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Rakhigarhi

Coordinates: 29°17′35″N 76°6′51″E / 29.29306°N 76.11417°E / 29.29306; 76.11417
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Rakhigarhi
Rakhigarhi is located in Haryana
Rakhigarhi
Shown within Haryana
Rakhigarhi is located in India
Rakhigarhi
Rakhigarhi (India)
Alternative nameRakhi Garhi
LocationHaryana, India
Coordinates29°17′35″N 76°6′51″E / 29.29306°N 76.11417°E / 29.29306; 76.11417
TypeSettlement
Area350 hectares (3.5 km2; 1.4 sq mi)[1]
80–105 hectares (0.80–1.05 km2; 0.31–0.41 sq mi) (Gregory Possehl, Rita P. Wright, Raymond Allchin, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer)
History
CulturesIndus Valley Civilization
Site notes
Excavation dates1963, 1997–2000, 2011-present

Rakhigarhi, Rakhi Garhi (Rakhi Shahpur + Rakhi Khas), is a village in Hisar District in the state of Haryana in India, situated 150 kilometers to the northwest of Delhi. It is the site of a pre-Indus Valley Civilisation village settlement going back to about 6500 BCE.[2] Later, it was also part of the mature Indus Valley Civilisation, dating to 2600-1900 BCE.[3] The site is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra River plain,[4] some 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river.

Rakhigarhi encompasses a set of 11 mounds with a confirmed size in excess of 350 hectares, according to the Global Heritage Fund Rakhigarhi is the largest and oldest Indus sites in the world.[5][6][7][1][8]

The size and uniqueness of Rakhigarhi has drawn much attention of archaeologists all over the world. It is nearer to Delhi than other major sites, indicating the spread of the Indus Valley Civilization east across North India. Only 5% of the site had been excavated,[9] much of the area is yet to be excavated[10] and published.[11]: 215 

Another related excavation sites in the area are Mitathal and the smaller site Lohari Ragho, which are still awaiting excavation.

Site details

Site location

It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain,[12] some 27 km from the seasonal Ghaggar river. Today, Rakhigarhi is a small village in Haryana State, India.[13]

There are many other important archaeological sites in this area, in the old river valley to the east of the Ghaggar Plain. Among them are Kalibangan, Kunal, Balu, Bhirrana, and Banawali.[14]

According to Jane McIntosh, Rakhigarhi is located in the valley of the prehistoric Drishadvati River that originated in Siwalik Hills.[15] Chautang is a tributary of Sarsuti river which in turn is tributary of Ghaggar river.[16][17]

Size and number of mounds

Rakhigarhi has 11 excavation mounds,[5] which follow the naming convention of "RGR-x" e.g. RGR-1 to RGR-11,[7] with the total size of 550 hectares (5.5 km2).[18] Mounds RGR1 to RGR-6 are residential sites belonging to "pre-formation age early Harappan" era, while mound RGR-7 is a burial site where human skeletons were found.[19] 1997 and 2000 excavations reported 7 mounds with total site size of 300 hectares (3.0 km2).[20] 2014 excavation discovered 2 more mounds, RGR-8 and RGR-9, each with total size of 25 hectares taking the total site size to 350 hectares (3.5 km2), thus making Rakhigarhi largest Indus Valley Civilization site by overtaking Mohenjodaro (300 hectares) by 50 hectares.[8] 2016 excavation found 2 more mounds, RGR-10 and RGR-11, making the total number of mounds 11,[5] and total site size 550 hectares (5.5 km2).[18]

By 2020, only 5% of the site had been excavated by the ASI and Deccan College.[9]

Significance

Largest and oldest IVC site

According to the Global Heritage Fund Rakhigarhi is one of the largest and oldest Indus sites in the world.[5] As of 2020, the detailed site studies have placed total area of contiguous site more than 350-hectare, which entails 11 archaeological mounds.[9] Some estimates put the potential size to be 550 hectares.[18]

Prior to the detailed studies and excavations, some scholars, including Raymond Allchin and Rita P. Wright, believed the site to be only between 80 hectares and 100+ hectares in area.[4][18][21][22] Furthermore, Possehl did not believe that all mounds in Rakhigarhi belong to the same Indus Valley settlement, stating, "RGR-6, a Sothi-Siswal site known as Arda, was probably a separate settlement."[18]

Based on his 1997 and 2000 excavations, Amarendra Nath reported that the site covers more than 300 hectares (3.0 km2) in size with 7 mounds, five of which were contiguous.[20][23]

In January 2014, the discovery of additional mounds resulted in it becoming the largest Indus Valley Civilization site, overtaking Mohenjodaro (300 hectares) by almost 50 hectares, resulting in almost 350 hectares.[8] In 2014-15, joint excavations conducted by the Haryana Archaeological Department, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute and Seoul National University identified two more mounds of 25 hectares each, which raised the total number of mounds to nine from RGR-1 to RGR-9 with a total site size of 350 hectares (3.5 km2), thus making it the largest Indus Valley Civilization site.[6][7][1]

In 2016, total number of mounds became 11,[5] after 2 more mounds were identified by the excavations team which mapped the site.

Nearby important sites and cultures

Rakhigarhi, being the largest town and regional trade centre of IVC era, is surrounded by numerous IVC sites nearby in Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab along the paleo-channel of Sarasvati River. The important ones among those are the Bhirrana (4 phases of IVC with earliest dated to 8th-7th millennium BCE) 86 km northwest,[24][25] Kunal (belonging to Kunal cultural which is the cultural ancestor of Rehman Dheri site) 75 km northwest,[26][27] Siswal (belonging to Sothi-Siswal culture dated to 3800 BC, contemporaneous to Early-Harappan Phase) 75 km west,[28][29] and Kalibangan (another large regional IVC city with several phases starting from Early harappan phase) 235 km west,[30] and few more.

Excavations

See also: Phases in archaeology, Archaeological chronology dating, and Fabric analysis

Chronology of excavations

While the earliest excavation of IVC sites started from Harappa in 1921-1922 and Mohenjo-daro in 1931, the excavations at Rakhigrahi were first carried out in 1969, followed by more excavations in 1997-98, 1998–99 and 1999-2000, between 2011-16 and 2021 onward. There are 11 mounds in Rakhigarhi which are named RGR-1 to RGR-11, of which RGR-5 is thickly populated by establishment of Rakhishahpur village and is not available for excavations. RGR-1 to RGR-3, RGR6 to RGR9 and some part of RGR-4 are available for excavations.[5][6][7][31][19]

In 1963, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) began excavations at this site, and, though little has been published about the excavations.[32][33]

In 1969, Kurukshetra University's team studied and documented the site led by its Dean of Indic studies Dr. Suraj Bhan.[34]

In 1997-98, 1998–99 and 1999-2000, ASI team began to excavate the site again, which was led by its director Dr. Amrender Nath who published his findings in scholarly journals.[34][35] After 2000, excavations were stopped for years because of a CBI investigation on the misuse of funds.[36] Much of the findings are donated to the National Museum, New Delhi.

From 2011-16, Deccan College carried out several substantial excavations led by its then Vice Chancellor and archaeologist Dr. Vasant Shinde, several members of the team published their findings in various academic journals.[37][38]

From 2021 onward, more excavation by ASI commenced. Central University of Haryana and Dr Vasant Shinde also expressed interest in commencing excavation.[19]

Dating

See also: Periodisation of IVC, Archaeological pottery culture in India, and Black and red ware

ASI has carbon dated mound labelled RGR-1, RGR-2, RGR-6 and RGR-7. The RGR-6 has two layers of Preharappan Phase dating to 5,640 years before present (BP) and 5,440 (BP). The RGR-1 has Early Harappan Phase dating to 5,200 and 4,570 years BP. The RGR-2 also has Early Harappan Phase dated to 5,200 and 4,570 years as well as two additional samples belonging to Mature Harappan Phase dating to 4,040 and 3,900 years BP.[19] RGR-7, which is a cemetery or a burial site from Mature Harappan Phase, dates back to 4600 BP.[39][40]

In 2014 six radiocarbon datings from excavations at Rakhigarhi between 1997 and 2000 were published, corresponding to the three periods at the site as per archaeologist Amarendra Nath (Pre-formative, Early Harappan, and Mature Harappan). Mound RGR-6 revealed a Pre-formative stage designated as Sothi Phase with the following two datings: and years before present, converted to B.C.E. and B.C.E.[14]

Discoveries

The skeleton of male (code named as 11A), part of the "Rakhigarhi love birds" couple, with his skull facing towards female (code named as 11B, not seen in the picture) found at Rakhigarhi and now on display in the National Museum.

Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.[9]

Planned city

The ASI's detailed excavation of the site revealed the size of the lost city and recovered numerous artefacts, some over 5,000 years old. Rakhigarhi was occupied at Early Harappan times.[10][6] Evidence of paved roads, drainage system, large rainwater collection, storage system, terracotta bricks, statue production, and skilled working of bronze and precious metals have been uncovered.[citation needed] Jewellery, including bangles made from terracotta, conch shells, gold, and semi-precious stones, have also been found.[41]

Digging so far reveals a well planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan. The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali. Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies. There are brick lined drains to handle sewage from the houses. Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artifacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found. A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver. A gold foundry with about 3000 unpolished semi-precious stones has been found. Many tools used for polishing these stones and a furnace were found there. A burial site has been found with 11 skeletons, with their heads in the north direction. Near the heads of these skeletons, utensils for everyday use were kept. The three female skeletons have shell bangles on their left wrists. Near one female skeleton, a gold armlet has been found. In addition semi precious stones have been found lying near the head, suggesting that they were part of some sort of necklace.

Granary

A granary belonging to mature Harappan phase (2600 BCE to 2000 BCE) has been found here. Granary is made up of mud-bricks with a floor of ramped earth plastered with mud. It has 7 rectangular or square chambers. Significant traces of lime & decomposed grass are found on the lower portion of the granary wall indicating that it can also be the storehouse of grains with lime used as insecticide & grass used to prevent entry of moisture. Looking at the size, it appears to be a public granary or a private granary of elites.[42]

Tools

Hunting tools like copper hafts and fish hooks have been found here. Presence of various toys like mini wheels, miniature lids, sling balls, animal figurines indicates a prevalence of toy culture. Signs of flourishing trade can be seen by the excavation of stamps, jewelry and 'chert' weights. Weights found here are similar to weights found at many other IVC sites confirming presence of standardized weight systems.[43]

Culture, clothing and worship

Fire altars and apsidal structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.[7][dead link]

Cotton cloth traces preserved on silver or bronze objects were known from Rakhigarhi, Chanhudaro and Harappa.[11]: 333  An impressive[quantify] number of stamps seals were also found at this site.[10]

Cemetery and burial sites

A cemetery of Mature Harappan period is discovered at Rakhigarhi, with eight graves found. Often brick covered grave pits had wooden coffin in one case.[10] Different type of grave pits were undercut to form an earthen overhang and body was placed below this; and then top of grave was filled with bricks to form a roof structure over the grave.[11]: 293 

So far 53 burial sites with 46 skeletons have been discovered. Anthropological examination done on 37 skeletons revealed 17 to be of adults, 8 to be of subadults while the age of 12 skeletons could not be verified. Sex detection of 17 skeletons was successful out of which 7 were male and 10 female skeletons. Most of the burials were typical burials with skeletons in a supine position. Atypical burials had skeletons in a prone position. Some graves are just pits while some are brick lined and contain pottery. Some of them also had votive pots with Animal remains symbolizing offerings to the dead. Bone remains of secondary burials were not charred hence ruling out the possibility of cremation practices. While these burials retained many of the Harappan features, group burials and prone position burials are distinct. Paleo-parasitical studies and DNA analysis to determine the lineage is being undertaken.[44][45]

Parasite eggs which were once existed in the stomach of those buried were found in the burial sites along with human skeletons. Analysis of Human aDNA obtained from human bones as well as analysis of parasite and animal DNA will be done to assert origins of these people.[46][47]

Skeleton finds

In April 2015, four 4,600-year-old complete human skeletons were excavated from mound RGR-7. These skeletons belonged to two male adults, one female adult (classified as 'I6113') and one child.[39] Pottery with grains of food as well as shell bangles were found around these skeletons.[48][9] As the skeletons were excavated scientifically without any contamination, archaeologists think that with the help of latest technology on these skeletons and DNA obtained,[49] it is possible to determine how Harappans looked like 4500 years ago.[40] Shinde et al. (2019) have carried out DNA-tests on a single skeleton. Results announced in September 2018, and a paper published in Cell Magazine in 2019, show that the DNA did not include any traces of steppe ancestry, in line with the Aryan migration theory, which says that Indo-Aryans migrated to India from the steppes after the Harappan civilization had started to disintegrate.[50][51][52][53][54][55][56] The DNA of a male skeleton (classified as 'I4411') shows affinity with present-day South Indian tribal populations,[57] most notably the Irula people.[58] A total of 61 skeletons were found till 2016.

image icon Photo of the skeleton of "Rakhigarhi love birds" buried together with male (11A) facing the woman (11B), with their feet pointing south and head towards north.[59]

Two of the skeletons, a man between 35 and 40 years old and women in early 20s, who died around the same time. They were found buried together side by side with men's head facing the women. Their ceremonial burial indicates that they were not in illicit relationship and the lovebirds were likely married to each other. Pots found in their grave likely carried food and water as offering to the dead. The agate found near he collar bone of the male was likely part of a necklace.[60][59] The male was 5.8ft (1.77m) tall and female was 5.6ft. Their skeleton had no abnormalities, injuries or sign of disease. They were both likely "quite healthy" at the time of their death.[61]

Site conservation

Issues

Endangered heritage site

In May 2012, the Global Heritage Fund declared Rakhigarhi one of the ten most endangered heritage sites in Asia facing the threat of irreparable loss and destruction due to development pressures, insufficient management and looting.[5][62] A 2012 study by the Sunday Times found that the site is not being looked after; the iron boundary wall is broken, and villagers sell the artefacts they dig out of the site and parts of site are now being encroached by private houses.[63] Due to the lack of site protection the site is being destroyed by soil erosion, encroachments, illegal sand lifting, theft of archaeological artifacts for illegal sale. It is a punishable crime to sell or buy artifacts found in the ancient sites. 80% of mound 6 – a residential site of Harappan Era and 7 which is a burial site where 4 human skeletons were recovered in 2015 have been destroyed due to cultivation and soil mining.[5]

Site encroachments

Parts of mounds R4 and R5 have been encroached by the villagers who have built 152 houses.[9] The ASI has only 83.5 acres of the 350-hectare site that entails 11 archaeological mounds, due to encroachments and pending court cases for the removal of the encroachments.[9]

Site development

Site rehabilitation and preservation

On February 2020, Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced that the site of Rakhigarhi would be developed as an iconic site.[64] ASI has commenced the plan to remove encroachments from the site, including 152 houses on the R4 and R5 mounds. Villages, whose houses in the site will be removed, will be relocated and rehabilitated in the housing flats on another location.[9]

Site museum and lake

Main article: Rakhigarhi Indus Valley Civilisation Museum
See also: Haryana Rural Antique Museum and Jahaj Kothi Museum

Rakhigarhi, which is an Indus Valley Civilisation site, also has a museum developed by the state government.[65] There is also Haryana Rural Antique Museum 60 km away, which is maintained by CCS HAU in its Gandhi Bhawan, exhibits evolution of agriculture and vanishing antiques.[66] Jahaj Kothi Museum, named after George Thomas, is located inside Firoz Shah Palace Complex and maintained by Archaeological Survey of India.[67]

To develop Rakhigarhi as the global heritage, two johad (water bodies) across the road to museum are developed as lake along the lines of Sukhna Lake. The lake has been deepened by digging and traditional ghats with burji on the banks of lake have been constructed. A park is developed the spare land of the lake. A walking track around the lake, with shady trees and fruit trees, has been constructed for the tourists.[68] The traditional ghats represent the past scenario when paleo-Drishadvati river use to flow through Rakhigahri which had ghats for transporting goods for trade, via Lothal port and Dholavira, as far as Mesopotamia (ancient cities of Elam and Sumer iIraq).[69]

See also

Notes

References

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  32. ^ Wright, Rita P. (2009), The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society, Cambridge University Press, p. 107, ISBN 978-0-521-57219-4 Quote: "Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the limited published material" (p 107)
  33. ^ Sinopoli, Carla M. (2015), "Ancient South Asian cities in their regions", in Norman Yoffee (ed.), The Cambridge World History, Cambridge University Press, p. 325, ISBN 978-0-521-19008-4 Quote: "Excavations have also occurred at Rakhigarhi, but only brief notes have been published, and little information is currently available on its form and organization. (page 325)"
  34. ^ a b Bhartesh Singh Thakur, "Former Archaeological Survey director sentenced to jail for fraud", Hindustan Times, 15 October 2015.
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  55. ^ "Scientists Part of Studies Supporting Aryan Migration Endorse Party Line Instead". The Wire. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  56. ^ Das, Biplab (September 2019). "Where did the Indus Valley people come from?". Nature India. doi:10.1038/nindia.2019.121 (inactive 31 October 2021). Retrieved 17 April 2020. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lay-url= ignored (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of October 2021 (link)
  57. ^ "Supplementary Materials for The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia" (PDF). pp. 307–308.
  58. ^ "Supplementary Materials for The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia" (PDF). p. 209.
  59. ^ a b Vasant Shinde1, et al, 2018, A young couple's grave found in the Rakhigarhi cemetery of the Harappan Civilization, Anatomy & Cell Biology, vol 51 (3), pp. 200-204.
  60. ^ Ancient lovers found in Indian burial site mystify and intrigue archaeologists, CNN, January 10, 2019.
  61. ^ Harappa grave of ancient 'couple' reveals secrets, BBC, 9 January 2019.
  62. ^ "Rakhigarhi likely to be developed into a world heritage site". India Today. 31 March 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
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  64. ^ "Rakhigarhi to be developed as iconic site".
  65. ^ Harappan museum at Rakhigarhi
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  67. ^ Jahaj Kothi museum
  68. ^ Lake being built in Rakhigarhi (english translation of original hindi news "चंडीगढ़ की सुखना लेक की तर्ज पर राखीगढ़ी में बन रही झील"), Dainik Jagran, 16 Sept 2021.
  69. ^ DNA analysis of Harappan skeleton from Rakhigarhi: Thin evidence, Frontline, October 11, 2019.
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