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==Culture==
==Culture==
===Literature===
Central European literature topics include everyday life, such as struggle with social issues ([[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], [[Gerhart Hauptmann]], [[Władysław Reymont]], [[Thomas Mann]]) bureaucracy and absurd<ref>http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5029&context=journal_articles</ref>([[Franz Kafka]], [[Witold Gombrowicz]]), as well as the region's past: World War I ([[Carl Spitteler]], [[Jaroslav Hašek]], [[Robert Musil]]), World War II, especially the Holocaust<ref>http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/blog/michael-stein/non-existence-central-european-literature</ref>(([[Heinrich Böll]], [[Leon Kruczkowski]], [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]], [[Tadeusz Borowski]]), anti-Communism ([[Jaroslav Seifert]], [[Czesław Miłosz]])([[Imre Kertész]], [[Elfriede Jelinek]]), expulsions ([[Günter Grass]]) and life under the communism ([[Herta Müller]], [[Wisława Szymborska]])<ref>http://www.chp.cz/curriculum/readings-central-european-literature-meeting-points-diverging-lines</ref>.


===Cuisine===
===Cuisine===

Revision as of 20:19, 15 January 2014

Central Europe according to The World Factbook (2009)[1] Encyclopedia Britannica and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (1998)
Central Europe according to German Mitteleuropa, considering all political and cultural criteria [2]
Central Europe according to P. Jones (Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography). Many Central European countries and regions were parts of the German and the Austro-Hungarian empires, or the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; thus they also have historical and cultural connections.

Central Europe or alternatively Middle Europe is a region of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. The term and widespread interest in the region itself came back into fashion[3] by the end of the Cold War, which had divided Europe politically into East and West, splitting Central Europe in half.[4][5]

The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common identity, is somewhat elusive.[6][7][8] However, scholars assert that a distinct "Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists."[9][10] It is based on "similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural characteristics",[9][11] and it is identified as having been "one of the world's richest sources of creative talent" between the 17th and 20th centuries.[12] Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide".[13] Germany's Constant Committee for Geographical Names defines Central Europe both as a distinct cultural area and a political region.[14][15] George Schöpflin and others argue that Central Europe is defined by being "a part of Western Christianity",[16] while Samuel P. Huntington places the region firmly within Western culture.[17]

From the 2000s (decade) on, Central Europe has been going through a phase of "strategic awakening",[18] with initiatives like the CEI, Centrope or V4. While the region's economy shows high disparities with regard to income,[19] all Central European countries are listed by the Human Development Index as "very high development" countries.[20]

States

The comprehension of the concept of Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy,[21] though the Visegrád Group constituents are generally included as de facto C.E. countries.[22]

Countries classified as Central European

According to the majority of sources (see section Current views on Central Europe for some) the region includes:

Countries (regions) occasionally included in Central Europe

Some sources also add neighbouring countries for historical (the former Austro-Hungarian and German Empires, and modern Baltic states), based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:

The Baltic states, geographically located in Northern Europe, have been considered part of Central Europe in the German tradition of the term, Mittleuropa.

Benelux countries are generally considered a part of Western Europe, rather than Central Europe. Nevertheless, they are occasionally mentioned i the Central European context due to cultural, historical and linguistic ties.

Smaller parts of the following states may sometimes be included:

General data

Economy

Currencies

Currently, the members of the Eurozone include: Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia and Slovenia. Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania use their currencies (Bulgarian lev, Croatian kuna, Czech koruna, Hungarian forint, Polish złoty, Romanian leu), but are obliged to adopt the Euro.

Human Development Index

World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2013.
  Very High
  Low
  High
  Data unavailable
  Medium

Countries in descending order of Human Development Index (2013 data):[20]

Globalisation

Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization Index.

The index of globalization in Central European countries (2013 data)[41]

Prosperity Index

Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe:[42]

Corruption

Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2013.
     90–100      60–69      30–39      0–9
     80–89      50–59      20–29      No information
     70–79      40–49      10–19

Most countries in Central Europe score tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index:[43]

According to the Bribe Payers Index, released yearly since 1995 by the Berlin-based NGO Transparency International, Germany and Switzerland — the only two Central European countries examined in the study — were respectively ranked 2nd and 4th in 2011.[44]

Infrastructure

Industrialisation occurred early in Central Europe. That caused construction of rail and other types of infrastructure.

Rail

Rail network density.

Rail infrastructure is the densest in the world. Railway density, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1000 km2, is the highest in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary (98.7), Romania (85.9), Slovakia (73.9), Croatia (72.5) and Serbia (43.1), when compared with most of Europe and the rest of the world.[45][46]

Branches

Compared to most of Europe, the economies of Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Hungary, the Slovak Republic, Poland, Croatia and Romania tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation has reached Central Europe early relatively early: Luxembourg and Germany by 1860, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland by 1870, Austria, Croatia Hungary, Liechtenstein, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia by 1880.[47]

Agriculture

Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. The Czech Republic is world's 4rth largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Germany is the world's largest hops producer, 3rd producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, 5th largest potato producer. Hungary is world's 5th hope and 7th largest triticale producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberry, currant and rye, 3rd largest , 5th apple and buckwheat producer, 7th largest potatoes producer. Slovenia is world's 6th hops producer.

Tourism

Central European countries, especially Switzerland, Germany, Austria and Luxembourg are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.[48] Poland is presently a major destination for outsourcing.[49]

Outsourcing destination

Kraków, Prague, Budapest, Brno, Warsaw, Bucharest, Bratislava, Wroclaw, Ljubljana, Lviv and Zagreb are amoungs top 100 outsourcing destinations[50]

Education

Global adult literacy.

Central European countries are very literate. All of them have the literacy rate of 96% or over (for both sexes):

Country Literacy rate (all) Male Literacy Female Literacy Criteria
-9e99 -9e99 !a -9e99
 World 84.1% 88.6% 79.7% age 15 and over can read and write (2010 est.)
 Liechtenstein 100% 100% 100% age 10 and over can read and write
 Luxembourg 100% 100% 100% age 15 and over can read and write (2000 est.)
 Poland 99.7% 99.9% 99.6% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
 Slovenia 99.7% 99.7% 99.7% (2010 est.)
 Slovakia 99.6% 99.7% 99.6% age 15 and over can read and write (2004)
 Czech Republic 99% 99% 99% (2011 est.)
 Germany 99% 99% 99% age 15 and over can read and write (2003 est.)
 Hungary 99% 99.2% 98.9% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
  Switzerland 99% 99% 99% age 15 and over can read and write (2003 est.)
 Croatia 98.9% 99.5% 98.3% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
 Austria 98% N/A N/A age 15 and over can read and write
 Serbia 98% 99.2% 96.9% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
 Romania 97.7% 98.3% 97.1% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)

Languages

Languages taught as the first language in Central Europe are: German, Polish, Romanian, Czech, Hungarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Croatian, Slovak and Letzemburgish. The most popular language taught at schools in Central Europe as foreign languages are: English, French and German.[51]

Results of the EF EPI.

The level of proficiency in the English language is ranked es high or moderate, according to the EF English Proficiency Index:[52]

Nevertheless, other languages are also popular (spoken by over 5% as a second language):[51]

  • Croatian in Slovenia (61%)
  • Czech in Slovakia (47%)
  • French in Luxembourg (80%), Romania (17%), Germany (14%) and Austria (11%)
  • German in Luxembourg (69%), Slovenia (42%), Slovenia (22%), Poland (20%), Hungary (18%), the Czech Republic (15%), Germany (10%) and Romania (5%)
  • Italian in Slovenia (12%), Austria (9%), Romania (7%) and Luxembourg (6%)
  • Russian in Poland (28%), Slovakia (17%), Czech Republic (13%) and Germany (6%)
  • Polish in Slovakia (5%)
  • Slovak in the Czech Republic (16%)
  • Spanish in Luxembourg (5%) and Romania (5%)

Scholastic Performance

Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment. In the last study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores[53] in three fields studied.

In Maths:

The results for the 2012 "Maths" section on a world map.
  •  Liechtenstein (position 8) - above the OECD average
  •   Switzerland (position 9) - above the OECD average
  •  Poland (position 14) - above the OECD average
  •  Germany (position 16) - above the OECD average
  •  Austria (position 18) - above the OECD average
  •  Slovenia (position 21) - above the OECD average
  •  Czech Republic (position 24) - similar to the OECD average
  •  Luxembourg (position 29) - below the OECD average
  •  Slovakia (position 35) - below the OECD average
  •  Hungary (position 39) - below the OECD average
  •  Croatia (position 40) - below the OECD average
  •  Serbia (position 43) - below the OECD average
  •  Romania (position 45) - below the OECD average

In Science:

The results for the 2012 "Science" section on a world map.
  •  Poland (position 9) - above the OECD average
  •  Liechtenstein (position 10) - above the OECD average
  •  Germany (position 12) - above the OECD average
  •   Switzerland (position 19) - above the OECD average
  •  Slovenia (position 20) - above the OECD average
  •  Czech Republic (position 22) - above the OECD average
  •  Austria (position 23) - similar to the OECD average
  •  Hungary (position 33) - below the OECD average
  •  Luxembourg (position 34) - below the OECD average
  •  Croatia (position 35) - below the OECD average
  •  Slovakia (position 40) - below the OECD average
  •  Serbia (position 46) - below the OECD average
  •  Romania (position 49) - below the OECD average

In Reading:

The results for the 2012 "Reading" section on a world map.
  •  Poland (position 10) - above the OECD average
  •  Liechtenstein (position 11) - above the OECD average
  •   Switzerland (position 17) - above the OECD average
  •  Germany (position 19) - above the OECD average
  •  Czech Republic (position 26) - similar to the OECD average
  •  Austria (position 27) - below the OECD average
  •  Luxembourg (position 30) - blow the OECD average
  •  Hungary (position 33) - below the OECD average
  •  Croatia (position 35) - below the OECD average
  •  Slovenia (position 38) - below the OECD average
  •  Serbia (position 45) - below the OECD average
  •  Romania (position 50) - below the OECD average

Higher education

Universities

Oldest Universities in Central Europe include (by their dates of foundation):

Central European University

The entrance of the Central European University and some of its students

The Central European University (CEU) is a graduate-level, English-language university promoting a distinctively Central European perspective. It was established in 1991 by a Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who has provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe .[54] CEU has more than 1500 students from 100 countries and 300 faculty members from more than 30 countries.

Regional exchange program

Central European Exchange Program for University Studies (CEEPUS) is an international exchange program for students and teachers teaching or studying in participating countries. Its current members include:[55]

Sport

There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:

Culture

Literature

Central European literature topics include everyday life, such as struggle with social issues (Henryk Sienkiewicz, Gerhart Hauptmann, Władysław Reymont, Thomas Mann) bureaucracy and absurd[56](Franz Kafka, Witold Gombrowicz), as well as the region's past: World War I (Carl Spitteler, Jaroslav Hašek, Robert Musil), World War II, especially the Holocaust[57]((Heinrich Böll, Leon Kruczkowski, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Tadeusz Borowski), anti-Communism (Jaroslav Seifert, Czesław Miłosz)(Imre Kertész, Elfriede Jelinek), expulsions (Günter Grass) and life under the communism (Herta Müller, Wisława Szymborska)[58].

Cuisine

Central European cuisine has evolved through centuries due to social and political change. Most countries share many dishes. The most popular dishes typical to Central Europe are sausages and cheeses, where the earliest evidence of cheese-making in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kujawy, Poland).[59] Other foods widely associated with Central Europe are goulash and beer. List of countries by beer consumption per capita is led by the Czech Republic, followed by Germany and Austria. Poland comes 9th, Slovenia 12th, Croatia 15th and Romania 16th.

Architecture

Central European architecture has been shaped by major European styles including but not limited to: Brick Gothic, Rococo, Secession (art) and Modern architecture. Four Central European countries are amongst countries with highers number of World Heritage Sites:

Beliefs

Central Europe has been a centre of Protestantism in the past, however it has been mostly eradicated by the Counterreformation.[60][61][62] Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Slovenia), historically Catholic (the Czech Republic), Protestant or mixed Catholic and Protestant (Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). Serbia is mostly Orthodox and Romania is mostly Orthodox with significant Protestant and Catholic. In some of these countries, there is a number of atheists, undeclared and non-religious people: the Czech Republic (non-religious 34.2% and undeclared 45.2%) Germany (non-religious 38%), Slovenia (atheist 30.2%), Luxembourg (25% non-religious), Switzerland (20.1%), Hungary (27.2% undeclared, 16.7% "non-religious" and 1.5% atheists), Slovakia (atheists and non-religious 13.4%, "not specified" 10.6%) Austria (19.7% of "other or none"), Liechtenstein (10.6% with no religion), Serbia (theist 2.2% and undeclared 3.1%) and Poland (3% of non-believers/agnostics and 1% of undeclared), Croatia (4%).

Physical geography

Between the Alps and the Baltics

Geography strongly defines Central Europe's borders with its neighbouring regions to the North and South, namely Northern Europe (or Scandinavia) across the Baltic Sea, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy) across the Alps and the Balkan peninsula across the Soča-Krka-Sava-Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined and for this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily West-East than South-North. The Rhine river which runs South-North through Western Germany is an exception.[original research?]

Carpathian countries (north to south): AT, CZ, PL, SK, HU, UA, RO, SRB

Pannonian Plain and Carpathian Mountains

The Pannonian Plain, between the Alps (west), the Carpathians (north and east), and the Sava/Danube (south)

Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers Sava and Danube- and their respective floodplains.[63] The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Republika Srpska) and Ukraine ("peri- Pannonian states").

Dinaric Alps

As southeastern division of the Eastern Alps,[64] the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north-south. According to the Freie Universitaet Berlin[65] this mountain chain is classified as South Central European.

Politics

Organisations

Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:

  • Central European Initiative
    Central European Initiative
  • Visegrád Group
    Visegrád Group
  • CEFTA founding states
    CEFTA founding states
  • CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU
    CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU
  • Current CEFTA members
    Current CEFTA members

Democracy Index

The Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy index map for 2012, with greener colours representing more democratic countries.
Full democracies:
  9.00-10.00
  8.00-8.99
Flawed democracies:
  7.00-7.99
  6.00-6.99
Hybrid regimes:
  5.00-5.99
  4.00-4.99
Authoritarian regimes:
  3.00-3.99
  2.00-2.99
  0.00-1.99
Insufficient information, no rating:
  

Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarian rule, particularly Nazism (Germany, Austria, other occupied countries) and Communism, most of Central Europe have been occupied and later allied with the USSR, often against their will through forged referendum (eg. Polish people's referendum, 1946) or force. Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index:[66]

Global Peace Index

Global Peace Index Scores.

In spite of turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%:[67]

Media

Freedom of Press Index

2013 Press Freedom Index[68]
  Very serious situation
  Difficult situation
  Noticeable problems
  Satisfactory situation
  Good situation
  Not classified / No data

Central European media are considered as free. Some of the top scoring countries are in Central Europe:

Central European Flora region

The European floristic regions

The Central European Flora region stretches from Central France (Massif Central) to Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.[69]

Central European Time Zone (dark red)

Central European Time

The time zone used in most parts of the European Union, is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is commonly called Central European Time, because it has been first adopted in central Europe (by year):

Demographics

Population density (people per km2) by country, 2006

Central Europe is one of continent’s most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the largest European country by population (that is entirely placed in Europe). Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe (“the core countries”) number around 165 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.[72] Other populations include: Poland with around 39 million residents, Czech republic at 10.5 million, Hungary - 10 million, Austria with 8.5 million, Switzerland with its 8 million inhabitants, Slovakia at 5.5 million, Croatia at 4,3 million, Slovenia at 2 million and Liechtenstein at 0,03 million.

If the countries which are occasionally included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole - Romania (7 - 19 million people), Serbia (3,6 – 7 million), Lithuania (3.5 million), Latvia (2.5 million), Estonia (1.5 million) – it would contribute to the rise of between 20 - 37.5 million, depending on whether regional or integral approach was used.[72] If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, it would surpass the 200 million people figure.

  • Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997)   The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book[73]   countries for which there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[74]
    Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997)
      The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book[73]
      countries for which there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[74]
  • According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group[22][75]
    According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group[22][75]
  • Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011)[76]   Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)   Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term.
    Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011)[76]
      Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)
      Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term.
  • Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009)[77]   Central European countries   Slovenia in "south central Europe"
    Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009)[77]
      Central European countries
      Slovenia in "south central Europe"
  • The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):   Countries usually considered Central European   Central European countries in the broader sense of the term   Countries occasionally considered to be Central European
    The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):
      Countries usually considered Central European
      Central European countries in the broader sense of the term
      Countries occasionally considered to be Central European
  • Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998))
    Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998))
  • Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)[78]
    Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)[78]
  • The map of Central Europe according to the University of Texas at Austin and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte[79]
    The map of Central Europe according to the University of Texas at Austin and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte[79]

The concept

Middle Ages

As elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were considered the Roman Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe that remained Orthodox Christian, was the area of Byzantine cultural influence, and after the schism will develop cultural unity and protection against the Catholic and Protestant (Western) world, within the framework of Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.[80]

According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in close connection with Western European development. He explained that between the 11th and 15th centuries not only Christianization and its cultural consequences were implemented, but well-defined social features emerged in Central Europe based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe. These phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments.[81]

In 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary.[82] They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, inspiring their late successors to launch a successful Central European initiative.[82]

In the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights.

Before World War I

Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom.[83]

A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First World War (1902):[84]
  Central European countries and regions: Germany and Austria-Hungary (without Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia)
  Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and Eastern Europe: Romania

The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century,[85] but its real life began in the 20th century and immediately became an object of intensive interest. However, the very first concept mixed science, politics and economy – it was strictly connected with intensively growing German economy and its aspirations to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans.[86] An example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903.[87]

On 21 January 1904 – Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria–Hungary (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The “bible” of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa[88] in which he called for an economic federation to be established after the war. Naumann's idea was that the federation would have at its center Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire but would also include all European nations outside the Anglo-French alliance, on one side, and Russia, on the other.[89] The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I and the dissolution of Austria–Hungary. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.

Interwar period

Interwar Central Europe, according to the French geographer Emmanuel de Martonne (1927)
Interwar Central Europe according to National Gallery of Art

According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included: Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania. Italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe.[90]

The interwar period (1918–1939) brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have (re)appeared on the map of Europe: Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic and national problems of "new" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium (Międzymorze) ideas succeeded.

The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German states (Germany, Austria), non-German territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership position was to be the natural result of economic dominance.[85] After the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.

Little Entente defence union, The Versailles System and CE, Oxford journals[91]

Hungarian scholar Magda Adam wrote in her study Versailles System and Central Europe (2006): "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down".[91]

The avant-garde movements of Central Europe were an essential part of modernism’s evolution, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.[92] The manifestos and magazines of Western European radical art circles are well known to Western scholars and are being taught at primary universities of their kind in the western world.

Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain

Following World War II, large parts of Europe that were culturally and historically Western became part of the Eastern bloc. Czech author Milan Kundera (emigrant to France) thus wrote in 1984 about the "Tragedy of Central Europe" in the New York Review of Books.[93] Consequently, the English term Central Europe was increasingly applied only to the westernmost former Warsaw Pact countries (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary) to specify them as communist states that were culturally tied to Western Europe.[94] This usage continued after the end of the Warsaw Pact when these countries started to undergo transition.

The post-World War II period brought blocking of the research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.[95] At the end of the communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially anti-communist opposition, came back to their research.[96]

According to Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon,[97] Central Europe is a part of Europe composed by the surface of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states- Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia) as well as northeastern France.

  • Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[98]
    Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[98]
  • Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
    Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
  • Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)
    Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)

Mitteleuropa, the German term

German Mitteleuropa (by political and cultural criteria) covering Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Baltic states and parts of Ukraine, Russia, Romania, Serbia, France and Italy.

The German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe[99]) is an ambiguous German concept.[99] It is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under German(ic)-Slavic cultural hegemony until World War I (encompassing Austria–Hungary and Germany in their pre-war formations but usually excluding the Baltic countries north of East Prussia).[citation needed] According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus.[100] Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.[101]

In Germany the connotation is also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line[citation needed] which were lost as the result of World War II, annexed by People's Republic of Poland and the Soviet Union, and ethnically cleansed of Germans by communist authorities and forces (see expulsion of Germans after World War II) due to Yalta Conference and Potsdam Conference decisions. In this view Bohemia and Moravia, with its dual Western Slavic and Germanic heritage, combined with the historic element of the "Sudetenland", is a core region illustrating the problems and features of the entire Central European region.
The term Mitteleuropa conjures up negative historical associations, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region.[102] Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century.[103] German-speaking Jews from turn of the 20th century Vienna, Budapest and Prague became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi version of "Mitteleuropa" destroyed this kind of culture.[103] Some German speakers are sensitive enough to the pejorative connotations of the term Mitteleuropa to use Zentraleuropa instead.[99] Adolf Hitler was obsessed by the idea of Lebensraum and many non-German Central Europeans identify Mitteleuropa with the instruments he employed to acquire it: war, deportations, genocide.[104]

Current views on Central Europe

Rather than a physical entity, Central Europe is a concept of shared history which contrasts with that of the surrounding regions. The issue of how to name and define the Central European region is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author.

Main propositions, gathered by Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:[105]

According to Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád, Hungary and attended by the Polish, Hungarian and Czechoslovak presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.[75]

Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways.[73] According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[73] He says there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether the Baltic states, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, and Bulgaria are parts of Central Europe or not.[74]

Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Eastern and Southeast Europe:[107]

  • Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe.[109] Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories.[109] The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than Hungary is today,[109] while Poland was the largest state in Europe in the 16th century.[109] Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of different peoples.[109]

He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamical historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, Lithuania, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but 250 years ago they were in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[109]
Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews[110][111] in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).[112]

The Columbia Encyclopedia defines Central Europe as: Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, and Hungary.[113] The World Factbook[1] Encyclopedia Britannica[citation needed] and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie use the same definition adding Slovenia too. Encarta Encyclopedia does not clearly define the region, but places the same countries into Central Europe in its individual articles on countries, adding Slovenia in "south central Europe".[77] The United Nations doesn't acknowledge a regional division of Central Europe, identifying four geographic region of Europe (North, South, East and West).[114]

The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (English: Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate. Usually the countries considered to be Central European are Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary; in the broader sense Romania too, northern Serbia, occasionally also the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.

The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common identity, is somewhat elusive and contested.[114][115][116][117] However, some scholars assert that a distinct "Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists."[9][118] This viewpoint is based on "similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural characteristics",[9][119] and it is identified as having been "one of the world's richest sources of creative talent" between the 17th and 20th centuries.[12] Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide".[120] Germany's Permanent Committee on Geographical Names defines Central Europe both as a distinct cultural area and a political region.[121][122] George Schöpflin and others argue that Central Europe is defined by being "a part of Western Christianity",[123] and Samuel P. Huntington places the region firmly within Western culture.[124]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Central Europe.

References

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  70. ^ Since Poland was partitioned since 1922 (official adoption), the dates of introduction in Germany (1893) and Austria (1893) should be understood as de facto adoption
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  81. ^ László Zsinka: Similarities and Differences in Polish and Hungarian History
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  83. ^ Jackson J. Spielvogel: Western Civilization: Alternate Volume: Since 1300. p. 618.
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  100. ^ Hayes, p. 16
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  104. ^ Johnson, p. 170
  105. ^ Jerzy Kłoczowski, Actualité des grandes traditions de la cohabitation et du dialogue des cultures en Europe du Centre-Est, in: L'héritage historique de la Res Publica de Plusieurs Nations, Lublin 2004, pp. 29–30 ISBN 83-85854-82-7
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  111. ^ "Selected as "Editor's Choice" of the History Book Club". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
  112. ^ Bucur, Maria (June 1997). "The Myths and Memories We Teach By". Indiana University. HABSBURG. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
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  114. ^ a b UN Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings. Revised Oct. 31. 2013.
  115. ^ Jiri Pehe (30 April 2003). "Central European Identity in Politics" (in Czech). Conference on Central European Identity, Central European Foundation, Bratislava. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
  116. ^ Agh 1998, pp. 2–8
  117. ^ "Europe of Cultures: Cultural Identity of Central Europe". Europe House Zagreb, Culturelink Network/IRMO. 24 November 1996. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
  118. ^ "An Introduction to Central Europe: History, Culture, and Politics – Preparatory Course for Study Abroad Undergraduate Students at CEU" (PDF). Central European University. Budapest. Fall 2006.
  119. ^ Ben Koschalka – content, Monika Lasota – design and coding. "To Be (or Not To Be) Central European: 20th Century Central and Eastern European Literature". Centre for European Studies of the Jagiellonian University. Retrieved 31 January 2010.[dead link]
  120. ^ "Introduction to the electronic version of Cross Currents". Scholarly Publishing Office of the University of Michigan Library. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
  121. ^ "StAGN-Empfehlung zur Großgliederung Europas". StAGN.de. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
  122. ^ "A Subdivision of Europe into Larger Regions by Cultural Criteria". Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  123. ^ History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe: junctures and disjunctures in the 19th and 20th centuries, Volume 2 [6]
  124. ^ When identity becomes an alibi (Institut Ramon Llull) [www.llull.cat/rec_transfer/webt1/transfer01_essa05.pdf]

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Jacques Rupnik, "In Search of Central Europe: Ten Years Later", in Gardner, Hall, with Schaeffer, Elinore & Kobtzeff, Oleg, (ed.), Central and South-central Europe in Transition, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2000 (translated form French by Oleg Kobtzeff)
  • Article 'Mapping Central Europe' in hidden europe, 5, pp. 14–15 (November 2005)
  • "Journal of East Central Europe": http://www.ece.ceu.hu
Look up central europe in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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