral symbol by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.[294]
- 1795: Least squares by Carl Friedrich Gauss.[295]
- c. 1810: Gaussian elimination by Carl Friedrich Gauss.[296]
- 1824: Generalization of the Bessel function by Friedrich Bessel.[297]
- 1827: Gauss map[298] and Gaussian curvature[299] by Carl Friedrich Gauss.
- 1837: Analytic number theory by Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet.[300]
- c. 1850: Riemann geometry by Bernhard Riemann.[301]
- 1859: Riemann hypothesis by Bernhard Riemann.[302]
- 1874: Cantor's first uncountability proof and set theory by Georg Cantor.[303]
- 1882: Klein bottle by Felix Klein.[304]
- 1891: Cantor's diagonal argument and Cantor's theorem by Georg Cantor.[305]
- 1897: Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem by Felix Bernstein and Ernst Schröder.[306]
- c. 1900: Runge–Kutta methods by Wilhelm Kutta and Carl Runge.[307][308]
- 1900s: Hilbert space by David Hilbert.[309]
- Early 20th century: Weyl tensor by Hermann Weyl.[310]
Medicine and drugs
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Friedrich_Wilhelm_Adam_Sertuerner.jpg/100px-Friedrich_Wilhelm_Adam_Sertuerner.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Cocaine_lines_2.jpg/100px-Cocaine_lines_2.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Aspirin1.jpg/100px-Aspirin1.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/BayerHeroin.png/100px-BayerHeroin.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/1st-eeg.png/100px-1st-eeg.png)
- 1796: Homeopathy by Samuel Hahnemann.[311]
- 1803–1827: First isolation of morphine by Friedrich Sertürner in Paderborn; first marketed to the general public by Sertürner and Company in 1817 as a pain medication; and the first commercial production began in 1827 in Darmstadt by Merck.[312]
- 1832: First synthesis of chloral hydrate, the first hypnotic drug,[313] by Justus von Liebig at the University of Giessen;[314] Oscar Liebreich introduced the drug into medicine in 1869 and discovered its hypnotic and sedative qualities.[315]
- 1840: Discovery and description of Graves-Basedow disease by Karl Adolph von Basedow.[316]
- 1847: Kymograph by Carl Ludwig.[317]
- 1850s: Microscopic pathology by Rudolf Virchow.[318]
- 1850–51: Ophthalmoscope by Hermann von Helmholtz.[319][320]
- 1854: Sphygmograph by Karl von Vierordt.[321]
- 1855: First synthesis of the cocaine alkaloid by Friedrich Gaedcke;[322] development of an improved purification process by Albert Niemann in 1859–1860, who also coined the name "cocaine".[323] First commercial production of cocaine began in 1862 in Darmstadt by Merck.[324]
- 1882: Adhesive bandage (Guttaperchapflastermulle) by Paul Carl Beiersdorf.[325]
- 1882: Discovery of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria which causes tuberculosis, by Robert Koch.[326]
- 1884: Discovery of the pathogenic bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae which causes diphtheria, by Edwin Klebs and Friedrich Löffler.[327]
- 1884: Koch's postulates by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler, based on earlier concepts described by Jakob Henle.[328]
- 1884: Discovery of the vibrio cholerae bacteria which causes cholera, by Robert Koch.[329]
- 1887: Amphetamine by Romanian-born Lazăr Edeleanu in Berlin.[330]
- 1887: Löffler's medium by Friedrich Loeffler.[331]
- 1888: First successful afocal scleral glass contact lenses by Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick.[332]
- 1890: Diphtheria antitoxin by Emil Adolf von Behring.[333]
- 1897–1899: Aspirin by Felix Hoffmann or Arthur Eichengrün at Bayer in Elberfeld.[334]
- 1897: Heroin by Felix Hoffmann at Bayer in Elberfeld.[335]
- 1897: Protargol by Arthur Eichengrün.[336]
- 1897: Discovery of the cause of foot-and-mouth disease (Aphthovirus) by Friedrich Loeffler.[337]
- 1907–1910: First synthesis of arsphenamine, the first antibiotic,[338] by Paul Ehrlich and Alfred Bertheim.[339] In 1910 marketed by Hoechst under the name Salvarsan.[340]
- 1908–1911: Creation of dihydrocodeine.[341]
- 1909, 1929: First intrauterine device (IUD) by Richard Richter (of Waldenburg, then part of Germany; in 1909), and the first ring (Gräfenberg's ring, 1929) used by a significant number of women by Ernst Gräfenberg.[342]
- 1909: Labello by Dr. Oscar Troplowitz.[343]
- 1912–1916: Modern condom by Julius Fromm in Berlin.[344]
- 1912: MDMA by Merck chemist Anton Köllisch.[345][346]
- 1914: Development and creation of oxymorphone.[347]
- 1916: Creation of oxycodone by Martin Freund and Edmund Speyer at the University of Frankfurt.[348]
- 1920–1924: First synthesis of hydrocodone by Carl Mannich and Helene Löwenheim in 1920,[349] first marketed by former German drug development company Knoll as Dicodid in 1924.[350]
- 1922: Discovery and creation of desomorphine by Knoll.[351]
- 1923: Creation of hydromorphone (Dilaudid) by Knoll.[352]
- 1924: First human Electroencephalography (EEG) recording by Hans Berger. Berger also discovered alpha waves.[353]
- 1929: Cardiac catheterization by Werner Forssmann.[354]
- 1932: Prontosil by Josef Klarer and Fritz Mietzsch at Bayer.[355]
- 1937–1939: Creation of methadone by Max Bockmühl and Gustav Ehrhart of IG Farben.[356]
- 1939: Intramedullary rod by Gerhard Küntscher.[357]
- 1943: Luria–Delbrück experiment by Max Delbrück.[358]
- 1953: Echocardiography by Carl Hellmuth Hertz (with Swedish physician Inge Edler).[359]
- 1961: Combined oral contraceptive pill by Schering AG.[360][361]
- 1997: C-Leg by Ottobock.[362]
- 2007: Small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) by Walter Sekundo and Marcus Blum.[363]
Military and (chemical) weapons
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R22888%2C_Westfront%2C_Flammenwerfer.jpg/100px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R22888%2C_Westfront%2C_Flammenwerfer.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Wehrmacht-einheitskanister.jpg/100px-Wehrmacht-einheitskanister.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Fus%C3%A9e_V2.jpg/100px-Fus%C3%A9e_V2.jpg)
- 1498: Barrel rifling in Augsburg.[364]
- 1836: Dreyse needle gun by Johann Nicolaus von Dreyse.[365]
- 1842: Pickelhaube by King Frederick William IV of Prussia.[366]
- 1850: Brandtaucher, the oldest surviving submarine in the world,[367] by Wilhelm Bauer.
- 1901: Modern flamethrower by Richard Fiedler.[368]
- 1916: First anti-tank grenade.[369]
- 1916: Stahlhelm by Dr. Friedrich Schwerd.[370]
- 1918: First anti-tank rifle (Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr) by Mauser.[371]
- 1918: First practical submachine gun (MP 18) by Theodor Bergmann.[372]
- 1920s: Creation of Zyklon B by Walter Heerdt and Bruno Tesch at Degesch.[373]
- 1935: Flecktarn by Johann Georg Otto Schick.[374]
- 1935–37: Jerrycan by Müller & Co in Schwelm.[375]
- 1936: The first ever nerve agent, tabun, by Gerhard Schrader (IG Farben) in Leverkusen.[376][377]
- 1938: The nerve agent sarin by IG Farben in Wuppertal-Elberfeld.[378]
- 1939: Warfare method of blitzkrieg by i.a. Heinz Guderian.[379][380]
- 1941: The only rocket-powered fighter aircraft ever to have been operational and the first piloted aircraft of any type to exceed 1000 km/h (621 mph) in level flight, the Messerschmitt Me 163, by Alexander Lippisch.[381]
- 1942: First modern assault rifle (StG 44) by Hugo Schmeisser.[382]
- 1943: First aviation unit (Kampfgeschwader 100) to use precision-guided munition.[383]
- c. 1944: First anti-tank missile (the X-7).[384]
- 1944: First operational cruise missile (V-1 flying bomb) by Robert Lusser at Fieseler.[385]
- 1944: A modern pioneer and the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile (V-2 rocket) under the direction of Wernher von Braun.[386][387]
- 1944: The nerve agent soman by Konrad Henkel in Heidelberg.[388]
Musical instruments
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Yamaha_Bass_tuba_YFB-822.tif/lossy-page1-100px-Yamaha_Bass_tuba_YFB-822.tif.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Emile_Berliner_with_phonograph.jpg/100px-Emile_Berliner_with_phonograph.jpg)
- c. 1700: Clarinet by Johann Christoph Denner in Nuremberg.[389][390]
- 1805: Panharmonicon by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel.[391]
- 1814–1816: Metronome by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel and Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel.[392]
- 1818: (Modern) French horn by Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blühmel.[393]
- 1821: Harmonica by Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann.[394]
- 1828: Flugelhorn by Heinrich Stölzel in Berlin.[395]
- 1830 or earlier: Accordion in Nuremberg.[396]
- 1835: Tuba by Wilhelm Friedrich Wieprecht and Johann Gottfried Moritz in Berlin.[397]
- 1850s: Wagner tuba by Richard Wagner.[398]
- 1854: Bandoneon by Heinrich Band.[399]
- 1877: Microphone by Emile Berliner.[400][401][402]
- 1887: Gramophone record by Emile Berliner.[402][403]
- 1914: Hornbostel–Sachs, the most used system in musical instrument classification, by Curt Sachs (together with Erich Moritz von Hornbostel).[404]
Physics and scientific instruments
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg/100px-Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/First_medical_X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_his_wife_Anna_Bertha_Ludwig%27s_hand_-_18951222.gif/100px-First_medical_X-ray_by_Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen_of_his_wife_Anna_Bertha_Ludwig%27s_hand_-_18951222.gif)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Max_Planck_%281858-1947%29.jpg/100px-Max_Planck_%281858-1947%29.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Geiger_counter.jpg/100px-Geiger_counter.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ernst_Ruska_Electron_Microscope_-_Deutsches_Museum_-_Munich-edit.jpg/100px-Ernst_Ruska_Electron_Microscope_-_Deutsches_Museum_-_Munich-edit.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Nuclear_fission.svg/100px-Nuclear_fission.svg.png)
- 1512, 1576: Theodolite by Gregorius Reisch and Martin Waldseemüller (1512),[405] although the first "true" version was created by Erasmus Habermehl (1576).[406]
- 1608: Telescope by German-born Hans Lippershey.[407]
- 1650: First vacuum pump by Otto von Guericke.[408]
- 1654: Magdeburg hemispheres by Otto von Guericke.[409]
- 1663: First electrostatic generator by Otto von Guericke.[410]
- 1745: Leyden jar (Kleistian jar) by Ewald Georg von Kleist.[411]
- 1777: Discovery of Lichtenberg figures by Georg Christoph Lichtenberg.[412]
- 1801: Discovery of ultraviolet by Johann Wilhelm Ritter.[413]
- 1813: Gauss's law by Carl Friedrich Gauss.[414]
- 1814: Discovery of Fraunhofer lines by Joseph von Fraunhofer.[415]
- 1817: Ackermann steering geometry by Georg Lankensperger in Munich.[416][417]
- 1817 or earlier: Gyroscope by Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger in Tübingen.[418]
- 1820: Galvanometer by Johann Schweigger in Halle.[419]
- 1827: Ohm's law by Georg Ohm.[420]
- 1833: Magnetometer by Carl Friedrich Gauss.[421]
- 1845: Kirchhoff's circuit laws by Gustav Kirchhoff.[422]
- 1850: Formulation of the first and second law of thermodynamics by Rudolf Clausius.[423][424]
- 1852: First experimental investigation of the Magnus effect by Heinrich Gustav Magnus.[425]
- 1857: Geissler tube by Heinrich Geißler.[426]
- 1959: Helmholtz resonance by Hermann von Helmholtz.[427]
- 1859: Spectrometer by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff.[428]
- 1861: First telephone transmitter by Johann Philipp Reis;[429][430] he also coined the term telephone.[430]
- 1864–1875: Centrifuge by brothers Alexander and Antonin Prandtl from Munich.[431]
- 1865: Concept of entropy by Rudolf Clausius.[432]
- 1869: First observation of cathode rays by Johann Wilhelm Hittorf and Julius Plücker.[433]
- 1870: Virial theorem by Rudolf Clausius.[434]
- 1874: Refractometer by Ernst Abbe.[435][436]
- 1883: First accurate electricity meter (Pendelzähler) by Hermann Aron.[437]
- 1886: Discovery of anode rays by Eugen Goldstein.[438]
- 1887: Discoveries of electromagnetic radiation, photoelectric effect and radio waves by Heinrich Hertz.[439]
- 1887: First parabolic antenna by Heinrich Hertz.[440]
- 1893–1896: Wien approximation (1896)[441] and Wien's displacement law (1893)[442] by Wilhelm Wien.
- 1895: Discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in Würzburg.[443]
- 1897: Nernst lamp by Walther Nernst in Göttingen.[444]
- 1900: Drude model by Paul Drude.[445]
- 1900: Planck constant and Planck's law by Max Planck.[446]
- 1900–1930: Quantum mechanics by i.a. Max Planck and Werner Heisenberg.[447]
- 1901: Modern pyrometer by Ludwig Holborn and Ferdinand Kurlbaum.[448]
- 1904: Boundary layer theory by Ludwig Prandtl.[449]
- 1904: First radar system by Christian Hülsmeyer (Telemobiloscope).[450]
- 1905: Mass–energy equivalence (E = mc2)[451] and special relativity[452] by Albert Einstein.
- 1905: Rubens' tube by Heinrich Rubens.[453]
- 1906–1912: Third law of thermodynamics (Nernst's theorem) by Walther Nernst.[454]
- 1913: Echo sounding by Alexander Behm.[455][456]
- 1913: Discovery of the Stark effect by Johannes Stark.[457]
- 1915: Noether's theorem by Emmy Noether.[458]
- 1916: General relativity by Albert Einstein.[459]
- 1917: Laser's theoretical foundation by Albert Einstein.[460]
- 1919: Discovery of the Barkhausen effect by Heinrich Barkhausen.[461]
- 1919: Betz's law by Albert Betz.[462]
- 1920s: (Modern) hand-held metal detector by German-born Gerhard Fischer.[463]
- 1921: Discovery of nuclear isomerism by Otto Hahn.[464]
- 1921–22: Stern–Gerlach experiment by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach.[465]
- 1924: Description of coincidence method by Walther Bothe.[466]
- 1924–25: Bose–Einstein statistics, Bose–Einstein condensate and Boson by Albert Einstein.[467]
- 1927: Free electron model by Arnold Sommerfeld.[468]
- 1927: Uncertainty principle by Werner Heisenberg.[469]
- 1928: Geiger–Müller counter by Hans Geiger and Walther Müller.[470]
- 1931: Electron microscope by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll.[471]
- 1933: Discovery of the Meissner effect by Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld.[472]
- 1937–39: CNO cycle (Bethe–Weizsäcker process) by Carl von Weizsäcker and German-born Hans Bethe.[473]
- 1937: Scanning electron microscope (SEM) by Manfred von Ardenne.[474]
- 1938: Discovery of nuclear fission by Otto Hahn and Fritz Straßmann in Berlin.[475][476]
- 1949: Development of the nuclear shell model by Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen.[477]
- 1950s: Quadrupole ion trap by Wolfgang Paul.[478]
- 1958: Discovery of the Mössbauer effect by Rudolf Mössbauer.[479]
- 1959: Penning trap by Hans Georg Dehmelt.[480]
- 1961: Bark scale by Eberhard Zwicker.[481]
- 1963: Proposition of heterojunction by Herbert Kroemer.[482]
- 1980: Quantum Hall effect by Klaus von Klitzing.[483]
- 1980s: Atomic force microscope and the scanning tunneling microscope by Gerd Binnig.[484][485]
- 1988: Discovery of giant magnetoresistance by Peter Grünberg.[486]
- 1994: STED microscopy by Stefan Hell and Jan Wichmann.[487]
- 1998: Frequency comb by Theodor W. Hänsch.[488]
Sociology, philosophy and politics
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Marx_and_Engels.jpg/100px-Marx_and_Engels.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0057%2C_Otto_von_Bismarck.jpg/100px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-2005-0057%2C_Otto_von_Bismarck.jpg)
- Late 18th century: German idealism by Immanuel Kant.[489]
- 19th century: Marxism, the foundation of communism and socialism,[490][491] by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[492]
- 1852: Credit union by Franz Hermann Schulze-Delitzsch in Saxony, later further developed by Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen.[493]
- Late 19th century: Verstehen by Max Weber.[494]
- 1879: Experimental psychology by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig.[495][496][497]
- 1880s: The German Empire (1871–1918) became the first modern welfare state in the world under statesman Otto von Bismarck,[498] when he e.g. innovatively implemented the following:
- Health insurance (Krankenversicherung) in 1883;[499]
- Accident insurance (Unfallversicherung) in 1884;[499]
- Pension insurance (Gesetzliche Rentenversicherung) in 1889.[499]
- 1897: Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, first LGBT rights organization in history,[500][501] founded by Magnus Hirschfeld in Berlin.
- 1916: The German Empire became the first country in the world to implement daylight saving time (DST).[502]
- 1930s: Critical theory by the Frankfurter School.[503]
- 1966: Private copying levy (also known as blank media tax or levy).[504]
- 1978: Blue Angel (Der Blaue Engel) certification, the world's first ecolabel.[505]
Religion, ethics and festivities
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/100px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Governor%27s_Living_Room.jpg/100px-Governor%27s_Living_Room.jpg)
- 1434: The world's first genuine Christmas market (Striezelmarkt) in Dresden.[506]
- 1517: Protestantism and Lutheranism by Martin Luther (who wrote the Ninety-Five Theses[507]).[508]
- 16th century: Modern Christmas tree.[509][510][511]
- 17th century: Easter Bunny.[512]
- c. 1610: Tinsel in Nuremberg.[513]
- 1776: Illuminati by Adam Weishaupt.[514]
- 1810: Oktoberfest, the world's largest Volksfest (beer festival and travelling funfair),[515] in Munich.
- 1839: Advent wreath by Johann Hinrich Wichern.[516]
- c. 1850: Advent calendar by German Lutherans;[517] the modern version was created by Gerhard Lang (1881–1974) from Munich.[518]
Sport
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/SAP_Arena_Handball_ausverkauft.jpg/100px-SAP_Arena_Handball_ausverkauft.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ee/Olympictorche-Berlin.jpg/100px-Olympictorche-Berlin.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RUSMARKA-1777.jpg/100px-RUSMARKA-1777.jpg)
- c. 1790: Balance beam by Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths.[519]
- c. 1810: Horizontal bar, parallel bars, rings and the vault apparatus by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who is often hailed as the "father of modern gymnastics".[520][521][522]
- 1901: Modern bodybuilding by Eugen Sandow.[523]
- 1906: Schutzhund.[524]
- c. 1910: Loop jump in figure skating by Werner Rittberger.[525]
- 1917–1919: Handball by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz, and Erich Konigh in Berlin.[526][527]
- 1925: Wheel gymnastics by Otto Feick in Schönau an der Brend.[528]
- 1936: The tradition of the Olympic torch relay by Carl Diem and Alfred Schiff in Berlin.[529]
- 1946: Goalball by Sepp Reindle.[530]
- 1948: Paralympic Games by German-born Ludwig Guttmann.[531][532][533]
- 1954: Modern football boots with screw-in studs by Adolf (Adidas) or Rudolf Dassler (Puma).[534]
- 1961: Underwater rugby by Ludwig von Bersuda in Cologne.[535]
- 1963: Grass skiing by Josef Kaiser.[536][537]
- 1970: Penalty shoot-out in football by Karl Wald.[538]
- 1989: International Paralympic Committee in Düsseldorf.[539]
- 1993: Jugger in Heidelberg.[540]
- 2000: Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM).[541]
- 2001: Speed badminton by Bill Brandes in Berlin.[542]
Tourism and recreation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Prinzessin_Victoria_Luise_LOC_det.4a15439.jpg/100px-Prinzessin_Victoria_Luise_LOC_det.4a15439.jpg)
- 1882: Strandkorb by Wilhelm Bartelmann in Rostock.[543][544]
- 1891: First purpose-built cruise ship (Prinzessin Victoria Luise) by Albert Ballin.[545]
- Early 20th century: Pilates by Joseph Pilates.[546]
- 1911: Carabiner for climbing by Otto "Rambo" Herzog.[547]
- 1920s: Autogenic training by Johannes Heinrich Schultz.[548]
Toys and games
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Nachbildung_55PB_Steiff_Museum_Giengen.jpg/100px-Nachbildung_55PB_Steiff_Museum_Giengen.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Magnavox-Odyssey-Console-Set.jpg/100px-Magnavox-Odyssey-Console-Set.jpg)
- c. 1780: Schafkopf card game.[549]
- c. 1810: Skat card game in Altenburg.[550]
- 1890: Plastilin by Franz Kolb.[551]
- 1892: Chinese checkers by Ravensburger.[552]
- 1902: Teddy bear (55 PB) by Richard Steiff.[553]
- 1907–08: Mensch ärgere Dich nicht board game by Josef Friedrich Schmidt.[554]
- 1964: fischertechnik by Artur Fischer.[555]
- 1972: First home video console (Magnavox Odyssey) by German-born Ralph H. Baer.[556][557]
- 1974: Playmobil by Hans Beck.[558]
- 1995: The Settlers of Catan by Klaus Teuber.[559]
Transportation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Draisine1817.jpg/100px-Draisine1817.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/1885Benz.jpg/100px-1885Benz.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lilienthal_in_flight.jpg/100px-Lilienthal_in_flight.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DMG-Lastwagen_von_1896.jpg/100px-DMG-Lastwagen_von_1896.jpg)
- 1655: First self-propelled wheelchair by Stephan Farffler.[560]
- 1817: The first bicycle (dandy horse, or Laufmaschine in German) by Baron Karl von Drais.[561][562]
- 1817: Tachometer by Diedrich Uhlhorn.[563][564]
- 1834: First practical rotary electric motor by Moritz von Jacobi.[565]
- 1838: First electric boat by Moritz von Jacobi.[566]
- 1876: Otto engine, the first modern internal combustion engine,[567] by Nicolaus Otto.
- 1879–1881: First electric locomotive[568] and electric tramway (Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway) by Siemens & Halske.[569][570]
- 1882: Trolleybus (Electromote) by Werner von Siemens.[571]
- 1885: First production and modern[572] automobile (Benz Patent-Motorwagen) by Karl Benz in Mannheim.[573][574][575]
- 1885, 1894: First motorcycle (Daimler Reitwagen) by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach.[576] The motorcycle of Hildebrand & Wolfmüller from 1894 (created by Heinrich and Wilhelm Hildebrand, and Alois Wolfmüller) was the first machine to be called a "motorcycle" and the world's first production motorcycle.[577]
- 1886: First automobile on four wheels, by Gottlieb Daimler.[578]
- 1886: Motorboat by Lürssen, in commission of Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, in Bremen.[579]
- 1888: Driver's license by Karl Benz.[580]
- 1888: The world's first filling station was the city pharmacy in Wiesloch.[581]
- 1888: Flocken Elektrowagen, regarded by some as the first real electric car,[582] by Andreas Flocken in Coburg.
- 1889: V engine by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach.[583]
- 1891: Taximeter by Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn.[584]
- 1893: Diesel engine, diesel fuel and biodiesel by Rudolf Diesel in Augsburg.[585]
- 1893: Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat, the first aeroplane to be serially produced,[586][587] by Otto Lilienthal.
- 1893: Zeppelin, the first rigid airship,[588] by Ferdinand von Zeppelin.[589]
- 1895: Internal combustion engine bus by Daimler.[590]
- 1896: Modern truck (Daimler Motor-Lastwagen) by Gottlieb Daimler.[591]
- 1897: Flat engine by Karl Benz.[592]
- 1897: Internal combustion engine taxicab by Gottlieb Daimler.[593]
- 1901: Mercedes 35 hp, regarded by some as the first real modern automobile,[594] by Paul Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach. The car also had the world's first drum brakes.[595]
- 1902, 1934: Concept of maglev by Alfred Zehden (1902) and Hermann Kemper (1934).[596]
- 1902: First high voltage spark plug by Gottlob Honold.[597]
- 1902: First practical speedometer by Otto Schultze.[598][599]
- 1906: Gyrocompass by Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe.[600]
- 1909, 1912: The world's first passenger airline; DELAG in Frankfurt (1909).[601] The company also employed the first flight attendant, Heinrich Kubis (1912).[602]
- 1912: The world's first diesel locomotive by Gesellschaft für Thermo-Lokomotiven Diesel-Klose-Sulzer GmbH from Munich[603] and Borsig from Berlin.[604]
- 1915: The world's first all-metal aircraft (Junkers J 1) by Junkers & Co.[605]
- 1916: Gasoline direct injection (GDI) by Junkers & Co.[606]
- 1928: First rocket-powered aircraft (Lippisch Ente) by Alexander Lippisch.[607]
- 1935: Swept wing by Adolf Busemann.[608]
- 1936: The first operational and practical helicopter (Focke-Wulf Fw 61), by Focke-Achgelis.[609]
- 1939: First aircraft with a turbojet (Heinkel He 178), and the first practical jet aircraft, by Hans von Ohain.[610]
- 1943: Krueger flap by Werner Krüger.[611]
- 1951: Airbag by Walter Linderer.[612]
- 1957: Wankel engine by Felix Wankel.[613]
- 1960s: Defogger by Heinz Kunert.[614]
- Late 1960s: Oxygen sensor (lambda sensor) by Robert Bosch GmbH.[615]
- 1973: Spoiler on road cars by Porsche.[616]
- 1995: Electronic stability control (ESC) by Robert Bosch GmbH and Mercedes-Benz.[617][618]
See also
- German inventors and discoverers
- List of German chemists
- List of German mathematicians
- List of German physicists
- List of German scientists
- Science and technology in Germany
References
- ^ Childress, Diana (2008). Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-7613-4024-9.
- ^ a b "Carl von Linde". Science History Institute. 1 June 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ a b Bellis, Mary (6 April 2017). "Television History - Paul Nipkow". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Bianchi, Luigi. "The Great Electromechanical Computers". York University. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
- ^ a b Kaisler, Stephen H. (2016). Birthing the Computer: From Relays to Vacuum Tubes. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 13. ISBN 9781443896313.
- ^ "The Zeppelin". U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
- ^ "Historical figures in telecommunications". International Telecommunication Union. 14 January 2004. Archived from the original on 25 April 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Roberts, J. M. (2002). The New Penguin History of the World. Allen Lane. p. 1014. ISBN 978-0-7139-9611-1.
- ^ "The First Nobel Prize". Deutsche Welle. 8 September 2010. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ a b c "Die Gutenbergstadt Mainz". Gutenberg.de. 10 March 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-03-10. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ "Johann Georg Wirsung". www.whonamedit.com. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ Dissertatio anatomica quo novum bilis dicetilicum circa orifucum ductus choledochi ut et valvulosam colli vesicæ felleæ constructionem ad disceptandum proponit, 1720
- ^ "Johann Nathanael Lieberkühn". www.whonamedit.com. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ "Leopold Auerbach". www.whonamedit.com. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ Meissner, G. (1857). "Über die Nerven der Darmwand". Zeitschrift für rationelle Medizin. 8: 364–366.
- ^ Karenberg, Axel (26 October 2000). "Chapter 7. The Schwann cell". In Koehler, Peter J.; Bruyn, George W.; Pearce, John M. S. (eds.). Neurological eponyms. Oxford University Press. pp. 44–50. ISBN 9780195133660. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ Asimov, Isaac (1980). A short history of biology. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 95. ISBN 9780313225833.
- ^ "History of polio". BBC News. 25 September 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ Meissner, G.; Wagner, R. (February 1852). "Ueber das Vorhandensein bisher unbekannter eigenthümlicher Tastkörperchen (Corpuscula tactus) in den Gefühlswärzchen der mensclichen Haut und über die Endausbreitung sensitiver Nerven". Nachrichten von der Georg-Augusts-Universität und der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 2: 17–30.
- ^ Langerhans, P. (1868). "Ueber die Nerven der menschlichen Haut". Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medizin. 44 (2–3): 325–337. doi:10.1007/BF01959006.
- ^ Sakula, A. (July 1988). "Paul Langerhans (1847–1888): a centenary tribute". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 81 (7): 414–5. doi:10.1177/014107688808100718. PMC 1291675. PMID 3045317.
- ^ Merkel, F. S. (1875). "Tastzellen und Tastkörperchen bei den Hausthieren und beim Menschen". Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie. 11: 636–652. doi:10.1007/BF02933819.
- ^ Berchtold, N. C.; Cotman, C. W. (1998). "Evolution in the conceptualization of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: Greco-Roman period to the 1960s". Neurobiology of Aging. 19 (3): 173–89. doi:10.1016/S0197-4580(98)00052-9. PMID 9661992.
- ^ Brodmann K. Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde. Leipzig : Johann Ambrosius Bart, 1909
- ^ "The Developments of Plastination". Body Worlds. Retrieved 16 December 2019.
- ^ Rothfels, Nigel (2008). Savages and Beasts: The Birth of the Modern Zoo (Animals, History, Culture). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0801889752.
- ^ "International Guide Dog Federation - History". www.igdf.org.uk. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Witton, Mark P. (2013). Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy. Princeton University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9781400847655.
- ^ von Meyer, C. E. H. (1837). "Mitteilung an Prof. Bronn (Plateosaurus engelhardti)". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie. 1837: 316.
- ^ King, W. (1864). "The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal". Quarterly Journal of Science. 1: 88–97.
- ^ Drell, J. R. R. (2002). "Neanderthals: a history of interpretation". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 19: 1–24. doi:10.1111/1468-0092.00096.
- ^ von Meyer, C. E. H. (1861). "Reptilien aus dem Stubensandstein des oberen Keupers". Palaeontographica. 7: 253–346.
- ^ Meyer, Hermann von (15 August 1861). "Vogel-Federn und Palpipes priscus von Solenhofen" [Bird feathers and Palpipes priscus [a crustacean] from Solenhofen]. Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petrefaktenkunde (in German): 561. "Aus dem lithographischen Schiefer der Brüche von Solenhofen in Bayern ist mir in den beiden Gegenplatten eine auf der Ablösungs- oder Spaltungs-Fläche des Gesteins liegende Versteinerung mitgetheilt worden, die mit grosser Deutlichkeit eine Feder erkennen lässt, welche von den Vogel-Federn nicht zu unterscheiden ist." (From the lithographic slates of the faults of Solenhofen in Bavaria, there has been reported to me a fossil lying on the stone's surface of detachment or cleavage, in both opposing slabs, which can be recognized with great clarity [to be] a feather, which is indistinguishable from a bird's feather.)
- ^ Schuchhardt, Carl (1891). Schliemann's Ausgrabungen in Troja, Tiryns, Mykenae, Orchomenos, Ithaka im Lichte der heutigen Wissenschaft. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.
- ^ Körte, A.; Körte, G. (1904). Gordion: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabung im Jahre 1900. Berlin: Verlag Georg Reimer.
- ^ Elborough, Travis (2019). Atlas of Vanishing Places: The lost worlds as they were and as they are today. White Lion Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 9781781318959.
- ^ Schoetensack, Otto (1908). Der Unterkiefer des Homo heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Ein Beitrag zur Paläontologie des Menschen. Leipzig: Verlag Wilhelm Engelmann.
- ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (6 December 2012). "The Bust of Nefertiti: Remembering Ancient Egypt's Famous Queen". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
- ^ Stromer, E. (1915). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 3. Das Original des Theropoden Spinosaurus aegyptiacus nov. gen., nov. spec". Abhandlungen der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-physikalische Klasse. 28: 1–32.
- ^ Stromer, E. (1925). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 7. Stomatosuchus inermis Stromer, ein schwach bezahnter Krokodilier und 8. Ein Skelettrest des Pristiden Onchopristis numidus Haug sp". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 30: 1–22.
- ^ Stromer, E. (1931). "Wirbeltiere-Reste der Baharijestufe (unterestes Canoman). Ein Skelett-Rest von Carcharodontosaurus nov. gen". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. 9: 1–23.
- ^ Stromer, E. (1932). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltierreste der Baharîje-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 11. Sauropoda". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung, Neue Folge. 10: 1–21.
- ^ Stromer, E. (1934). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltier-Reste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman)." 13. Dinosauria". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung n.f. 22: 1–79.
- ^ Squires, Nick (29 September 2008). "Oetzi The Iceman's discoverers finally compensated". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ "Explaining the Drypoint Etching". Widewalls. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Hofmann, Georg Rainer (May 1990). "Who invented ray tracing?". The Visual Computer. 6 (3): 120–124. doi:10.1007/BF01911003.
- ^ "Ludwig van Siegen Invents Mezzotint". www.historyofinformation.com. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ The Discovery of European Porcelain Technology by C.M. Queiroz & S. Agathopoulos, 2005.
- ^ Goethe's Theory of Colours: Translated from the German; with Notes by Charles Lock Eastlake, R.A., F.R.S. London: John Murray. 1840. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2017 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ "Expressionism Movement Overview". The Art Story. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 319.
- ^ Holton, Gerald James; Brush, Stephen G. (2001). Physics, the Human Adventure: From Copernicus to Einstein and Beyond (3rd paperback ed.). Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 40–41. ISBN 978-0-8135-2908-0. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
- ^ "Herschel Program - Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel". www.astroleague.org. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Hamilton, Calvin J. (4 August 2001). "Neptune". Views of the Solar System. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Steinhagen, Hans (2005). Der Wettermann - Leben und Werk Richard Aßmanns. Neuenhagen: Findling. ISBN 978-3-933603-33-3.
- ^ Hörandel, J. R. (4 December 2012). "Early Cosmic-Ray Work Published in German". AIP Conference Proceedings. 1516: 52–60. arXiv:1212.0706. doi:10.1063/1.4792540.
- ^ Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 7: 189–196.
- ^ Schwarzschild, K. (1916). "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flussigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie". Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Klasse Fur Mathematik, Physik, und Technik: 424.
- ^ Fritz, Marc A.; Speroff, Leon (2005). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 325. ISBN 9780781747950.
- ^ Mayr, Ernst (1994). "Recapitulation Reinterpreted: The Somatic Program". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 69 (2): 223–232. doi:10.1086/418541.
- ^ Böhme, H. (1999). "Ästhetische Wissenschaft". Matices: 37–41.
- ^ McCarthy, Eugene M. "Humboldt Penguin - Online Biology Dictionary". www.macroevolution.net. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Rogers, Kara (2011). The Cell. Britannica Educational Pub. p. 172. ISBN 978-1615303144.
- ^ von Mohl, Hugo (1835). Ueber die Vermehrung der Pflanzenzellen durch Theilung. Tübingen: Fues.
- ^ Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
- ^ Levitt, Theresa (2009). The Shadow of Enlightenment: Optical and Political Transparency in France, 1789-1848. Oxford University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-19-954470-7.
- ^ Svedelius, N. (1927). "Alternation of Generations in Relation to Reduction Division". Botanical Gazette. 83 (4): 362–384. doi:10.1086/333745.
- ^ Ruvinsky, Anatoly (2009). Genetics and Randomness. CRC Press. p. 93. ISBN 9781420078879.
- ^ "Robert Koch (1843-1910)". broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "SEEKS LIFE'S SECRET IN STUDY OF CELLS; Prof. Albrecht Kossel of Heidelberg Comes to Lecture at Johns Hopkins University". The New York Times. 27 August 1911. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Ebbinghaus, Hermann (1885). Über das Gedächtnis. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.
- ^ Boveri, Theodor (1888). Zellen-Studien II: Die Befruchtung und Teilung des Eies von Ascaris megalocephala. Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
- ^ Altmann, Richard (1890). Die Elementarorganismen und ihre Beziehungen zu den Zellen. Leipzig: Veit.
- ^ Weismann, August (1892). Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung. Jena: Fischer.
- ^ Stern, Curt (1962). "Wilhelm Weinberg". Genetics. 47: 1–5.
- ^ Speert, Harold (1973). Iconographia Gyniatrica. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis. ISBN 978-0-8036-8070-8.
- ^ Bailey, L. E.; Ong, S. D. (1978). "Krebs–Henseleit solution as a physiological buffer in perfused and superfused preparations". Journal of Pharmacological Methods. 1 (2): 171–175. doi:10.1016/0160-5402(78)90022-0.
- ^ Krebs, H. A.; Johnson, W. A. (April 1937). "Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal tissues". The Biochemical Journal. 31 (4): 645–660. doi:10.1042/bj0310645. PMC 1266984. PMID 16746382.
- ^ Jaenisch, R.; Mintz, B. (April 1974). "Simian Virus 40 DNA Sequences in DNA of Healthy Adult Mice Derived from Preimplantation Blastocysts Injected with Viral DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 71 (4): 1250–1254. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250. PMC 388203. PMID 4364530.
- ^ Szydlo, Zbigniew (1994). Water which does not wet hands: The Alchemy of Michael Sendivogius. London–Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-8386062454.
- ^ Beatty, Richard (2000). Phosphorus. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 7. ISBN 0-7614-0946-7.
- ^ Jens Bartoll. "The early use of prussian blue in paintings" (PDF). 9th International Conference on NDT of Art, Jerusalem Israel, 25–30 May 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
- ^ Balmer, Robert T. (2010). Modern Engineering Thermodynamics. Academic Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-12-374996-3.
- ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1933). The Discovery of the Elements. Easton, Pennsylvania: Journal of Chemical Education. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-7661-3872-8.
- ^ Lepora, Nathan (2007). Molybdenum. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 11. ISBN 9780761422013.
- ^ "Oxygen". www.rsc.org. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 476–482. ISBN 978-0-19-850340-8.
- ^ Krebs, Robert E. (1998). The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 98–100. ISBN 978-0-313-30123-0.
- ^ Kent, James A. (2007). Kent and Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry and Biotechnology. Springer. p. 1658. ISBN 978-0387278421.
- ^ Sack, Harald (28 April 2016). "Franz Achard and the Sugar Beet Revolution". SciHi Blog. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ Dunglison, Robley (1838). Dunglison's American medical library. A. Waldie. p. 192.
- ^ Hermann, C. S. (1818). "Noch ein schreiben über das neue Metall". Annalen der Physik. 59 (5): 113–116. doi:10.1002/andp.18180590511.
- ^ "Oechsle, Christian Ferdinand (1774-1852) (in German)". Gesellschaft für Geschichte des Weines e.V. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Hoffmann, Roald (August 1998). "Döbereiner's Feuerzeug". American Scientist. 86. doi:10.1511/1998.4.326.
- ^ "Döbereiner's Lamp - History of the First Lighter". www.historyofmatches.com. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
- ^ Schorlemmer, C. (1885). "The history of creosote, cedriret, and pittacal". Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. 4: 152–157.
- ^ Henningfield, J. E.; Zeller, M. (March 2006). "Nicotine psychopharmacology research contributions to United States and global tobacco regulation: a look back and a look forward". Psychopharmacology. 184 (3–4): 286–291. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0308-4. PMID 16463054.
- ^ Pinner, A. (1893). "Ueber Nicotin. Die Constitution des Alkaloïds". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 26: 292–305. doi:10.1002/cber.18930260165.
- ^ Wöhler, F. (1828). "Ueber künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 88 (2): 253–256. doi:10.1002/andp.18280880206 – via Gallica.
- ^ Britannica (1911)
- ^ Graham, Thomas (2015). Elements of Chemistry: Including the Applications of the Science in the Arts. Palala Press. ISBN 978-1341237980.
- ^ Handbook on Textile Auxiliaries, Dyes and Dye Intermediates Technology. National Institute of Industrial Research. 2009. p. 82. ISBN 978-8178331225.
- ^ F. F. Runge (1834) "Ueber einige Produkte der Steinkohlendestillation" (On some products of coal distillation), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 31 : 65-78. On page 69 of volume 31, Runge names phenol "Karbolsäure" (coal-oil-acid, carbolic acid). Runge characterizes phenol in: F. F. Runge (1834) "Ueber einige Produkte der Steinkohlendestillation," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 32 : 308-328.
- ^ Klebs, Florian (December 17, 2001). "Deutschland - Wiege des Nobelpreis: Tourismus-Industrie und Forschung auf den Spuren Alfred Nobels" (in German). Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Archived from the original on November 17, 2002. Retrieved October 12, 2018.
- ^ Bührke, Thomas; Wengenmayr, Roland (2013). Renewable Energy: Sustainable Energy Concepts for the Energy Change. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9783527671366.
- ^ Rubin, Mordecai B. (2001). "The History of Ozone: The Schönbein Period, 1839–1868" (PDF). Bull. Hist. Chem. 26 (1): 40–56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-11. Retrieved 2019-12-22.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (24 January 2019). "The Long History of Polystyrene and Styrofoam". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 6 January 2020.
- ^ "Justus von Liebig: Feeding billions of people - Halfapage.com". Halfapage.com. 2015-08-23. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ Horn, Jeff (2016). The Industrial Revolution: History, Documents, and Key Questions. ABC-CLIO. p. 64. ISBN 978-1610698849.
- ^ a b Harford, Tim (2 January 2017). "How fertiliser helped feed the world". BBC. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Bown, Stephen R. (2005). A Most Damnable Invention: Dynamite, Nitrates, and the Making of the Modern World. Macmillan. ISBN 9781466817050.
- ^ Siemens, C. W. (June 1862). "On a regenerative gas furnace, as applied to glasshouses, puddling, heating, etc". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. 13: 21–26. doi:10.1243/PIME_PROC_1862_013_007_02.
- ^ Jensen, W. B. (2005). "The Origin of the Bunsen Burner". Journal of Chemical Education. 82 (4): 518. doi:10.1021/ed082p518.
- ^ Runge, F. F. (1855). Der Bildungstrieb der Stoffe, veranschaulicht in selbstständig gewachsenen Bilder. Oranienburg, Germany: self-published.
- ^ a b "Technical Information". Kryolab. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Fittig, R. (1859). "Ueber einige Metamorphosen des Acetons der Essigsäure". Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie. 110: 23–45. doi:10.1002/jlac.18591100104.
- ^ Kirchhoff, G.; Bunsen, R. (1861). "Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 189 (7): 337–381. doi:10.1002/andp.18611890702.
- ^ Erlenmeyer, E. (January 1860). "Zur chemischen und pharmazeutischen Technik". Zeitschrift für Chemie und Pharmacie. 3: 21–22.
- ^ Venetskii, S. (1971). "Indium". Metallurgist. 15 (2): 148–150. doi:10.1007/BF01088126.
- ^ Reich, F.; Richter, T. (1864). "Ueber das Indium". Journal für Praktische Chemie (in German). 92 (1): 480–485. doi:10.1002/prac.18640920180.
- ^ Schwarz-Schampera, Ulrich; Herzig, Peter M. (2002). Indium: Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-43135-0.
- ^ Wilbrand, J. (1863). "Notiz über Trinitrotoluol". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 128 (2): 178–179. doi:10.1002/jlac.18631280206.
- ^ "Barbiturates". Retrieved 31 October 2007.
- ^ "Cooperative Research - Formula for Success". BASF. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
- ^ Figoni, Paula I. (2010). How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science. John Wiley & Sons. p. 174. ISBN 9780470392676.
- ^ Baumann, E. (1872). "Ueber einige Vinylverbindungen". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 163 (3): 308–322. doi:10.1002/jlac.18721630303.
- ^ "This is how PLEXIGLAS® came to be". World of Plexiglas. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
- ^ Tollens, B. (1882). "Ueber ammon-alkalische Silberlösung als Reagens auf Aldehyd" [On an ammonical alkaline silver solution as a reagent for aldehydes]. Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 15 (2): 1635–1639. doi:10.1002/cber.18820150243.
- ^ Steudel, R.; West, L. (December 2015). "Carl Friedrich Claus (1827-1900) - inventor of the Claus Process for sulfur production from hydrogen sulfide". ResearchGate. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1712.2644.
- ^ Katritzky, Alan R. (2013). Advances in Heterocyclic Chemistry. Academic Press. p. 95. ISBN 9780124202092.
- ^ Winkler, Clemens (1887). "Germanium, Ge, a New Nonmetal Element" (English translation). Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 19 (1): 210–211. doi:10.1002/cber.18860190156.
{{cite journal}}
: External link in
(help)|format=
- ^ Yahoo Education:Petri dish Archived 2013-10-22 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Jensen, William B. (September 2006). "The Origins of the Hirsch and Büchner Vacuum Filtration Funnels" (PDF). Journal of Chemical Education. 83 (9): 1283. Bibcode:2006JChEd..83.1283J. doi:10.1021/ed083p1283.
- ^ Trimborn, Christel. "Galalith - Jewelry Milk Stone". Ganoksin. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Hermann Schnell". Plastics Hall of Fame. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ von Pechmann, H. (1898). "Ueber Diazomethan und Nitrosoacylamine". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin. 31: 2640–2646.
- ^ Royal Society of Chemistry :Classic Kit: Schlenk apparatus
- ^ GB 190208300, Ostwald, Wilhelm, "Improvements in and relating to the Manufacture of Nitric Acid and Oxides of Nitrogen", published December 18, 1902, issued February 26, 1903
- ^ "Decaffeination 101: Four Ways to Decaffeinate Coffee". Coffee Confidential. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ Thiele, J. (February 1907). "Ein neuer Apparat zur Schmelzpunktsbestimmung". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 40: 996–997. doi:10.1002/cber.190704001148.
- ^ Bergius, Friedrich (May 21, 1932). "Chemical reactions under high pressure" (PDF). Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2012-02-29.
- ^ D. Valentin: Kohleverflüssigung - Chancen und Grenzen, Praxis der Naturwissenschaften, 1/58 (2009), S. 17-19.
- ^ Scerri, Eric (2013). A tale of seven elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 67–74. ISBN 978-0-19-539131-2.
- ^ Noddack, W.; Tacke, I.; Berg, O. (1925). "Die Ekamangane". Naturwissenschaften. 13 (26): 567–574. doi:10.1007/BF01558746.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Lohmann, K. (August 1929). "Über die Pyrophosphatfraktion im Muskel". Naturwissenschaften. 17: 624–625. doi:10.1007/BF01506215.
- ^ "The Difference between Styrene-Butadiene Rubber and Styrene-Butadiene Latex". Mallard Creek Polymers. 15 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Fischer, K. (1935). "Neues Verfahren zur maßanalytischen Bestimmung des Wassergehaltes von Flüssigkeiten und festen Körpern". Angew. Chem. 48 (26): 394–396. doi:10.1002/ange.19350482605.
- ^ DE 728981, IG Farben, published 1937
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1963". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Hoffmann, R. W. (2001). "Wittig and His Accomplishments: Still Relevant Beyond His 100th Birthday". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 40 (8): 1411–1416. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20010417)40:8<1411::AID-ANIE1411>3.0.CO;2-U.
- ^ a b Barber, R. C.; Greenwood, N. N.; Hrynkiewicz, A. Z.; Jeannin, Y. P.; Lefort, M.; Sakai, M.; Ulehla, I.; Wapstra, A. P.; Wilkinson, D. H. (1993). "Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 65 (8): 1757. doi:10.1351/pac199365081757.
- ^ Münzenberg, G.; Armbruster, P.; Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Poppensieker, K.; Reisdorf, W.; Schneider, J. H. R.; Schneider, W. F. W.; et al. (1982). "Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction 58Fe on 209Bi→267109". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 309 (1): 89. Bibcode:1982ZPhyA.309...89M. doi:10.1007/BF01420157.
- ^ Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Petley, B. W.; Vogt, E. (2001). "On the discovery of the elements 110-112 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 73 (6): 959. doi:10.1351/pac200173060959.
- ^ Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; et al. (1995). "The new element 111". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 281. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..281H. doi:10.1007/BF01291182.
- ^ Hofmann, S.; et al. (1996). "The new element 112". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 354 (3): 229–230. doi:10.1007/BF02769517.
- ^ Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
- ^ "How German Traditions Work". HowStuffWorks. 25 July 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Möderler, Catrin (13 July 2009). "Original eau de Cologne celebrates 300 years". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Who Made America? | Innovators | Levi Strauss". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ A Revolutionist Dies. LIFE Magazine. Vol. 30 no. 6. Time Inc. Feb 5, 1951. p. 37. ISSN 0024-3019.
- ^ Rähse, Wilfried (2019). Cosmetic Creams: Development, Manufacture and Marketing of Effective Skin Care Products. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 55–56. ISBN 9783527812431.
- ^ "Milestones". Beiersdorf. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Chang, Katie (29 March 2012). "Vain Glorious | BB Creams Are Here!". T Magazine. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Leibniz G., Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire, Die Mathematische Schriften, ed. C. Gerhardt, Berlin 1879, vol.7, p.223; Engl. transl.[1]
- ^ Singh, Simon (2011). The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-78784-2.
- ^ "Rudolf Hell". The Independent. 2002-04-08. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "HELL". www.cryptomuseum.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "75 Years of the Z3, World's First Modern Computer". Inverse. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Giloi, W. K. (1997). "Konrad Zuse's Plankalkül: The First High-Level "non von Neumann" Programming Language". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19: 17–24. doi:10.1109/85.586068.
- ^ "Friedrich L. Bauer, inventor of the stack and of the term software engineering". people.idsia.ch. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
- ^ Chen, Zhiqun (2000). Java Card Technology for Smart Cards: Architecture and Programmer's Guide. Addison-Wesley Professional. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9780201703290.
- ^ "Wilhelm Albert". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
- ^ Koetsier,Teun; Ceccarelli, Marc (2012). Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms. Springer Publishing. p. 388. ISBN 9789400741324. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
- ^ Donald Sayenga. "Modern History of Wire Rope". History of the Atlantic Cable & Submarine Telegraphy (atlantic-cable.com). Retrieved 9 April 2014.
- ^ Heeney, Gwen (2003). Brickworks. A & C Black Publishers Ltd. p. 35. ISBN 9780812237825.
- ^ "Rings of fire: Hoffmann kilns". LOW-TECH MAGAZINE. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (11 August 2019). "The History of Elevators From Top to Bottom". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
- ^ Bar-Cohen, Yoseph; Zacny, Kris (2009). Drilling in Extreme Environments: Penetration and Sampling on Earth and other Planets. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5. ISBN 9783527626632.
- ^ H. Goldschmidt, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Metallen oder Metalloiden oder Legierungen derselben" (Process for the production of metals or metalloids or alloys of the same), Deutsche Reichs Patent no. 96317 (13 March 1895).
- ^ Thöny, Philip (12 December 2007). "The History of the Chainsaw". Waldwissen. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "History of the Chainsaw - Celebrating 60 Years". Husqvarna. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
- ^ Cramer, Dietmar; Hesse, Daniela (2013). "Die Geschichte des Transportbetons (in German)". Unternehmensgeschichte und Unternehmenskultur. 9: 13.
- ^ "Die Spanplatte des Herrn Himmelheber | SWR Fernsehen". swr.online (in German). 9 June 2010. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ "History". Flex. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Schwarzmann, Thomas (2015). "Von der Flex zur Giraffe Erfinder des Winkelschleifers bringen neuen Langhalsschleifer heraus". Bauhandwerk (in German). Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Artur Fischer's plastic wall plug transforms construction industry". Financial Times. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Office, European Patent. "Artur Fischer (Germany)". www.epo.org. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ "Uitvinder en pluggenkoning Arthur Fischer overleden". Historiek (in Dutch). 2016-01-29. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Strebe, Amy Goodpaster; Beckman, Trish (2007). Flying for her country: the American and Soviet women military pilots of World War II. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-275-99434-1.
- ^ Sleight, Chris (1 October 2013). "Hydraulic breakers turn 50". KHL. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "The first Passive House: Interview with Dr. Wolfgang Feist". iPHA Blog. 19 October 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ Hayes, Annie (5 October 2016). "Angostura: a brand history". The Spirits Business. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ Smith, Andrew F. (2015). Savoring Gotham: A Food Lover's Companion to New York City. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0199397020.
- ^ Unger, Richard W. (1992). "Technical Change in the Brewing Industry in Germany, the Low Countries and England in the Late Middle Ages". www.jeeh.it. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Kasko, Cyndie. "History German Beer | Reinheitsgebot | Oktoberfest Beer". www.oldworld.ws. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Hart, James A. (1995). U.S. Business and Today's Germany: A Guide for Corporate Executives and Attorneys. Abc-Clio. p. 220. ISBN 9780899308395.
- ^ Paterson, Tony (15 August 2009). "Spicy sausage that is worthy of a shrine in Berlin". The Independent. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Dresdner Dominosteine". 2012-11-19. Archived from the original on 2012-11-19. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "Doner kebab 'inventor' dies at 80". BBC. 26 October 2013. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ "Where Did Hamburgers Originate?". Community Table. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "How the Hamburger Became an American Favorite". Time. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "frankfurter | Origin and meaning of frankfurter by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "History of the Hot Dog: Such a Fantastic German Invention!". The Sausage Man. 2016-11-08. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Watson, Mike (30 September 2012). "The History of Lager". Beer Expert. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ^ "Ten things you'll love/hate to know about Marmite". BBC. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
- ^ Martin, Kathy (2017). Famous Brand Names and Their Origins. Barnsley: Pen and Sword History. p. 21. ISBN 978-1781590157.
- ^ Brock, William H. (1997). Justus von Liebig : the chemical gatekeeper. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 218–219. ISBN 9780521562249.
- ^ Kik, M. C.; Williams, R. R. (June 1945). "Manual for the Study of Food Habits". Bulletin of the National Research Council. 112: 61.
- ^ Weyermann, Sabine (2012-04-06). "On the Trail of Josef Groll – Rediscovering Authentic Bohemian Malt and Beer" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
- ^ "Josef Groll - Vater des Pils" (in German). 2012-04-26. Archived from the original on 2012-04-26. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
- ^ "Potato Salad". www.guampedia.com. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "The Food Timeline: salad". www.foodtimeline.org. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "The History of Pretzels". Today I Found Out. 2013-06-20. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ Price, Freddy (2004). Riesling Renaissance. Mitchell Beazley. pp. 16–18. ISBN 1-84000-777-X.
- ^ Foer, Joshua (17 December 2012). "Utopian for Beginners". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
- ^ "WAN - Newspapers: 400 Years Young!". 2010-03-10. Archived from the original on 2010-03-10. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ Göttsching, L.; Pakarinen, H. (2000). "Recycled Fiber and Deinking". Papermaking Science and Technology. 7: 12–14.
- ^ Meggs, Philip Baxter (1998). A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN 0-471-29198-6.
- ^ Berglar, Peter (1970). Wilhelm von Humboldt. Reinbek: Rowohlt. ISBN 978-3-499-50161-6.
- ^ Zipes, Jack (2015). "How the Grimm Brothers Saved the Fairy Tale". National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Puckett, Margaret B.; Diffily, Deborah (2004). Teaching Young Children: An Introduction to the Early Childhood Profession. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-1401825836.
- ^ Sjöström, E. (1993). Wood Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN 9780126474817.
- ^ "Volapük language, alphabet and pronunciation". www.omniglot.com. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Ottmar Mergenthaler". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ "Regelung der Funkentelegraphie im Deutschen Reich". Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift: 413–414. 27 April 1905. The three Morse sequences were: Ruhezeichen (Cease Sending) ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ , Notzeichen (Distress) ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ , and Suchzeichen (Calling) ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄
- ^ "German Regulations for the Control of Spark Telegraphy". The Electrician: 94–95. 5 May 1905.
- ^ Edmunds, Francis (2004). An Introduction to Steiner Education: The Waldorf School. Forest Row: Sophia Books. p. 86. ISBN 9781855841727.
- ^ Esterhill, Frank J. (2000). Interlingua Institute: A History. Interlingua Institute. ISBN 9780917848025.
- ^ Potter, Robert (Fall 1986). "The "Ordo Virtutum": Ancestor of the English Moralities?". Comparative Drama. 20 (3): 201–210. doi:10.1353/cdr.1986.0017. JSTOR 41153244.
- ^ "Peter Henlein - The Inventor of the Watch". www.historyofwatch.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "Pocket watch invented by Peter Henlein in year 1504". targetstudy.com. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ "History of the Magazines". Magazine Designing. 2013-03-26. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (1996). The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 14. ISBN 9780198742425.
- ^ "Oscilloscope History and Milestones". oscopes.info. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
- ^ "The printed circuit board is the base of modern electronics". rostec.ru. 24 November 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
- ^ "Germans, silence and the earplug". BBC News. 4 January 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
- ^ DenHoed, Andrea (14 April 2018). "The Turn-of-the-Century Pigeons That Photographed Earth from Above". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "The Story of Oskar Barnack, Inventor of the Original Leica". PetaPixel. 2017-02-15. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "Electrospective Music | 1928 Magnetic tape". www.electrospectivemusic.com. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "1935 AEG Magnetophon Tape Recorder". 2013-02-08. Archived from the original on 2013-02-08. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "Magnetic Recording History Pictures". 2008-05-09. Archived from the original on 2008-05-09. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "22.3.1935: Erstes Fernsehprogramm der Welt". www.kalenderblatt.de (in German). Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ "Es begann in der Fernsehstube: TV wird 80 Jahre alt". computerbild.de (in German). Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ Dornberger, Walter (1954). V-2: The Nazi Rocket Weapon. Ballantine Books. p. 14. ASIN B006OMLO8K.
- ^ "Invention -The birth of the IC". integratedcircuithelp.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-11. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "The History of the Integrated Circuit - AnySilicon". AnySilicon. 2017-03-27. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ Benoit, Herve (1999). Satellite Television: Analogue and Digital Reception Techniques. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 60. ISBN 9780340741085.
- ^ "Biophysics Prize Awarded to W. Helfrich and C. Bustamante". www.chemistryviews.org. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "History of CAN technology". CiA. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ^ "Hillebrand Made Mobile Text Messaging A Reality | Investor's Business Daily". Investor's Business Daily. 2012-08-09. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ "Eureka People: How Karlheinz Brandenburg invented the MP3 - Microsoft Devices BlogMicrosoft Devices Blog". blogs.windows.com. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ "1990 - Uhrenfabrik Junghans". www.junghans.de. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ Svetlik, Joe (10 July 2018). "Who invented the SIM card? Discover the origins of this miracle device". BT. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ Durkin, Helen (18 April 2019). "What Is a Sim Card? Understanding the Basics". MyMemory. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ Graham, Jefferson (21 November 2005). "Video websites pop up, invite postings". USA Today. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 22 Feb. 2009 "Mohs hardness."
- ^ Hannavy, John (2013). Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography. Routledge. p. 1459. ISBN 9781135873264.
- ^ Means, Tiffany (15 February 2019). "What are the World's Major Climate Types?". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 6 January 2020.
- ^ Geiger, Rudolf (1954). "Klassifikation der Klimate nach W. Köppen" [Classification of climates after W. Köppen]. Landolt-Börnstein – Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik, alte Serie. Vol. 3. Berlin: Springer. pp. 603–607.
- ^ Wegener, A. (January 1912). "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen. 63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309.
- ^ Goodall, Brian (1987). The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0140510959.
- ^ Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (February 1936). "Discussion: Magnitude and energy of earthquakes". Science. 83 (2147): 183–185. doi:10.1126/science.83.2147.183. PMID 17770563.
- ^ "History of the washing machine". Speed Queen Investor. 2017-01-30. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ Guizzi, Giulio (2016). Cleaning and sanitation: a global history. Edizioni LSWR.
- ^ Betancur, Karin Ceballos. "Dank nach Querfurt!: Er ist der Vater der Waschmaschine". Mitteldeutsche Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "When Was The Meat Grinder Invented". Meat Grinder Help. 10 July 2018. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
- ^ Castro, Joseph (28 March 2013). "Who Invented the Mirror?". livescience.com. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
- ^ "The Inventor of Mirror - Who Invented Mirror?". www.mirrorhistory.com. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
- ^ Liebig, Justus (1856). "Ueber Versilberung und Vergoldung von Glas". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 98: 132–139. doi:10.1002/jlac.18560980112.
- ^ Schmidt-Bachem, Heinz (2011). Aus Papier: eine Kultur- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Papier verarbeitenden Industrie in Deutschland. Walter de Gruyter. p. 722. ISBN 9783110236071.
- ^ Flynn, Thomas (2004). Cryogenic Engineering, Revised and Expanded. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-8126504985.
- ^ Gurstelle, William (2011). Practical Pyromaniac: Build Fire Tornadoes, One-Candlepower Engines, Great Balls of Fire, and More Incendiary Devices. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-1569767108.
- ^ Winston, Robert (2013). Science Year by Year: The Ultimate Visual Guide to the Discoveries That Changed the World. London: DK. p. 215. ISBN 978-1409316138.
- ^ "Carl von Linde – developer of refrigerators & gas separation technology". worldofchemicals.com. 27 May 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (16 September 2018). "The History of the Paper Punch". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ Lisador, Charlotte (12 October 2015). "Das Maß aller Dinge". www.evangelisch.de (in German). Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ "Revolutionary Wound Care". Beiersdorf. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Back in time - History of Hygiene - Detergent". www.hygieneforhealth.org.au. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (7 April 2017). "This is the History of How We Brew Coffee". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
- ^ "Heimatmuseum zeigt mehr als hundert Jahre Lichtenberger Industriegeschichte: Der Eierschneider war ein Welterfolg". Berliner Zeitung (in German). 23 April 1997. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ "TEEKANNE: Explore the History of the Tea Bag Packaging Machines". www.teekanne.com. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ "Tea bags: they became popular purely by coincidence, thanks to an American tea trader - Walls with Stories". Walls with Stories. 30 September 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ "Ink eradicators - Pelikan". www.pelikan.com. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Peter Schlumbohm". lemelson.mit.edu. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "Sixty years of the Federal Republic of Germany – a retrospective of everyday life". Retrieved 28 December 2012.
- ^ "Pritt History". Pritt. 18 March 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-03-18. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
- ^ "On the Six-Cornered Snowflake". www.keplersdiscovery.com. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Wilhelm Schickard invented a calculating machine, - Computing History". www.computinghistory.org.uk. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
- ^ "Things that Count - Early Evolution of the Modern Calculator". metastudies.net. Retrieved 25 February 2019.
- ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1959). The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development. New York: Dover. OCLC 643872.
- ^ Katz, Victor J. (1993). A History of Mathematics / An Introduction. Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-01618-8.
- ^ Edwards, Charles Henry (1994). The historical development of the calculus. Springer. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-387-94313-8.
- ^ Aldrich, John. "Earliest Uses of Symbols of Calculus". Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Oscar Sheynin, History of Statistics, Berlin: NG Verlag Berlin, 2012, p. 81.
- ^ Lauritzen, Niels (2013). Undergraduate Convexity: From Fourier and Motzkin to Kuhn and Tucker. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 3. ISBN 978-9814452762.
- ^ Bessel, F. (1824). "Untersuchung des Theils der planetarischen Störungen". Berlin Abhandlungen.
- ^ Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1828). Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas. Göttingen: Typis Dieterichianis.
- ^ Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1900). Allgemeine Flächentheorie. Leipzig: W. Engelmann.
- ^ Apostol, Tom M. (1976). Introduction to analytic number theory. New York-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 7. ISBN 978-0-387-90163-3.
- ^ Berger, Marcel (2000), Riemannian Geometry During the Second Half of the Twentieth Century, University Lecture Series, vol. 17, Rhode Island: American Mathematical Society, ISBN 0-8218-2052-4.
- ^ "Ueber die Anzahl der Primzahlen unter einer gegebenen Grösse". www.maths.tcd.ie. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Cantor, Georg (1874). "Ueber eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 1874 (77): 258–262. doi:10.1515/crll.1874.77.258.
- ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Klein Bottle". MathWorld. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Ewald, William B. (1996). From Immanuel Kant to David Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, Volume 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 920–922. ISBN 0-19-850536-1.
- ^ Hinkis, Arie (2013). Proofs of the Cantor-Bernstein theorem. A mathematical excursion. Heidelberg: Birkhäuser/Springer. ISBN 978-3-0348-0223-9.
- ^ Kutta, Martin (1901). "Beitrag zur näherungsweisen Integration totaler Differentialgleichungen". Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik. 46: 435–453.
- ^ Runge, Carl David Tolmé (1895). "Über die numerische Auflösung von Differentialgleichungen". Mathematische Annalen. 46: 167–178. doi:10.1007/BF01446807.
- ^ Brüning, Erwin; Blanchard, Philippe (2003). Mathematical Methods in Physics. Boston, MA: Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-1-4612-6589-4.
- ^ Ji, Lizhen; Papadopoulos, Athanase; Yamada, Sumio (2017). From Riemann to Differential Geometry and Relativity. Springer. p. 545. ISBN 9783319600390.
- ^ Kuzniar, Alice A. (2017). The Birth of Homeopathy out of the Spirit of Romanticism. University of Toronto Press. p. 3. ISBN 9781487521264.
- ^ Andreas Luch (2009). Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-7643-8335-0.
- ^ Ullmann's Fine Chemicals. John Wiley & Sons. 2014. ISBN 9783527683598.
- ^ Shorter, Edward (1998). A History of Psychiatry: From the era of the asylum to the age of Prozac. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471245315.
- ^ White, W. (2014). The early use of chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, chloroform, nitrous oxide and ether for intoxication.
- ^ von Basedow, K. A. (1840). "Exophthalmus durch Hypertrophie des Zellgewebes in der Augenhöhle". Wochenschrift für die gesammte Heilkunde. 6: 197–204, 220–228.
- ^ Day, Lance; McNeil, Ian (1998). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. Routledge. p. 775. ISBN 978-0415193993.
- ^ Reese, D. M. (1998). "Fundamentals--Rudolf Virchow and modern medicine". The Western Journal of Medicine. 169 (2): 105–108. PMC 1305179. PMID 9735691.
- ^ Keeler, Richard (1 February 2002). "The Ophthalmoscope in the Lifetime of Hermann von Helmholtz". The Journal of the American Medical Association. 120 (2): 194–201. doi:10.1001/archopht.120.2.194. ISSN 0003-9950. PMID 11831923.
- ^ Long, Tony (6 December 2007). "Dec. 6, 1850: The Eyes Have It, Thanks to the Ophthalmoscope". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ Lay-Ekuakille, Aimé (2009). Advances in Biomedical Sensing, Measurements, Instrumentation and Systems. Springer. p. 285. ISBN 978-3642051661.
- ^ F. Gaedcke (1855). "Ueber das Erythroxylin, dargestellt aus den Blättern des in Südamerika cultivirten Strauches Erythroxylon Coca". Archiv der Pharmazie. 132 (2): 141–150. doi:10.1002/ardp.18551320208.
- ^ Niemann, Albert (1860). "Ueber eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern". Archiv der Pharmazie. 153 (2): 129–256. doi:10.1002/ardp.18601530202.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|name-list-format=
ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - ^ Kamieński, Łukasz (2016). Shooting Up: A Short History of Drugs and War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780190263478.
- ^ Rundfunk, Bayerischer (2012-03-28). "28.03.1882: Patent auf das gestrichene Pflaster | BR.de" (in German). Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ "Robert Koch and Tuberculosis: Koch's Famous Lecture". Nobel Foundation. 2008. Archived from the original on 2012-07-02. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Garrison, F. H. (1913). "Edwin Klebs (1834-1913)". Science. 38 (991): 920–921. doi:10.1126/science.38.991.920. PMID 17753538.
- ^ Evans, A. S. (October 1978). "Causation and disease: a chronological journey. The Thomas Parran Lecture". American Journal of Epidemiology. 108 (4): 249–58. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112617. PMID 727194.
- ^ Howard-Jones, N. (1984). "Robert Koch and the cholera vibrio: a centenary". BMJ. 288 (6414): 379–81. doi:10.1136/bmj.288.6414.379. PMC 1444283. PMID 6419937.
- ^ Edeleano L (1887). "Ueber einige Derivate der Phenylmethacrylsäure und der Phenylisobuttersäure". Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft. 20 (1): 616–622. doi:10.1002/cber.188702001142.
- ^ Loeffler, F. (1887). "Darauf theilte Herr Loeffler in einem zweiten Vortrag die Ergebnisse seiner weiteren Untersuchungen uber die Diphtherie- Bacillen mit". Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde. 2: 105–112.
- ^ "Adolf Eugen Fick (1852-1937)". Science Museum. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1901". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Mann, C. C.; Plummer, M. L. (1991). The aspirin wars : money, medicine, and 100 years of rampant competition. New York: Knopf. pp. 27. ISBN 978-0-394-57894-1.
- ^ "Felix Hoffmann". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Vaupel, E. (2005). "Arthur Eichengrün—Tribute to a Forgotten Chemist, Entrepreneur, and German Jew". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44 (22): 3344–3355. doi:10.1002/anie.200462959. PMID 15798983.
- ^ Brown, F. (2003). "The history of research in foot-and-mouth disease". Virus Research. 91 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1016/s0168-1702(02)00268-x. PMID 12527434.
- ^ "The history of antibiotics". Microbiology Society. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
- ^ Williams, K. J. (2009). "The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet". J R Soc Med. 102 (8): 343–8. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036. PMC 2726818. PMID 19679737.
- ^ Frith, John. "Arsenic – the "Poison of Kings" and the "Saviour of Syphilis"". Journal of Military and Veterans' Health. 21 (4). Retrieved 31 January 2017.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|name-list-format=
ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Dihydrocodeine". www.drugbank.ca. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Thiery, M. (2006-08-20). "Pioneers of the intrauterine device" (PDF). The European Journal of Contraception & Reproductive Health Care. 2 (1): 15–23. doi:10.1080/13625189709049930. PMID 9678105. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-08-20. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ "History - More Than 100 Years of Lip Care". Labello. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Collier, Aine (2007). The Humble Little Condom: A History. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-556-6.
- ^ Adam, David (18 August 2006). "Truth about ecstacy's unlikely trip from lab to dance floor". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ "The History, Patent, and Uses of MDMA". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ Sinatra, Raymond (2010). The Essence of Analgesia and Analgesics. MA, USA: Cambridge University Press; 1 edition. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-521-14450-6.
- ^ German (DE) Patent 296916
- ^ Mannich, C.; Löwenheim, H. (1920). "Ueber zwei neue Reduktionsprodukte des Kodeins". Archiv der Pharmazie. 258 (2–4): 295–316. doi:10.1002/ardp.19202580218.
- ^ Newton, David E. (2016). Youth Substance Abuse: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 42. ISBN 9781440839832.
- ^ DE Patent 414598C 'Verfahren zur Herstellung von Dihydrodesoxymorphin und Dihydrodesoxycodein'
- ^ Felden, L.; C. Walter; S. Harder; R.-D. Treede; H. Kayser; D. Drover; G. Geisslinger; J. Lötsch (22 September 2011). "Comparative Clinical Effects of Hydromorphone and Morphine". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 107 (3): 319–328. doi:10.1093/bja/aer232. PMID 21841049. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ Berger's invention has been described "as one of the most surprising, remarkable, and momentous developments in the history of clinical neurology." David Millet (2002), "The Origins of EEG" International Society for the History of the Neurosciences (ISHN)
- ^ West, J. B. (October 2017). "The beginnings of cardiac catheterization and the resulting impact on pulmonary medicine". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 313 (4): L651–L658. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00133.2017. PMID 28839102.
- ^ Lesch, John E. (2006). The First Miracle Drugs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195187755.
- ^ M. Bockmuhl, Über eine neue Klasse von analgetisch wirkenden Verbindungen Ann. Chem. 561, 52 (1948)
- ^ Applied Orthopaedic Biomechanics. BI Publications Pvt Ltd. 2008. p. 85. ISBN 9788172253097.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Singh, Siddharth; Goyal, Abha (2007). "The origin of echocardiography: A Tribute to Inge Edler". Tex Heart Inst J. 34 (4): 431–438. PMC 2170493. PMID 18172524.
- ^ "History of Schering AG – FundingUniverse". www.fundinguniverse.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "SCHERING A.G. - Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on SCHERING A.G." www.referenceforbusiness.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "C-Leg lower limb prosthesis". Ottobock. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Sekundo W, Kunert KS, Blum M.Small incision corneal refractive surgery using the small incision lenticule extraction (SMILE) procedure for the correction of myopia and myopic astigmatism: results of a 6 month prospective study.Br J Ophthalmol. 2011 Mar;95(3):335-9.
- ^ W. S. Curtis. "Long Range Shooting: A Historical Perspective". Archived from the original on 2007-06-22.
- ^ Hickman, Kennedy (8 May 2017). "The Prussian Dreyse Needle Gun". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "The German Pickelhaube, 1914-1916". Trenches on the Web. May 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-05-01. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Cussler, Clive; Delgado, James P. (2011). Silent Killers: Submarines and Underwater Warfare. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 224. ISBN 9781849088602.
- ^ First World War, Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003, Page 106
- ^ Showalter, Dennis (2016). Instrument of War: The German Army 1914–18. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781472813015.
- ^ Tubbs, Floyd R.; Clawson, Robert W. (2000). Stahlhelm: Evolution of the German Steel Helmet. Kent State University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780873386777.
- ^ "How Did the British Take Down German Tanks In World War II? Really Big Rifles". The National Interest. 22 September 2019. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
- ^ "Submachine Guns - Compact Assault Weapons". Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Van Husen, William H. "Zyklon B". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia(1999) p. 1153.
- ^ Dougherty, Martin J. (2017). Camouflage At War: An Illustrated Guide from 1914 to the Present Day. Amber Books. pp. 45–47. ISBN 978-1-78274-498-6.
- ^ "The Amazing Jerry Can". Think Defence. August 2012. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "A Short History of the Development of Nerve Gases". Noblis. 15 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-04-15. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
- ^ "Facts About Tabun". Homeland Security News. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
- ^ "CDC | Facts About Sarin". emergency.cdc.gov. 16 May 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
- ^ Hart, Russell A. (2006). Guderian: Panzer Pioneer or Myth Maker?. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-1-59797-453-0.
- ^ Harding, David P. (Summer 1994). "Heinz Guderian As the Agent of Change: His Significant Impact on the Development of German Armored Forces Between the World Wars". Army History (31): 26–34. JSTOR 26304190.
- ^ "Me-163 Komet" Archived 2016-07-20 at the Wayback Machine. Planes of Fame Air Museum. Accessed 5 October 2008.
- ^ Shurkin, Michael. "A Brief History of the Assault Rifle". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Fioravanzo, Giuseppe (1971). La Marina italiana nella seconda guerra mondiale – Volume XV – La Marina dall'8 settembre 1943 alla fine del conflitto [The Italian Navy in the Second World War – Volume XV – The Navy from 8 September 1943 to the End of the Conflict] (in Italian). Rome: Italian Navy Historical Branch. pp. 8–34.
- ^ "The Market for Anti-Tank Missiles" (PDF). www.forecastinternational.com. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
- ^ ""Buzz Bomb": 70th Anniversary of the V-1 Campaign". National Air and Space Museum. 13 June 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Zaloga, Steven (2003). V-2 Ballistic Missile 1942-52. Reading: Osprey Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-84176-541-9.
- ^ "German V-2 Rocket: The world's first long-range guided ballistic missile". German Wehrmacht. 8 November 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
- ^ Schmaltz, Florian (September 2006). "Neurosciences and research on chemical weapons of mass destruction in Nazi Germany". Journal of the History of the Neurosciences. 15 (3): 186–209. doi:10.1080/09647040600658229. PMID 16887760.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (3 December 2019). "Johann Christoph Denner, Inventor of the Clarinet". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Johann Christoph Denner | Inventor of The Clarinet". John Denner. 4 September 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Bush, Douglas; Kassel, Richard (2004). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 380. ISBN 9781135947958.
- ^ "Keeping Perfect Time: The Evolution of the Metronome". The Journal of Antiques and Collectibles. 2018-01-27. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "A History of the Horn, Better Known as the French Horn". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ Krampert, Peter (2016). The Encyclopedia of the Harmonica. Mel Bay Publications. p. 5. ISBN 9781619115774.
- ^ Baines, Anthony (1993). Brass Instruments: Their History and Development. Courier Corporation. p. 230. ISBN 9780486275741.
- ^ Doktorski, Henry. "Interview With Fredrik Dillner - The Owner Of What May Be The World's Oldest Accordion". The Free-Reed Journal : Articles and Essays Featuring Classical Free-Reed Instruments and Performers. Ksanti. Retrieved 14 February 2012.
- ^ "The origins of the Tuba: The Birth of the Tuba - Musical Instrument Guide". www.yamaha.com. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
- ^ John Humphries, The Early Horn (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000), p. 41.
- ^ Randel, Don Michael (2003). The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard University Press. p. 978. ISBN 9780674011632.
- ^ "Who Invented the Microphone?". www.tech-faq.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "History Engine: Tools for Collaborative Education and Research | Episodes". The History Engine. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^ a b Inventions & Discoveries. BPI Publishing. 2018. pp. 38–39. ISBN 9788184972405.
- ^ "Berliner Gramophone Record". National Museum of American History. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Ras, Zbigniew W.; Wieczorkowska, Alicja (2010). Advances in Music Information Retrieval. Springer. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-3642116735.
- ^ Daumas, Maurice (1989). Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers. London: Portman Books. ISBN 978-0-7134-0727-3.
- ^ Colombo, Luigi; Selvini, Attilio (1988). Sintesi di una storia degli strumenti per la misura topografica [Summary of a history of topographic measurement tools] (in Italian).
- ^ Greene, Nick (3 July 2019). "A Profile of Hans Lippershey: Optician and Telescope Maker". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Redhead, P. A. (1999). "History of Vacuum Devices". Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Guericke, Otto von". Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Ed. Vol. 12. Cambridge Univ. Press. 1910. p. 670.
- ^ Schiffer, Michael Brian (2006). Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520248298.
- ^ Edwin J. Houston (1905). Electricity in Every-day Life. P. F. Collier & Son. p. 71.
jar von Kleist.
- ^ Chodos, Alan (November 2012). "November 1777: Discovery of Lichtenberg Figures". American Physical Society. Retrieved 28 March 2020.
- ^ Frercks, Jan; Weber, Heiko; Wiesenfeldt, Gerhard (2009). "Reception and discovery: the nature of Johann Wilhelm Ritter's invisible rays". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 40 (2): 143–156. doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2009.03.014.
- ^ Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1877). Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum methodo nova tractata (in Latin). (Gauss, Werke, vol. V, p. 1). Gauss mentions Newton's Principia proposition XCI regarding finding the force exerted by a sphere on a point anywhere along an axis passing through the sphere.
- ^ Jenkins, Francis A.; White, Harvey E. (1981). Fundamentals of Optics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-07-256191-3.
- ^ Uhl, Tadeusz (2019). Advances in Mechanism and Machine Science. Springer. p. 1142. ISBN 9783030201319.
- ^ "Einige Beispiele für deutsche Landespatente im 19. Jahrhundert". www.wolfgang-pfaller.de (in German). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Wagner, Jorg; Sorg, H. W. (2008). "The Bohnenberger machine". Giroskopiya I Navigatsiya. 1: 107–114. doi:10.1134/S2075108710010116.
- ^ Petersen, J.K. (2002). The Telecommunications Illustrated Dictionary. CRC Press. p. 830. ISBN 978-0849311734.
- ^ Ohm, G. S. (1827). "Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet" (PDF). Ohm Hochschule. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Kirkland, Kyle (2010). Earth Sciences: Notable Research and Discoveries. Facts on File. p. 53. ISBN 978-0816074426.
- ^ Oldham, Kalil T. Swain (2008). The doctrine of description: Gustav Kirchhoff, classical physics, and the "purpose of all science" in 19th-century Germany (Ph. D.). University of California, Berkeley. p. 52. Docket 3331743.
- ^ Clausius, R. (1850). "Ueber die bewegende Kraft der Wärme und die Gesetze, welche sich daraus für die Wärmelehre selbst ableiten lassen". Annalen der Physik. 79: 368–397, 500–524 – via Gallica.
- ^ Clausius, R. (1854). "Über eine veränderte Form des Zweiten Hauptsatzes der mechanischen Wärmetheorien". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 93: 481–506 – via Gallica.
- ^ Magnus, G. (1853). "Über die Abweichung der Geschosse, und: Über eine abfallende Erscheinung bei rotierenden Körpern". Annalen der Physik. 164: 1–29. doi:10.1002/andp.18531640102.
- ^ "Heinrich Geissler". www.crtsite.com. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Pantalony, David. "Variations on a Theme: The Movement of Acoustic Resonators through Multiple Contexts". acoustics.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
- ^ "Spectrometers | Instruments". Canada under the stars. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
- ^ Coe, Lewis (2006). The Telephone and Its Several Inventors: A History. McFarland. pp. 16–24. ISBN 9780786426096.
- ^ a b Turner, Gerard L'Estrange; Weston, Margaret (1983). Nineteenth-century Scientific Instruments. University of California Press. p. 140. ISBN 9780520051607.
- ^ Vogel-Prandtl, Johanna Ludwig Prandtl: A Biographical Sketch, Remembrances and Documents, English trans. V. Vasanta Ram. The International Centre for Theoretical Physics Trieste, Italy, pub. August 14, 2004. pp. 10–11.
- ^ Clausius, R. (1865). "Über verschiedene, für die Anwendung bequeme Formen der Hauptgleichungen der mechanischen Wärmetheorie". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 125: 353–400 – via Gallica.
- ^ Martin, Andre (1986), "Cathode Ray Tubes for Industrial and Military Applications", in Hawkes, Peter (ed.), Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Volume 67, Academic Press, p. 183, ISBN 9780080577333,
Evidence for the existence of "cathode-rays" was first found by Plücker and Hittorf ...
- ^ Clausius, R. (1870). "Ueber einen auf die Wärme anwendbaren mechanischen Satz". Annalen der Physik. 141: 124–130 – via Gallica.
- ^ Sella, Andrea (November 2008). "Abbé's refractometer". Chemistry World: 67.
- ^ Museum of optical instruments:Abbe-Refraktometer, Carl Zeiss Jena
- ^ Energywise Consortium (2011). A Practical Guide to Energy Management of Facilities and Utilities. Smithers Rapra Technology. p. 79. ISBN 978-1847355980.
- ^ Grayson, Michael A. (2002). Measuring mass: from positive rays to proteins. Philadelphia: Chemical Heritage Press. pp. 4. ISBN 0-941901-31-9.
- ^ Petersen, Carolyn Collins (4 January 2019). "Heinrich Hertz Proved Existence of Electromagnetic Waves". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Stutzman, Warren L.; Thiele, Gary A. (2012). Antenna Theory and Design, 3rd Ed. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 391–392. ISBN 978-0470576649.
- ^ Wien, W. (1897). "On the division of energy in the emission-spectrum of a black body". Philosophical Magazine. 43 (262): 214–220. doi:10.1080/14786449708620983.
- ^ Mehra, J.; Rechenberg, H. (1982). The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. New York City: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-90642-3.
- ^ "X-Rays | Science Mission Directorate". NASA. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "The Nernst Lamp - How it works and history". edisontechcenter.org. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Drude, P. (1900). "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle". Annalen der Physik. 306 (3): 566–613. doi:10.1002/andp.19003060312.
- ^ "October 1900: Planck's Formula for Black Body Radiation". APS Physics. Archived from the original on 2007-09-10. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "The birth of quantum theory". HISTORY. 14 December 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Bud, Robert; Warner, Deborah Jean (1998). Instruments of Science: An Historical Encyclopedia. Taylor and Francis. p. 499. ISBN 0815315619.
- ^ Anderson, J. D. (2005). "Ludwig Prandtl's Boundary Layer". Physics Today. 58 (12): 42–48. doi:10.1063/1.2169443.
- ^ "Christian Huelsmeyer, the inventor". www.radarworld.org. Retrieved 10 February 2019.
- ^ Einstein, A. (1905). "Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?". Annalen der Physik. 18 (13): 639–643. doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314.
- ^ Einstein, A. (1905). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper". Annalen der Physik. 17 (10): 891–921. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004.
- ^ Gee, Kent L. (August 2011). "The Rubens tube". Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics. 8: 025003. doi:10.1121/1.3636076.
- ^ Lucas, Jim (22 May 2015). "What is the Third Law of Thermodynamics?". Live Science. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
- ^ Salous, Sana (2013). Radio Propagation Measurement and Channel Modelling. John Wiley & Sons. p. 424. ISBN 9781118502327.
- ^ Xu, Guochang (2010). Sciences of Geodesy - I: Advances and Future Directions. Springer Publishing. p. 281. ISBN 9783642117411.
- ^ "Stark effect". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Noether, E. (1918). "Invariante Variationsprobleme". Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse. 1918: 235–257.
- ^ Einstein, A. (1916). "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie". Annalen der Physik. 49 (7): 769–822. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702.
- ^ Einstein, A. (1917). "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung". Physikalische Zeitschrift. 18: 121–128. Bibcode:1917PhyZ...18..121E.
- ^ Daintith, John (2008). Biographical Encyclopedia of Scientists, 3rd Ed. CRC Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-1420072716.
- ^ Betz, A. (1966) Introduction to the Theory of Flow Machines. (D. G. Randall, Trans.) Oxford: Pergamon Press.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (6 March 2017). "The Evolution of the Metal Detector". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Hahn, O. (1921). "Über ein neues radioaktives Zerfallsprodukt im Uran". Die Naturwissenschaften. 9: 84. doi:10.1007/BF01491321.
- ^ Gerlach, W.; Stern, O. (1922). "Der experimentelle Nachweis der Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld". Zeitschrift für Physik. 9: 349–352. doi:10.1007/BF01326983.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1954". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Emspak, Jesse (3 August 2018). "States of Matter: Bose-Einstein Condensate". Live Science. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Sommerfeld, A. (January 1928). "Zur Elektronentheorie der Metalle auf Grund der Fermischen Statistik". Zeitschrift für Physik. 47 (1–2): 1–32. doi:10.1007/bf01391052.
- ^ Heisenberg, W. (1927). "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Zeitschrift für Physik. 43: 172–198. doi:10.1007/BF01397280.
- ^ Geiger, H.; Müller, W. (1928). "Elektronenzählrohr zur Messung schwächster Aktivitäten [Electron counting tube for measurement of weakest radioactivities]". Die Naturwissenschaften. 16: 617–618. doi:10.1007/BF01494093.
- ^ "Life through a Lens". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
- ^ "Meissner effect | physics". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Understanding the Process". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
- ^ McMullan, D. (1988). "Von Ardenne and the scanning electron microscope". Proc Roy Microsc Soc. 23: 283–288.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1944". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Dahl, Per F. (1999). Heavy Water and the Wartime Race for Nuclear Energy. CRC Press. ISBN 9780750306331.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1963". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ DE 944900 "Verfahren zur Trennung bzw. zum getrennten Nachweis von Ionen verschiedener spezifischer Ladung", W. Paul and H. Steinwedel, filed on December 24, 1953, priority December 23, 1953.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1961". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1989". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Zwicker, E. (1961). "Subdivision of the audible frequency range into critical bands". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 33: 248. doi:10.1121/1.1908630.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Lindley, David (May 2015). "Focus: Landmarks—Accidental Discovery Leads to Calibration Standard". Physics. 8. doi:10.1103/Physics.8.46.
- ^ Binnig, G.; Rohrer, H. (1986). "Scanning tunneling microscopy". IBM Journal of Research and Development. 30 (4): 355–69.
- ^ Press release for the 1986 Nobel Prize in physics
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2007". Nobel Prize. August 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-08-05. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Hell, S. W.; Wichmann, J. (1994). "Breaking the diffraction resolution limit by stimulated emission: Stimulated-emission-depletion fluorescence microscopy". Optics Letters. 19 (11): 780–782. doi:10.1364/OL.19.000780. PMID 19844443.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2005". Nobel Prize. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Beiser, Frederick C. (2002). German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781-1801. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674027176.
- ^ Gasper, Phillip (October 2005). The Communist Manifesto: a road map to history's most important political document. Haymarket Books. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-931859-25-7.
As the nineteenth century progressed, "socialist" came to signify not only concern with the social question, but opposition to capitalism and support for some form of social ownership.
- ^ Anthony Giddens. Beyond Left and Right: The Future of Radical Politics. 1998 edition. Cambridge, England, UK: Polity Press, 1994, 1998. p. 71.
- ^ Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848). The Communist Manifesto (on marxists.org)
- ^ Moody, J. Carroll (1984). The credit union movement: Origins and development, 1850-1980. Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0840332189.
- ^ "Anti Positivism". History Learning Site. 3 April 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-04-03. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Kim, Alan (2016). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
- ^ Butler-Bowdon, Tom (2006). 50 Psychology Classics: Who We Are, How We Think, What We Do. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. pp. 2. ISBN 978-1857883862.
- ^ "Wilhelm Wundt | German physiologist and psychologist". Retrieved 2018-04-22.
{{cite news}}
: Unknown parameter|encyclopedia=
ignored (help) - ^ Kersbergen, Kees van; Vis, Barbara (2013). Comparative Welfare State Politics: Development, Opportunities, and Reform. Cambridge UP. p. 38. ISBN 9781107652477.
- ^ a b c "Social Security History". www.ssa.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "How 1890s Germany led LGBT rights charge". 2015-05-15. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ Murphy, Timothy (2000). Reader's Guide to Lesbian and Gay Studies. Routledge. pp. 251. ISBN 978-1579581428.
- ^ "History of DST in Europe". www.timeanddate.com. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Horkheimer, Max (1982). Critical Theory Selected Essays. New York: Continuum Pub. p. 244.
- ^ WIPO, International Survey on Private Copying - Law & Practice 2013 (23rd ed.) p.4: "A levy was first introduced in Germany in 1966."
- ^ Watanatada, Patrin (10 March 2011). "Questioning and evolving the eco-label". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ^ "Christmas Markets in Germany and Europe". The German Way & More. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
- ^ "Martin Luther 95 Theses". Uncommon-travel-germany.com. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
- ^ Carter, Joe (2 November 2017). "9 Things You Should Know About Lutheranism". The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Christmas tree | Tradition & History". Retrieved 2018-04-23.
{{cite news}}
: Unknown parameter|encyclopedia=
ignored (help) - ^ "History of Christmas Trees - Christmas - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ "The history of the Christmas tree". ABC News. 2016-12-19. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Cross, Gary (2004). Wondrous Innocence and Modern American Children's Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195348132.
- ^ "Christmas History Tinsel". Christmas Carnivals. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Hernández, Isabel (1 November 2016). "Meet the Man Who Started the Illuminati". History Magazine. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Wolfe, Karin (5 September 2007). "How to enjoy Oktoberfest like a local". USA Today. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Adventskranz: Geschichte und Bedeutung der vier Kerzen". NDR (in German). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Mills, T. J. (2010). The Twelve Blessings of Christmas. Thomas Nelson Inc. p. 54. ISBN 9780529124319.
- ^ "Advent calendars". Deutsches Weihnachtsmuseum. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Dinoso, Clarita P. (2002). Gymnastics book. Manila: Rex Book Store. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9712306291.
- ^ Mcintosh, J. S. (2010). Gymnastics. Mason Crest. ISBN 978-1422217344.
- ^ Strauss, Michael. "A History of Gymnastics: From Ancient Greece to Modern Times | Scholastic". www.scholastic.com. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
- ^ Drane, Robert (16 March 2016). "Friedrich Jahn invented gymnastics' apparatus". Inside Sport. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
- ^ Robson, David (16 July 2019). "A History Lesson In Bodybuilding". Bodybuilding.com. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
- ^ "Schutzhundesport". partner-hund.de (in German). Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Hines, James R. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Figure Skating. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. pp. 150. ISBN 978-0-8108-6859-5.
- ^ "Origins of Handball". www.bchandball.ca. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "The history of handball". www.handball09.com. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Jaedicke, Thomas (8 November 2015). "Rhönraderfinder Otto Feick - Patent für zwei Reifen und sechs Sprossen [Patent For Two Hoops and Six Cross-bars]". Deutschlandfunk (in German). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Hitler's Berlin Games Helped Make Some Emblems Popular". The New York Times. 14 August 2004. Archived from the original on 2009-04-24. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Paralympics - goalball". 18 October 2004. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
- ^ "Paralympics traces roots to Second World War | CBC Sports". CBC. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ "The Best of Men - Ludwig Guttman and the First Paralympic Games - BBC Two". BBC. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Vinegar, Dick (2012-09-10). "A sincere and heartfelt homage to the founder of the Paralympics". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Newcomb, Tim (29 September 2017). "From Super Atom to Flyknit: The history of the modern soccer boot". FourFourTwo. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Underwater Rugby". www.cmas.org. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
- ^ Monthei, Amanda. "Grassholes". The Ski Journal. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
- ^ Kuska, Sylvia (6 July 2012). "Auf Skiern die Bergwiese hinab". svz. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
- ^ Wernicke, Luciano (2018). Why Is Soccer Played Eleven Against Eleven?: Everything You Need to Know About Soccer. Meyer & Meyer Sport. ISBN 978-1782551379.
- ^ "25 years IPC - history". International Paralympic Committee. 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Brinkmann, Katrin (1 July 2009). "Exotensport "Jugger": Keilerei mit Hundeköpfchen". Spiegel Online. Retrieved 10 November 2019.
- ^ Collins, Sam (3 January 2008). "DTM | Touring Car". Racecar Engineering. Archived from the original on 2008-03-14. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Wenck, Dietmar (15 June 2013). "Speed Badminton - ein Sport, den es ohne Berliner nicht gäbe". Berliner Morgenpost (in German). Retrieved 3 November 2019.
- ^ "The Strandkorb". Deutsches Patent- und Markenamt. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "172. Geburtstag von Wilhelm Bartelmann". Google (in German). 7 October 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Docevski, Boban (21 October 2016). "The beginnings of leisure cruising and the first cruise ships in the world". The Vintage News. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Pilates, Joseph (1998). Pilates' Return to Life through Contrology. Presentation Dynamics LLC. ISBN 978-0-9614937-9-0.
- ^ "A History of the Carabiner". Mountain Spirit Institute. Retrieved 2013-01-07.
- ^ McGrady, Angele; Moss, Donald (2013). Pathways to Illness, Pathways to Health. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 224–25. ISBN 9781441913791.
- ^ Karl Ferdinand Hommel: Rhapsodia quaestionum in foro quotidie obunientum, Vol. 3, Bayreuth, 1782, p. 115.
- ^ "Skat". Pagat. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "History". Kolb Technology. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Carlisle, Rodney P. (2009). Encyclopedia of Play in Today′s Society. SAGE Publications. p. 137. ISBN 978-1412966702.
- ^ "In search of: The original Teddy Bear". The Independent. 2002-10-27. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ Schwarz, Helmut (2007). "Schmidt, Josef Friedrich" (in German). Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. 23: 187.
- ^ "On the Death of Prof. Artur Fischer". fischer. 28 January 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Miller, Michael (1 April 2005), A History of Home Video Game Consoles, retrieved 18 December 2019
- ^ Baer, Ralph. "How Video Games invaded the Home TV Set". Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Connolly, Kate (3 February 2009). "Playmobil's German inventor Hans Beck dies aged 79". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ "Catan". Catan GmbH. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Who Invented the Wheelchair?". www.mentalfloss.com. 2 February 2009. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ "Who Invented the Bicycle?". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ^ "Dandy Horse - Invented by Baron Karl Drais". www.bicyclehistory.net. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ Navntoft, Søren (5 November 2019). "The Tachometer". ViaRETRO. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Wienecke-Janz, Detlef (2008). Die große Chronik-Weltgeschichte: Neuordnung Europas und Restauration : [1793 - 1849]. Wissen Media Verlag. p. 198. ISBN 9783577090728.
- ^ Doppelbauer, Martin (1 August 2018). "Jacobi's first real electric motor". www.eti.kit.edu. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ "Electric Boats". ethw.org. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ Bellis, Mary (18 June 2018). "Nicolaus Otto: Inventor of the Gas Motor Engine". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Kiessling, Friedrich; Puschmann, Rainer; Schmieder, Axel; Schneider, Egid (2018). Contact Lines for Electric Railways: Planning, Design, Implementation, Maintenance. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 131–32. ISBN 9783895789618.
- ^ Taplin, Michael. "History of Light Rail — LRTA". www.lrta.org. Archived from the original on 2016-08-25. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ "In Pictures: A history of trams". BBC News. 2011-12-05. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
- ^ Hendrickson III, Kenneth E. (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History Volume 1-3. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 1020–21. ISBN 978-0810888876.
- ^ Wilkins, Alasdair. "Who invented the world's very first car?". Jalopnik. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ Ralph Stein (1967). The Automobile Book. Paul Hamlyn Ltd.
- ^ "Who Invented the Car?". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ "Who invented the car – the story behind Karl Benz | RAC Drive". www.rac.co.uk. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ Gardiner, Mark (1997). Classic motorcycles. MetroBooks. p. 16. ISBN 1-56799-460-1.
- ^ Wilson, Hugo (1995). The encyclopedia of the motorcycle. London, UK: Dorling Kindersley. p. 82. ISBN 0-7513-0206-6.
- ^ "Beginnings of the automobile: the predecessor companies (1886-1920)". Daimler. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
- ^ Edwardson, Mike (16 November 2011). "125 year anniversary of world's first motorboat". SuperYacht World. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
- ^ "Einführung des Führerscheins: Der Lappen, der die Welt bedeutet". Spiegel Online. 2008-07-31. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "Bertha Benz Memorial Route". www.bertha-benz.de. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Kerler, Wolfgang (15 August 2018). "Germany's car industry can't build its own battery cells". The Verge. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
- ^ "V ENGINES". www.topspeed.com. Retrieved 11 November 2019.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Depatisnet:Bibliographische Daten (Deutsches Patent und Markenamt):Taximeter (German)
- ^ "Remembering Rudolf Diesel: inventor of the diesel engine; biofuels enthusiast". Z Energy. 9 August 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Otto Lilienthal – a precursor of powered human flight". ARTS. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "Otto Lilienthal". Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "NIHF Inductee Ferdinand von Zeppelin Invented the Rigid Airship". National Inventors Hall of Fame. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
- ^ Dooley, Sean C., The Development of Material-Adapted Structural Form Archived 2008-06-25 at the Wayback Machine – Part II: Appendices Archived 2008-06-25 at the Wayback Machine. THÈSE NO 2986 (2004), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
- ^ Eckermann, Erik (2001). World History of the Automobile. Society of Automotive Engineers. pp. 67–68. ISBN 9780768008005.
- ^ "Who Invented and Made the First Truck?". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ^ "The engine that Benz built still survives". The Globe and Mail. 9 April 2010. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ "All About the Ubiquitous Taxi Cab". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
- ^ "1901 Mercedes 35 HP". HowStuffWorks. 6 December 2007. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
- ^ Hagerty, Mike (6 August 2019). "What's Up With Those Old Drum Brakes?". NAPA Know How Blog. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
- ^ Laithwaite, Eric Robert (1986). A History of Linear Electric Motors. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 125. ISBN 978-0333399286.
- ^ Bridgman, Roger (2014). 1000 Inventions and Discoveries. DK Publishing (Dorling Kindersley). p. 174. ISBN 978-1409350705.
- ^ "Speedometer". Siemens. 26 April 2005. Archived from the original on 2009-02-28. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
- ^ Klier, Thomas H.; Rubenstein, James M. (2008). Who Really Made Your Car?: Restructuring and Geographic Change in the Auto Industry. W.E. Upjohn Institute. pp. 348–350. ISBN 9780880993333.
- ^ The Anschutz Gyro-Compass and Gyroscope Engineering. Watchmaker Publishing. 2003. pp. 7–24. ISBN 9781929148127.
- ^ "DELAG: The World's First Airline". Airships.net. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Grossman, Dan (9 July 2010). "The World's First Flight Attendant: Heinrich Kubis, 1912". Airships.net. Retrieved 8 November 2019.
- ^ Fischer, Walther (1979). "Klose, Adolph". Deutsche Biographie (in German). Retrieved 4 April 2020.
- ^ Rossberg, Ralf (2013). Deutsche Eisenbahnfahrzeuge von 1838 Bis Heute (in German). Springer-Verlag. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9783642957703.
- ^ "Junkers J1". www.militaryfactory.com. 31 July 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ van Basshuysen, Richard (2017). Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung: Ottokraftstoffe, Erdgas, Methan, Wasserstoff. Wiesbaden: Springer. pp. 7–9. ISBN 9783658122157.
- ^ Darling, David. "Lippisch Ente", The Internet Encyclopedia of Science – Experimental Aircraft. Accessed 5 October 2008.
- ^ Anderson, John D. Jr. (1997). A History of Aerodynamics. New York: McGraw Hill. p. 424.
- ^ "European Helicopter Pioneers". www.airvectors.net. Retrieved 2018-05-20.
- ^ "Heinkel He 178". www.aviation-history.com. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Klußmann, Niels; Malik, Arnim (2011). Lexikon Der Luftfahrt. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 9783642225000.
- ^ "Who Invented Airbags?". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 11 November 2019.
- ^ Sherman, Don (February 2008). "The Rotary Club". Automobile Magazine: 76–79.
- ^ Kupfer, Erich (29 October 2013). "VdM-Kollege Dr. Heinz Kunert gestorben". Motor Journalist (in German). Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ Kendall, Kevin; Kendall, Michaela (2015). High-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells for the 21st Century: Fundamentals, Design and Applications. Academic Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-0124104532.
- ^ Anderson, Bruce (1997). Porsche 911 Performance Handbook. MotorBooks/MBI Publishing. p. 16. ISBN 0-7603-0033-X.
- ^ Waschbusch, Lisa Marie (29 January 2018). "40 Jahre ABS: Urahn des autonomen Fahrens". www.automobil-industrie.vogel.de (in German). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
- ^ ""Die Entwickler des ESP" Anton van Zanten und Armin Müller bei MD.TAGE WIE DIESER". MOTORDIALOG (in German). June 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2019.