Islam in India

Islam in India is the second-most practiced religion after Hinduism. There are approximately 174 million Muslims in India, i.e 16.4% of the population.. India has the second largest population of Muslims in the world (the largest being Indonesia).

History

Main article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent

The emergence of Islam in the region is concurrent with the Turko-Muslim invasion of medieval India (which includes large parts of present day Pakistan and the Republic of India), where these rulers took over the administration of large parts of India. Since its introduction into India, Islam has made significant religious, artistic, philosophical, cultural, social and political contributions to Indian history.

In modern times the Muslims of South Asia have had a turbulent history within the region. After the Lahore Resolution of 1946, Muslim League politicians achieved a Muslim-majority state known as Pakistan after independence from British rule. In modern times, the Muslim populations of India and Pakistan are roughly even. The President of India, APJ Abdul Kalam, along with numerous other politicians, are Muslims, as are numerous sports and film celebrities within India. Isolated incidences of violence nonetheless have occurred between the Muslim populations and the Hindu, Sikh and Christian populations.

Contrary to popular belief, Islam came to South Asia long before Muslim invasions of India. Islamic influence first came to be felt in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders. Trade relations between Arabia and the subcontinent are very ancient. Arab traders used to visit the Malabar region, which was a link between them and ports of South East Asia, to trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. According to Historians Elliot and Dowson in their book The History of India as told by its own Historians, the first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD. H.G. Rawlinson, in his book: Ancient and Medieval History of India claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th century AD. This fact is corroborated, by J. Sturrock in his South Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals, and also by Haridas Bhattacharya in Cultural Heritage of India Vol. IV.It was with the advent of Islam that the Arabs became a prominent cultural force in the world. The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and they propagated it wherever they went.

The first Indian mosque was built in 629 A.D, at the behest of Cheraman Perumal, during the life time of Muhammad (c. 571 – 632) in Kodungallur by Malik Bin Deenar.

In Malabar the Mappilas may have been the first community to convert to Islam because they were more closely connected with the Arabs than others. Intensive missionary activities were carried out along the coast and a number of natives also embraced Islam. These new converts were now added to the Mappila community. Thus among the Mapilas, we find, both the descendants of the Arabs through local women and the converts from among the local people

In the 8th century, the province of Sindh(Pakistan) was conquered by Syrian Arabs led by Muhammad bin Qasim. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate. In the first half of the 10th century, Mahmud of Ghazni added the Punjab to the Ghaznavid Empire and conducted several raids deeper into modern day India. A more successful invasion came at the end of the 12th century by Muhammad of Ghor. This eventually led to the formation of the Delhi Sultanate.

Conversion controversy

See also: Persecution of Hindus § During Islamic rule in the Indian sub-continent

Considerable controversy exists both in scholarly and public opinion about the conversions to Islam typically represented by the following schools of thought:

1. The bulk of Muslims are descendants of migrants from the Iranian plateau or Arabs.
2. Muslims sought conversion through jihad or political violence
3. Conversions occurred for non-religious reasons of pragmatism and patronage such as social mobility among the Muslim ruling elite or for relief from taxes
4. Conversion was a result of the actions of Sunni Sufi saints and involved a genuine change of heart
5. Conversion came from Buddhists and the en masse conversions of lower castes for social liberation and as a rejection of the oppressive Hindu caste strictures.
6. A combination, initially made under duress followed by a genuine change of heart
7. As a socio-cultural process of diffusion and integration over an extended period of time into the sphere of the dominant Muslim civilization and global polity at large.

Embedded within this lies the concept of Islam as a foreign imposition and Hinduism being a natural condition of the natives who resisted, resulting in the failure of the project to Islamicize the Indian subcontinent and is highly embroiled within the politics of the partition and communalism in India. An estimate of the number of people killed, based on the Muslim chronicles and demographic calculations, was done by K.S. Lal in his book Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India, who claimed that between 1000 CE and 1500 CE, the population of Hindus decreased by 80 million. His work has come under criticism by historians such as Simon Digby (School of Oriental and African Studies) and Irfan Habib for its agenda and lack of accurate data in pre-census times. Lal has responded to these criticisms in later works. Historians such as Will Durant contend that Islam was spread through violence. Sir Jadunath Sarkar contends that several Muslim invaders were waging a systematic jihad against Hindus in India to the effect that "Every device short of massacre in cold blood was resorted to in order to convert heathen subjects." Hindus who converted to Islam were not immune to persecution due to the Muslim Caste System in India established by Ziauddin al-Barani in the Fatawa-i Jahandari., where they were regarded as an "Ajlaf" caste and subjected to discrimination by the "Ashraf" castes

Disputers of the "Conversion by the Sword Theory" point to the presence of the large Muslim communities found in Southern India, Sri Lanka, Western Burma, Bangladesh, Southern Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines coupled with the distinctive lack of equivalent Muslim communities around the heartland of historical Muslim Empires in the Indian Sub-Continent as refutation to the "Conversion by the Sword Theory". The legacy of the Muslim conquest of South Asia is a hotly debated issue and argued even today. Different population estimates by economics historian Angus Maddison and by Jean-Noël Biraben also indicate that India's population did not decrease between 1000 and 1500, but increased by about 35 million during that time.

Not all Muslim invaders were simply raiders. Later rulers fought on to win kingdoms and stayed to create new ruling dynasties. The practices of these new rulers and their subsequent heirs (some of whom were borne of Hindu wives) varied considerably. While some were uniformly hated, others developed a popular following. According to the memoirs of Ibn Batuta who travelled through Delhi in the 14th century, one of the previous sultans had been especially brutal and was deeply hated by Delhi's population, Batuta's memoirs also indicate that Muslims from the Arab world, Persia and Turkey were often favored with important posts at the royal courts suggesting that locals may have played a somewhat subordinate role in the Delhi administration. The term "Turk" was commonly used to refer to their higher social status. S.A.A. Rizvi (The Wonder That Was India - II), however points to Muhammad bin Tughlaq as not only encouraging locals but promoting artisan groups such as cooks, barbers and gardeners to high administrative posts. In his reign, it is likely that conversions to Islam took place as a means of seeking greater social mobility and improved social standing.

Sufism and spread of Islam

Sufis (Sunni Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' unorthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chisti, Nizam-ud-din Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusro,Sarkar Sabir Pak,Waris Pak trained Sufi groups for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic Empire was established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of colour and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the artisan and untouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. However there is also evidence of fanatical and violent conversions carried out by Sufi Muslims. Ahmed Sirhindi, Naqshbandi Sufi passionately advocated Peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam.

Role of Muslims in India's freedom movement

The contribution of Muslim revolutionaries, poets and writers is immense in India's struggle against the British. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai are Muslims who devoted their life for this purpose. Muhammad Ashfaq Ullah Khan of Shahjehanpur who conspired and looted the British treasury at Kakori (Lucknow) to cripple the administration, when asked for his last will, before execution, desired: No desire is left except one that someone may put a little soil of my motherland in my winding sheet. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (popularly known as Frontier Gandhi), was a great nationalist who spent 45 of his 95 years of life in jail for the freedom of India; Barakatullah of Bhopal, one of the founders of the Ghadar party which created a network of anti-British organizations and who died penniless in Germany in 1927; Syed Rahmat Shah of the Ghadar party worked as an underground revolutionary in France and was hanged for his part in the unsuccessful Ghadar (mutiny) uprising in 1915; Ali Ahmad Siddiqui of Faizabad (UP) planned the Indian Mutiny in Malaya and Burma along with Syed Mujtaba Hussain of Jaunpur and was hanged in 1917; Vakkom Abdul Khadar of Kerala participated in the "Quit India" struggle in 1942 and was hanged; Umar Subhani, an industrialist and millionaire of Bombay provided Gandhi with congress expenses and ultimately gave his life for the cause of independence are other notable freedom fighters. Among Muslim women, Hazrat Mahal, Asghari Begum, Bi Amma contributed heavily in the struggle of freedom from the British.

The period starting from 1498 saw the rise of the naval and trading power of the European countries, as they increasingly projected their naval power and expanded their trading interests over the Indian Subcontinent. Subsequently with the advent of the Industrial Revolution in Britain and in Europe, the European powers gained a significant technological and commercial advantage over the decaying Mughal Empire. They gradually began increasing their influence on the Indian Subcontinent.

Hyder Ali, and later his brave and valiant son Sultan Tipu were early to understand the designs of the British East India Company and resisted it with the force of arms in the south of India. However, Tipu Sultan was finally defeated at Seringapatam in 1799. In Bengal, even earlier, Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah faced the greed and expansionist aims of the British East India Company and fought the British. However, he lost at the battle of Plassey in 1757.

As the Muslim power waned with the gradual demise of the once mighty Mughal Empire, and the freedom of India was lost, the Muslims of India faced a new challenge - that of protecting their culture, beliefs, way of life, and their interests, yet interacting with the alien, advanced, more powerful, technologically advantaged power. Suddenly, this was a completely different world for the Muslims of India. In this period, the Ulama of Firangi Mahal, based first at Sehali, District Barabanki, and since 1690s based in Lucknow, educated, guided, provided spiritual and temporal guidance to the Muslims enabling them to adjust to, and interact with the changed world. The Firangi Mahal led and steered the Muslims of India in this dark hour of their history.

Other famous Muslims who fought for freedom from the British Rule, and subsequently the British Raj: Maulana Azad, Hakeem Ajmal Khan, Hasrat Mohani, Professor Maulavi Barkatullah, Dr. Zakir Husain , Saifuddin Kichlu, Allama Shibli Nomani, Vakkom Abdul Khadir, Dr. Manzoor Abdul Wahab, Bahadur Shah Zafar, Hakeem Nusrat Husain, Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, Samad Achakzai, Colonel Shahnawaz, Dr. M.A.Ansari, Rafi Ahmad Kidwai, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad, Ansar Harwani, Tak Sherwani, Nawab Viqarul Mulk, Nawab Mohsinul Mulk, Mustsafa Husain, VM Ubaidullah, SR Rahim, Badruddin Tyabjee, and Moulvi Abdul Hamid.

Until the 1930s Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a member of the Indian National Congress and was part of the struggle for the freedom struggle for India from the British, and was a strong proponent of Hindu -Muslim unity. Similarly, Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal, poet and philosopher, was a strong proponent of Hindu - Muslim unity and an undivdided India until the 1920s.

Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Shaukat Ali struggled for the emancipation of the Muslims in the overall Indian context, and struggled for freedom alongside Mahatama Gandhi and Maulana Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal. Until the 1930s, the Muslims of India broadly conducted their politics alongside their other countrymen, in the overall context of an undivided India.

In the late 1920s, recognising the variance in the perspectives of the leadership of the Indian National Congress, Mahatama Gandhi, and that of the All India Muslim League, and realising that this significant difference of perspective continued to delay the freedom of India, Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal presented the concept of a separate Muslim homeland in India in the 1930s. Consequently, the All India Muslim League raised the demand for a separate Muslim homeland. This demand was raised in Lahore in 1940 (Known as the Pakistan Resolution). Dr. Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal had passed away by then, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan,Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, and many others led the Pakistan Movement.

Initially, the demand for separate Muslim homeland(s) was within a framework of a large,independent, undivided India with autonomous regions governed by the Muslims. A number of other options to give the Muslim minority in India adequate protection and political representation in a free, undivided India, were also debated. However, when no common formula leading to early independence of India from the British Raj could be agreed between the Indian National Congress, the All India Muslim League, and the British colonial government, the All India Muslim League went ahead pressing unequivocally with its demand for a completely independent, sovereign country, Pakistan.

Law and politics

Muslims in India are governed by "The Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act, 1937." It directs the application of Muslim Personal Law to Muslims in marriage, mahr (dower), divorce, maintenance, gifts, wakf, wills and inheritance. The courts generally apply the Hanafi Sunni law, with exceptions made only for those areas where Shia law differs substantially from Sunni practice.

Although the Indian constitution provides equal rights to all citizens irrespective of their religion, Article 44 recommends a Uniform civil code. The attempts by successive political leadership in the country to integrate Indian society under common civil code is strongly resisted and is viewed by Indian Muslims as an attempt to dilute the cultural identity of the minority groups of the country. Thus in India there exists the unique situation where proponents of a secular law are deemed fascist while those who support the separate Sharia law for Indian Muslims are considered secular. The All India Muslim Personal Law Board was established for the protection and continued applicability of “Muslim Personal Law” i.e. Shariat Application Act in India.

Hindu-Muslim conflict

See also: Persecution of Muslims § Communal violence in India, and Persecution of Hindus § In the Indian subcontinent

India maintains a constitutional commitment to secularism and does not distinguish amongst the people on the basis of religious beliefs.Hindu-Muslim relations in India have been marred by communal violence, this communal conflict is inherited from the convulsive and turbulent course of history, starting with the Islamic invasion of India. The aftermath of the Partition of India in 1947 saw large scale sectarian strife and bloodshed throughout the nation. Since then India has witnessed sporadic large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities. These conflicts also stem from the ideologies of Hindu Nationalism versus Islamic Fundamentalism and Islamism prevalent in certain sections of the population.

More Muslims have usually been killed than Hindus in inter-community violence in India, while Hindus have been persecuted in neighboring Muslim states and in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. In all the communal riots since 1947, factually contested official police records reveal that three-quarters of lives lost and properties destroyed were Muslim, a figure that climbed to 85% during the 2002 riots in Gujarat.. Nevertheless, it is to be remembered that most of the Muslims of India remained in their homeland while Hindus were expelled en masse from Pakistan.

Violence against Hindus by Muslims continued in East Pakistan, seeing the migration of over 2 million Hindus from 1950 to 1969. The birth of Bangladesh witnessed unparalleled violence against Hindus when nearly 3 million Bangladeshis were killed and another 10 million sought refuge in India, the majority of them were Hindu. Fresh violence took place in the Sindhi riots of 1980 when Muslims in Gujarat burnt Hindus alive. In addition, Islamist attacks on Hindus in Kashmir such as the Wandhama massacre and Kaluchak Massacre contributed to the rising communal tensions in the region. The ethnic cleansing of the Hindu Kashmiri Pandits from the region by Islamist's has worsened the situation. The Indian military stationed in Kashmir has been accused by Pakistan, as well as human rights advocacy groups, of atrocities against the Muslim population in the region.

The sense of communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims in the post-partition period has been compromised in the last decade with the demolition of the disputed Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. The demolition took place in 1992 and was allegedly perpetrated by the Hindu Nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party and organizations like Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Bajrang Dal and Vishwa Hindu Parishad. This was followed by tit for tat violence by Muslim and Hindu fundamentalists throughout the country including Mumbai with the Bombay Riots and also the 1993 Mumbai Bombings, amongst those allegedly involved in these atrocities were the Muslim Mafia don Dawood Ibrahim and the predominantly Muslim D-Company criminal gang.

In 2001 a high profile attack on the Indian Parliament by Islamic militants from Pakistan created considerable strain on community relations.

With a rise in Hindu nationalism and Islamic fundamentalism, Hindu-Muslim rioting has now allegedly taken a more planned form and is being linked to genocide.

Some of the most violent events in recent times took place during the infamous Gujarat riots in India where it is estimated one thousand people were killed, most of whom allegedly muslim, some sources claim there were approximately 2000 Muslim deaths and 58 Hindu deaths, there were also allegations made of state involvement. The riots were in retaliation to the Godhra Train Burning in which 50 Hindus belonging to group called the Vishwa Hindu Parishad, returning from the disputed site of the Babri Mosque, were burnt alive in a train fire at the Godhra railway station. The incident was allegedly a planned act carried out by extremely radicalized Ghanchi Muslims in the region against the Hindu Pilgrims according to Gujarat police. The commission appointed to investigate this finding declared that the fire was an accident. In 2006 the High Court decided the constitution of such a committee was illegal as another inquiry headed by Justice Nanavati Shah was still investigating the matter.[5]. The Nanavati Shah commission is yet to conclude its inquiry and recently declared that it is not going to give an interim report in the meantime. The Gujarat riots that took place in retaliation for the incident swiftly took the state out of control, with the killing of Muslims by angry mobs of Hindus, and corresponding counter-attacks on Hindus by Muslims. Several Hindu Nationalist groups have been accused of direct involvement in the anti-Muslim riots.

Muslim-Hindu conflicts have also been fomented due to the mushrooming of Islamic Fundamentalist organisations like SIMI (Students Islamic Movement of India) whose goal is to establish Islamic rule in India. Other Pakistan based groups such as the Lashkar-e-Toiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed have been fomenting bias in the local Muslim populace against Hindus. These groups are believed by many to be responsible for the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings, in which nearly 200 people were killed. Such groups also attacked the Indian Parliament in 2001, declared parts of Indian Kashmir to be Pakistani in 1999 and have orchestrated numerous other attacks including constant attacks in Indian Kashmir and bombings in the Indian capital New Delhi. In the meantime, the toll of innocent Muslims and Hindus at the altar of communal strife continues to mount. [6]

Muslims in modern India

A Muslim couple being wed in India, as a Hindu man takes his ritual bath in the river.

Main article: List of notable Muslims of independent India

Muslims in India are 13.4% of total population. Like all minorities, Muslims have played roles in various fields of the country's advancement.

Prominent Indian Muslims include:

• Khwaja Abdul Hamied, who in 1935 founded one of the first Indian-owned industries in the colonial era, CIPLA (The Chemical, Industrial & Pharmaceutical Laboratories). In 1939, when Mahatma Gandhi visited CIPLA he wrote that he was "delighted to visit this Indian enterprise". CIPLA today is a pharmaceutical company with a global presence, it's products being sold in over 150 countries worldwide. Yusuf Hamied, the founder's eldest son, is the current Chairman.
• There have been three Muslim presidents of India, Dr. Zakir Hussain, Dr Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed and Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
• Salim Ali (November 12, 1896 - July 27, 1987) is one of India's best known ornithologists and naturalists. Known as the "Birdman of India", Salim Ali was among the first Indians to conduct systematic bird surveys in India and his books have contributed enormously to understanding and protecting India's birds and also other wildlife.
• Azim Premji is the founder of and the highest stake holder in Wipro, one of the leading software service providing companies in India. In 2005, Yusuf Hameed of CIPLA and Azim Premji received one of India's highest civilian awards, the Padma Bhushan for his contributions to the country.

• [Dr Sabu Aliyar] (Demographer) is one of India's noted young Demographer and Health Researcher. Dr Aliyar is among the 3 Asians,selected for the Canada-HOPE scholarship for conduting Healthy Ageing research in Canada and India through Canadian Institute of Health Research, a prestigious Canadian Government Institute at Ottawa, Canada. Dr Sabu Aliyar,born in Vembayam, near the Capital City of Kerala State.

Muslims are also playing pivotal roles in the advertising industry, film industry (Bollywood), modern art, academics, theatre and sports. Some large industries like Wipro Ltd., Wockhardt, Himalaya health care, Hamdard Laboratories and Mirza Tanners are owned by Muslims.

Muslims are disproportionally represented in Indian politics. For details on parliamentary representation see Muslims in Parliament of India.

Discrimination

Despite being a sizeable minority, many Muslims in India say they are discriminated against, there are various reasons given for this, lack of modern education in the community, the fact that many of the Muslims were descended from or are perceived to have descended from low caste Hindus, as well as the partition of India along religious lines which was a controversial arrangement, and is still the cause of much tension between Hindus and Muslims. .

Sachar commission report=

According to a recently published report to government, called the Sachar Report, Muslims are heavily under-represented in different government and social areas. Among other facts, it found that in the province of West Bengal, where Muslims make up 27% of the population, their employment in the government sector was below 3%.

The Sachar report has received substantial backlash, including allegations of bias in the media coverage concerning the report. Indian media expert Dasu Krishnamoorti has criticized the media coverage of the report. He criticizes the claims made in the media, that the fault of the plight of the Muslim lays squarely on the Hindus and the Congress Party, as politically motivated in favor of the Muslim community and encourages "emotional segregation (between Muslims and Hindus) that hardly helps Muslims share the Indian miracle".The report stands criticized for misrepresenting data and figures, bias and "misrepresenting inequities". Leaders of the Bharatiya Janata Party have also criticized the Sacher report as "distorted, politically motivated and dangerous", also pointing out that proposals of special reservation given to Muslims would harm the country, and criticized the UPA Government's endorsement of the report as a snub to their previous efforts to help the Muslim community. BJP leader Murli Manohar Joshi said that the tone and texture of the Sachar Committee "has a striking similarity to the Muslim League of pre-independence era. Unfortunately, the government is irrationally following a policy of blind populism which threatens to divide the nation."

Muslim employment in government sectors (according to the Sachar Report)

Area	Muslim %
Total	4.9
PSUs	7.2
IAS, IFS, and IPS	3.2
Railways	4.5
Judiciary	7.8
Health	4.4
Transport	6.5
Home affairs	7.3
Education	6.5

Muslim institutes

Aligarh Muslim University

There are several well established Muslim institutes in India. Here is a list of reputed institutes established by Muslims.

• Modern Universities and institutes: Aligarh Muslim University, Jamia Millia Islamia, Hamdard University,Al- Barkaat Educational Institutions, Maulana Azad Education Society Aurangabad, Dr.Rafiq Zakariya Campus Aurangabad. Al Ameen Educational Society,Crescent Engineering College and Al-Kabir educational society.
• Traditional Islamic Universities: Sunni Markaz Kerala (the largest charitable, non governmental, non-profit Islamic institution in India), Raza Academy, Al jamiatulAshrafia, Azamgarh, Darul Uloom Deoband and Darul-uloom Nadwatul Ulama.

Population statistics

File:Jumatulwida.jpg

Muslims praying by the historic Charminar after filling the Makkah Masjid, congregations of more than two hundred thousand pray on special occasions there.

Islam is India's largest minority religion, with Muslims officially constituting 16.4% of the country's population, or 174 million people as of the 2001 census. However, unofficial estimates claim a far higher figure supposedly discounted in censuses. For instance, in an interview with a well circulated newspaper of India The Hindu Justice K.M. Yusuf, a retired Judge from Calcutta High Court and Chairman of West Bengal Minority Commission, has said that the real percentage of Muslims in India is at least 20%.[7] pro Hindutva people say in their reports that the Muslim population has reached 30%.[8]

The largest concentrations-about 47% of all Muslims in India, according to the 2001 census--live in the 3 states of Uttar Pradesh (30.7 million) (18.5%), West Bengal (20.2 million) (25%), and Bihar (13.7 million) (16.5%). Muslims represent a majority of the local population only in Jammu and Kashmir (67% in 2001) and Lakshadweep (95%). High concentrations of Muslims are found in the eastern states of Assam (31%) and West Bengal (25%), and in the southern state of Kerala (25%) and Karnataka (12.2%). Muslims are generally more educated, urban, integrated and prosperous in the Western and Southern states of India than in the Northern and Eastern ones; this could be due to partition when the more affluent and educated population migrated over the border, to Pakistan in the North and Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) in the East. India has the second largest Muslim population (after Indonesia) and also the third largest Shia Muslim population (after Iran and Pakistan) in the world.

The analysis on religious data, among the six major religious communities, shows that the decadal growth of the Muslims was the highest (36.0%) in the 2001 census. This statistic suggested that while the growth rate for Hindus has fallen between 1991 and 2001 compared with 1981 and 1991, Muslims have actually grown faster in the last decade, this led Indian media and different parties raising an alarm at the growing number of Muslims and expressing concern about the demographic imbalance and overpopulation, which the Indian government is desperately trying to stop democratically.

A grave objection to this theory is the fact that the 1991 census did not include Jammu & Kashmir, the only Muslim majority state and strife-torn Assam, while the 2001 census does include Jammu & Kashmir. Adjusted for this, the Muslim growth rate plunges from 36 per cent to 29.3 per cent.

Muslim population in Indian states according to 2001 Census.

State	Population	Percentage
Lakshadweep	57,903	95.4707
Jammu & Kashmir	6,793,240	66.9700
Assam	8,240,611	30.9152
West Bengal	20,240,543	25.2451
Kerala	7,863,842	24.6969
Uttar Pradesh	30,740,158	18.4961
Bihar	13,722,048	16.5329
Jharkhand	3,731,308	13.8474
Karnataka	6,463,127	12.2291
Uttaranchal	1,012,141	11.9225
Delhi	1,623,520	11.7217
Maharashtra	10,270,485	10.6014
Andhra Pradesh	6,986,856	9.1679
Gujarat	4,592,854	9.0641
Manipur	190,939	8.8121
Rajasthan	4,788,227	8.4737
Andaman & Nicobar Islands	29,265	8.2170
Tripura	254,442	7.9533
Daman & Diu	12,281	7.7628
Goa	92,210	6.8422
Madhya Pradesh	3,841,449	6.3655
Pondicherry	59,358	6.0921
Haryana	1,222,916	5.7836
Tamil Nadu	3,470,647	5.5614
Meghalaya	99,169	4.2767
Chandigarh	35,548	3.9470
Dadra & Nagar Haveli	6,524	2.9589
Orissa	761,985	2.0703
Chhattisgarh	409,615	1.9661
Himachal Pradesh	119,512	1.9663
Arunachal Pradesh	20,675	1.8830
Nagaland	35,005	1.7590
Punjab	382,045	1.5684
Sikkim	7,693	1.4224
Mizoram	10,099	1.1365

Percentage distribution of population (adjusted) by religious communities : India – 1961 to 2001 Census (excluding Assam and J&K).

Year	Percentage
1961	9.9%
1971	10.4%
1981	10.9%
1991	11.7%
2001	14.4%

Percentage distribution (unadjusted) of population by religious communities India - 1961 to 2001 Census (without excluding Assam and J&K).

Year	Percentage
1961	10.7%
1971	11.2%
1981	11.4%
1991	12.1%
2001	16.4%

Table : Census information for 2001: Hindu and Muslim compared^[α][β]

Composition	Hindus	Muslims
% total of population 2001	80.46	16.4
10-Yr Growth % (est '91–'01)[β]	20.3	36.0
Sex ratio* (avg. 933)	931	936
Literacy rate (avg. 64.8)	65.1	59.1
Work Participation Rate	40.4	31.3
Rural sex ratio	944	953
Urban sex ratio	894	907
Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs)	925	950

Islamic traditions in South Asia

File:Dargah sharif.jpg

The Qawwali is the art of Singing a Song in the Praise of Islamic Personalities.

A Huge Majority of Indian muslims Visit Dargahs of Sufi Saints for Dua.

A large number of Indian Muslims follow Sunni Barelwi (Sufi) traditions attached to the memory of great Sufi saints. Sufism is a mystical path (tarika) as distinct from the legalistic path of the sharia. A Sufi attains a direct vision of oneness with God, often on the edges of orthodox behavior, and can thus become a Pir (living saint) who may take on disciples (murids) and set up a spiritual lineage that can last for generations. Orders of Sufis became important in India during the thirteenth century following the ministry of Moinuddin Chishti (1142-1236), who settled in Ajmer, Rajasthan, and attracted large numbers of converts to Islam because of his holiness. His Chishtiyya order went on to become the most influential Sufi lineage in India, although other orders from Central Asia and Southwest Asia also reached to India and played a major role in the spread of Islam. In this way, they created a large literature in regional languages that embedded Islamic culture deeply into older South Asian traditions.

The leadership of the Muslim community pursued various directions in the evolution of Indian Islam during the twentieth century. The most conservative wing has typically rested on the education system provided by the hundreds of religious training institutes (madrasa) throughout the country, which have tended to stress the study of the Qur'anand Islamic texts in Arabic and Persian but little else. Several national movements have emerged from this sector of the Muslim community. The Jamaati Islami (Islamic Party), founded in 1941, advocates the establishment of an overtly Islamic government. The Tablighi Jamaat (Outreach Society) became active after the 1940s as a movement, primarily among the ulema (religious leaders), stressing personal renewal, prayer, a missionary spirit, and attention to orthodoxy. It has been highly critical of the kind of activities that occur in and around Sufi shrines and remains a minor if respected force in the training of the ulema. Conversely, other ulema have upheld the legitimacy of mass religion, including exaltation of pirs and the memory of the ProphetSallallahu walaihuwa sallum]. A powerful secularising drive led by Syed Ahmad Khan resulted in the foundation of Aligarh Muslim University (1875 as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College)-with a broader, more modern curriculum, and other major Muslim universities.

Indo Islamic art and architecture

The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa

Charminar

Taj Mahal mosque or masjid

The Khas Mahal.

Jehangiri Mahal.

The Delhi Fort, also known as the Red Fort, is one of the popular tourist destinations in Delhi.

The Taj Mahal

Indian architecture took new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the 12th century AD. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brightly coloured glazed tiles.

In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeate order i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. Muslims used a cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilizations, in their constructions in India. Such use of scientific principles helped not only in obtaining greater strength and stability of the construction materials but also provided greater flexibility to the architects and builders. One fact that must be stressed here is that, the Islamic elements of architecture had already passed through different experimental phases in other countries like Egypt, Iran and Iraq before these were introduced in India. Unlike most Islamic monuments in these countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.

Islamic architecture in India can be divided into two parts: religious and secular. Mosques and Tombs represent the religious architecture, while palaces and forts are examples of secular Islamic architecture. Forts were essentially functional, complete with a little township within and various fortifications to engage and repel the enemy.

Mosques: The mosque or masjid is a representation of Muslim art in its simplest form. The mosque is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah, crowned off with a dome. A mihrab indicates the direction of the qibla for prayer. Towards the right of the mihrab stands the mimbar or pulpit from where the Imam presides over the proceedings. An elevated platform, usually a minaret from where the Faithful are summoned to attend prayers is an invariable part of a mosque. Large mosques where the faithful assemble for the Friday prayers are called the Jama Masjids.

Tombs: Although not actually religious in nature, the tomb or maqbara introduced an entirely new architectural concept. While the masjid was mainly known for its simplicity, a tomb could range from being a simple affair (Aurangazeb’s grave) to an awesome structure enveloped in grandeur (Taj Mahal). The tomb usually consists of a solitary compartment or tomb chamber known as the huzrah in whose centre is the cenotaph or zarih. This entire structure is covered with an elaborate dome. In the underground chamber lies the mortuary or the maqbara, in which the corpse is buried in a grave or qabr. Smaller tombs may have a mihrab, although larger mausoleums have a separate mosque located at a distance from the main tomb. Normally the whole tomb complex or rauza is surrounded by an enclosure. The tomb of a Muslim saint is called a dargah. Almost all Islamic monuments were subjected to free use of verses from the Holy Koran and a great amount of time was spent in carving out minute details on walls, ceilings, pillars and domes.

Islamic architecture in India can be classified into three sections: Delhi or the Imperial style (1191 to 1557AD); the Provincial style, encompassing the surrounding areas like Jaunpur and the Deccan; and the Mughal style (1526 to 1707AD).

Literature

• Elliot and Dowson: The History of India as told by its own Historians, New Delhi reprint, 1990.
• Majumdar, R. C. (ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume VI, The Delhi Sultanate, Bombay, 1960; Volume VII, The Mughal Empire, Bombay, 1973.
• M K A Siddiqui (ed.), Marginal Muslim Communities In India, Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi (2004) (review)
• Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad (1957). "Some Aspects of Khānqah Life in Medieval India". Studia Islamica. 8: 51–69.

See also

• Beary Muslims of Dakshina Kannada
• Demographics of India
• Indian Muslim nationalism
• Muslim population growth in India
• NCERT controversy
• Islam by country
• Islam in Pakistan
• Islam in Bangladesh
• Mappila (Muslim community from Kerala)
• Bombay(film) a film by Mani Rathnam on Hindu-Muslim relations
• Muslims in Parliament of India
• Raza Academy
• List of Indian Muslims
• Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
• Negationism in India - Concealing the Record of Islam

References

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External links

Articles

• Indian Muslims are descendants of locals, says scientific study
• Overview of Islamism in India - by Husain Haqqani, Hudson Institute
• Indian Muslims Inc, Their Market & Global Business Impact, Special Report by DinarStandard.com
• The Missing Muslim, the Sunday Express. Full coverage on Sachar Report
• Frontline Magazine, pay. Hindu.com
• India Muslims have lowest rank, BBC
• Why India's 150m Muslims are missing out on the country's rise, Economist
• Muslim India struggles to escape the past, Guardian Unlimited
• India's Great Divide, Time

General resources

• [9], " Voice of Indian Muslim "
• [10], " Naya Caravan Naya Hindusthan"
• muslims-india.info, A new comprehensive website on history, culture and other aspects of Muslim life in India
• Raza Academy
• South Indian Muslims
• IndianMuslims.in, Indian Muslim Blog
• Culturopedia.com, Resource on Islam and its impact on Indian Culture
• The Milli Gazette, Indian Muslims' leading newspaper
• IndianMuslims.info, Encyclopedia of Indian Muslims
• Indian Muslim Council-USA
• Institute of Objective Studies, A think tank for Indian Muslims
• Global Media Publications, Publishes books on Indian Muslims
• Khabrein.info, Indian Muslim News webite
• Google News - Indian Muslims, latest news resource
• Indscribe's blog, An Indian Muslim's Blog

Audio and video

• Google Video - India Muslims, video search links