Yemen
Republic of Yemen الجمهورية اليمنية Jumhuriyat al-Yamania | |
|---|---|
| Motto: الله، الوَطَن، الثَورة، الوَحدة (Arabic) "Allāh, al-Waṭan, aṯ-Ṯhawrah, al-Waḥdah" "God, Country, Revolution, Unity" | |
| Anthem: | |
.svg) | |
| Capital and largest city | Sana'a |
| Official languages | Arabic |
| Demonym(s) | Yemeni |
| Government | Unitary semi-presidential republic |
| Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi | |
| Mohammed Basindawa | |
| Legislature | House of Representatives |
| Establishment | |
• North Yemen independence from the Ottoman Empirea | 1 November 1918 |
• South Yemen independence from the British Empireb | 30 November 1967 |
| 22 May 1990 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 555,000 km2 (214,000 sq mi) (50th) |
• Water (%) | negligible |
| Population | |
• 2011 estimate | 23,833,000[1] (96th) |
• 2004 census | 19,685,000[1] |
• Density | 44.7/km2 (115.8/sq mi) (160th) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2012 estimate |
• Total | $58.202 billion[2] |
• Per capita | $2,249[2] |
| GDP (nominal) | 2012 estimate |
• Total | $36.700 billion[2] |
• Per capita | $1,418[2] |
| HDI (2013) |  0.458[3]low (160th) |
| Currency | Yemeni rial (YER) |
| Time zone | UTC+3 |
| Drives on | right[4] |
| Calling code | +967 |
| ISO 3166 code | YE |
| Internet TLD | .ye, اليمن. |
| |
Yemen /ˈjɛmən/ (Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman), officially known as the Republic of Yemen (Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhūriyyah al-Yamaniyyah), is an Arab country located in Western Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemen is the second largest country in the peninsula, occupying 555,000 km2 (214,000 sq mi). The coastline stretches for about 2,000 km (1,200 mi).[5] It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to the south, and Oman to the east. Its capital and largest city is Sana'a. Yemen's territory includes more than 200 islands. The largest of these is Socotra, which is situated about 354 km (220 mi) to the south of mainland Yemen. Geographically, Yemen stretches from the desert sands of the Rub' al Khali to mountain peaks 3,660 meters above sea levels, and drops back down to the coast of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. The nation is separated from the Horn of Africa by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb.
Yemen was home of the Sabaeans (biblical Sheba),[6][7][8] a trading state that flourished for over a thousand years. In 275 AD, the region came under the rule of the later Jewish influenced Himyarite Kingdom.[9] Christianity arrived in the 4th century AD whereas Judaism and local Paganism was already established. Islam spread quickly in 7th century and Yemenite troops were crucial in the expansion of the early Islamic conquests.[10] Administration of Yemen has long been notoriously difficult.[11] Several dynasties emerged from the 9th to 16th century, the Rasulid being the strongest and most prosperous. The country was divided between the Ottoman and British empires in the early 20th century. The Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen was established after World War I in North Yemen before the creation of Yemen Arab Republic in 1962. While South Yemen remained a British protectorate until 1967. The two Yemeni states united to form the modern republic of Yemen in 1990.
The majority of Yemen's population live in rural or tribal areas, and it is one of the least developed countries in the world.[12] Under President Ali Abdullah Saleh rule, Yemen was described as a kleptocracy.[13] According to the 2009 international corruption Perception Index by Transparency International, Yemen ranked 164 out of 182 countries surveyed.[14] In 2011, series of street protests began in January 15 against poverty, unemployment and corruption as well as against Saleh's plan to amend Yemen's constitution and eliminate presidential term limit, in effect making him president for life.[15] He was also planing to have his son Ahmed Saleh to succeed him.[15]
The United States considers AQAP to be the "most dangerous of all the franchises of Al-Qaeda".[16] The U.S sought a controlled transition that would enable their counter-terrorism operations to continue. Saleh handed over power to his vice Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi and was granted immunity from persecution.[16] A national dialogue conference was launched on March 18, 2012 to reach consensus on major issues facing the country's future. The closing ceremony was held on January 25, 2014. Yemen will become a multi-region federal republic.[17] President Hadi's term was extended for another year in order to appoint and monitor two committees. One to choose between two federal regions (North and South) or six; and the other one to draft a new constitution. The committees are expected to finish their assignments by January 2015.[18]
Etymology
One etymology derives Yemen from yamin, meaning "on the right side", as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise. Another derives Yemen from yumn, meaning "felicity", as the region is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia) as opposed to Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia). Yemen was mentioned in Old South Arabian inscriptions as Yamnat.[19] In Arabic literature, the term Al-Yaman includes much greater territory than that of the republic of Yemen; it stretches from northern Asir to Dhofar.[20][21]
History
Ancient history
Yemen has long existed at the crossroads of cultures. It linked some of the oldest centers of civilization in the Near East by virtue of its location in the Arabian Peninsula. Large settlements existed in the mountain of northern Yemen As early as 5000 BC.[22] Little is known about ancient Yemen and how exactly the transition from Bronze Age civilizations to the ancient caravan kingdoms. This may be largely due to the official discouragement of research into pre-Islamic civilizations in Arabia.[23]
The Sabaean Kingdom came to existence from at least the eleventh century BC.[24] There were four major kingdoms or tribal confederations in South Arabia: Saba, Hadramout, Qataban and Ma'in. Saba is believed to be biblical Sheba and was the most prominent federation.[25] The Sabaean rulers adopted the title Mukarrib generally thought to mean "unifier",[26] or a "priest-king".[27] The role of the Mukarrib was to bring the various tribes under the kingdom and preside over them all.[28] The Sabaens built the Great Dam of Marib around 940 BC.[29] The dam was built to withstand the seasonal flash floods surging down the valley.
Between 700 and 680 BC, the Kingdom of Awsan dominated Aden and its surroundings. Sabaean Mukarrib Karib'il Watar I changed his ruling title to that of a king[30] and conquered the entire realm of Awsan, expanding Sabaean rule and territory to include much of South Arabia.[31] Lack of water in the Arabian Peninsula prevented the Sabaeans from unifying the entire peninsula; instead, they established various colonies to control trade routes.[32] Evidence of Sabaean influence is found in northern Ethiopia, where the South Arabian alphabet religion and pantheon, and the South Arabian style of art and architecture were introduced.[33][34][35] The Sabaean created a sense of identity through their religion. They worshipped El-Maqah and believed themselves to be his children.[36] For centuries, the Sabaeans controlled outbound trade across the Bab-el-Mandeb, a strait separating the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn of Africa and the Red Sea from the Indian Ocean.[37]
By the 3rd century BC, Qataban, Hadramout and Ma'in became independent from Saba and established themselves in the Yemeni arena. Minaean rule stretched as far as Dedan,[38] with their capital at Baraqish. The Sabaeans regained their control over Ma'in after the collapse of Qataban in 50 BCE. By the time of the Roman expedition to Arabia Felix in 25 BC, the Sabaeans were once again the dominating power in Southern Arabia.[39] Aelius Gallus was ordered to lead a military campaign to establish Roman dominance over the Sabaeans.[40] The Romans had a vague and contradictory geographical knowledge about Arabia Felix or Yemen. The Roman army of ten thousand men was annihilated before Marib.[41] Strabo's close relationship with Aelius Gallus led him to attempt to justify his friend's defeat in his writings. It took the Romans six months to reach Marib and sixty days to return to Egypt. The Romans blamed their Nabataean guide and executed him for treachery.[42] No direct mention in Sabaean inscriptions of the Roman expedition has yet been found.
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After the Roman expedition – perhaps earlier – the country fell into chaos and two clans, namely Hamdan and Himyar, claimed kingship, assuming the title King of Sheba and Dhu Raydan.[43] Dhu Raydan (i.e. Himyarites) allied themselves with Aksum in Ethiopia against the Sabaeans.[44] The chief of Bakil and king of Saba and Dhu Raydan, El-sharah Yahdub, launched successful campaigns against the Himyarites and Habashat (i.e. Aksum), El-sharah took proud of his campaigns and added the title Yahdub to his name, which means "suppressor"; he used to kill his enemies by cutting them to pieces.[45] Sana'a came into prominence during his reign as he built the Ghumdan Palace to be his place of residence.
The Himyarite annexed Sana'a from Hamdan in around 100 AD.[46] Hashdi tribesmen rebelled against them, however, and regained Sana'a in around 180 AD.[47] It was not until 275 AD that Shammar Yahri'sh conquered Hadramout and Najran and Tihama, thus unifying Yemen and consolidating Himyarite rule.[48][49] The Himyarites rejected polytheism and adhered to a consensual form of monotheism called Rahmanism.[50] In 354 AD, Roman Emperor Constantius II sent an embassy headed by Theophilos the Indian to convert the Himyarites to Christianity.[51] According to Philostorgius, the mission was resisted by local Jews.[52] Several inscriptions have been found in Hebrew and Sabaean praising the ruling house in Jewish terms for helping and empowering the People of Israel.[53]
According to Islamic traditions, King As'ad The Perfect mounted a military expedition to support the Jews of Yathrib.[54] Abu Karib As'ad, as known from the inscriptions, led a military campaign to central Arabia or Najd to support the vassal Kingdom of Kindah against the Lakhmids.[55] However, no direct reference to Judaism or Yathrib was discovered from his lengthy reign. Abu Kariba died in 445 AD having reigned for almost 50 years.[56] By 515 AD, Himyar became increasingly divided along religious lines and a bitter conflict between different factions paved the way for an Aksumite intervention. The last Himyarite king Ma'adikarib Ya'fur was supported by Aksum against his Jewish rivals. Ma'adikarib was Christian and launched a campaign against the Lakhmids in Southern Iraq, with the support of other Arab allies of Byzantium.[57] The Lakhmids were a Bulwark of Persia, which was intolerant to a proselytizing religion like Christianity.[58]
After the death of Ma'adikarib Ya'fur in around 521 AD, a Himyarite Jewish warlord named Yousef Asar Yathar rose to power. His honorary title Yathar means "to avenge". Yemenite Christians, aided by Aksum and Byzantium, systematically persecuted Jews and burned down several synagogues across the land. Yousef avenged his people with great cruelty.[59] He marched toward the port city of Mocha killing 14,000 and capturing 11,000.[57] Then he settled a camp in Bab-el-Mandeb to prevent aid flowing from Aksum. At the same time, Yousef sent an army under the command of another Jewish warlord, Sharahil Yaqbul, to Najran. Sharahil had reinforcements from the Bedouins of the Kindah and Madh'hij tribes, eventually wiping out the Christian community in Najran.[60] Yousef or Dhu Nuwas (The one with sidelocks) as known in Arabic literature, believed that Christians in Yemen were a fifth column.[61] Christian sources portray Dhu Nuwas (Yousef Asar) as a Jewish zealot, while Islamic traditions say that he threw 20,000 Christians into pits filled with flaming oil.[59] This history, however, is shrouded in legend.[52] Dhu Nuwas left two inscriptions, neither of them making any reference to fiery pits. Byzantium had to act or lose all credibility as protector of eastern Christianity. It is reported that Byzantium Emperor Justin I sent a letter to the Aksumite King Kaleb, pressuring him to attack the abominable Hebrew.[57] Yousef was displaced around 525–527 AD and a client Christian king was installed on the Himyarite throne.
Esimiphaios was a local Christian lord, mentioned in an inscription celebrating the burning of an ancient Sabaean palace in Marib to build a church on its ruins.[62] Three new churches were built in Najran alone.[62] Many tribes did not recognize Esimiphaios's authority. Esimiphaios was displaced in 531 by a warrior named Abraha, who refused to leave Yemen and declared himself an independent king of Himyar. Emperor Justinian I sent an embassy to Yemen. He wanted the officially Christian Himyarites to use their influence on the tribes in inner Arabia to launch military operations against Persia. Justinian I bestowed the dignity of king upon the Arab sheikhs of Kindah and Ghassan in central and north Arabia.[63] From early on, Roman and Byzantine policy was to develop close links with the powers of the coast of the Red Sea. They were successful in converting Aksum and influencing their culture. The results with regard to Yemen were rather disappointing.[63]
A Kendite prince called Yazid bin Kabshat rebelled against Abraha and his Arab Christian allies. A truce was reached once The Great Dam of Marib had suffered a breach.[64] Abraha died around 555–565; no reliable sources regarding his death are available. The Sasanid empire annexed Aden around 570 AD. Under their rule, most of Yemen enjoyed great autonomy except for Aden and Sana'a. This era marked the collapse of ancient South Arabian civilization, since the greater part of the country was under several independent clans until the arrival of Islam in 630 AD.[65]
Middle Ages
Advent of Islam and the three Dynasties
Mohammed sent his cousin Ali to Sana'a and its surroundings around 630 AD. At the time, Yemen was the most advanced region in Arabia.[66] The Banu Hamdan confederation were among the first to accept Islam. When Mohammed was briefed, he prostrated, then raised his head, and said: Peace be upon Hamdan, Peace be upon Hamdan.[67] Mohammed sent Muadh ibn Jabal as well to Al-Janad in present day Taiz, and dispatched letters to various tribal leaders. The reason behind this was the division among the tribes and the absence of a strong central authority in Yemen during the days of the prophet.[68] Major tribes, including Himyar, sent delegations to Medina during the Year of delegations around 630–631 AD. Several Yemenis accepted Islam before the year 630, such as Ammar ibn Yasir, Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami, Miqdad ibn Aswad, Abu Musa Ashaari and Sharhabeel ibn Hasana. A man named 'Abhala ibn Ka'ab Al-Ansi expelled the remaining Persians and claimed to be a prophet of Rahman. He was assassinated by a Yemeni of Persian origin called Fayruz al-Daylami. Christians, who were mainly staying in Najran along with Jews, agreed to pay Jizya, although some Jews converted to Islam, such as Wahb ibn Munabbih and Ka'ab al-Ahbar.
The country was stable during the Rashidun Caliphate. Yemeni tribes played a pivotal role in the Islamic conquests of Egypt, Iraq, Persia the Levant, Anatolia, North Africa, Sicily and Andalusia.[69][70][71] Yemeni tribes that settled in Syria, contributed significantly to the solidification of Umayyad rule, especially during the reign of Marwan I. Powerful Yemenite tribes like Kindah were on his side during the Battle of Marj Rahit.[72][73] Several emirates led by people of Yemeni descent were established in North Africa and Andalusia. Effective control over entire Yemen was not achieved by the Umayyad Caliphate. Imam Abdullah ibn Yahya Al-Kindi was elected in 745 AD to lead the Ibāḍī movement in Hadramawt and Oman. He expelled the Umayyad governor from Sana'a and captured Mecca and Medina in 746 AD.[74] Al-Kindi, known by his nickname Talib al-Haq (Seeker of truth), established the first Ibadi state in the history of Islam but was killed in Taif around 749 AD.[74]
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Ziyad founded the Ziyadid dynasty in Tihama around 818 AD; the state stretched from Hali to Aden. They nominally recognized the Abbasid Caliphate but were in fact ruling independently from their capital in Zabid.[75] The history of this dynasty is obscure; they never exercised control over the highlands and Hadramawt, and did not control more than a coastal strip of the Yemen (Tihama) bordering the Red Sea.[76] A Himyarite clan called the Yufirids established their rule over the highlands from Saada to Taiz, while Hadramawt was an Ibadi stronghold and rejected all allegiance to the Abbasids in Baghdad.[75] By virtue of its location, the Ziyadid dynasty of Zabid developed a special relationship with Abyssinia. Large numbers of Abyssinian slaves were exported through Dahlak to Yemen.[77]
The first Zaidi imam, Yahya ibn al-Husayn, arrived to Yemen in 893 AD. He was the founder of the Zaidi imamate in 897. He was a religious cleric and judge who was invited to come to Saada from Medina to arbitrate tribal disputes.[78] Imam Yahya persuaded local tribesmen to follow his teachings. The sect slowly spread across the highlands, as the tribes of Hashid and Bakil, later known as the twin wings of the imamate, accepted his authority.[79] Yahya established his influence in Saada and Najran; he also tried to capture Sana'a from the Yufirids in 901 AD but failed miserably. In 904, the Qarmatians invaded Sana'a. The Yufirid emir As'ad ibn Ibrahim retreated to Al-Jawf, and between 904 and 913, Sana'a was conquered no less than 20 times by Qarmatians and Yufirids.[80] As'ad ibn Ibrahim regained Sana'a in 915. The country was in turmoil as Sana'a became a battlefield for the three dynasties as well as independent tribes.
The Yufirid emir Abdullah ibn Qahtan attacked and burned Zabid in 989, severely weakening the Ziyadid dynasty.[81] The Ziyadid monarchs lost effective power after 989, or even earlier than that. Meanwhile, a succession of slaves held power in Zabid and continued to govern in the name of their masters eventually establishing their own dynasty around 1022 or 1047 according to different sources.[82] Although they were recognized by the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, they ruled no more than Zabid and four districts to its north.[83] The rise of the Ismaili Shia Sulayhid dynasty in the Yemeni highlands reduced their history to a series of intrigues.
Sulayhid Dynasty
The Sulayhid dynasty was founded in the northern highlands around 1040. at the time, Yemen was ruled by different local dynasties. In 1060, Ali ibn Mohammed Al-Sulayhi conquered Zabid and killed its ruler Al-Najah, founder of the Najahid dynasty. His sons were forced to flee to Dahlak.[84] Hadramawt fell into Sulayhid hands after their capture of Aden in 1162.[85] By 1063, Ali had subjugated Greater Yemen.[86] He then marched toward Hejaz and occupied Makkah.[87] Ali was married to Asma bint Shihab, who governed Yemen with her husband.[88] The Khutba during Friday prayers was proclaimed in her husband's and her name. No other Arab woman had this honor since the advent of Islam.[88]
Ali al-Sulayhi was killed by Najah's sons on his way to Mecca in 1084. His son Ahmed Al-Mukarram led an army to Zabid and killed 8,000 of its inhabitants.[89] He later installed the Zurayids to govern Aden. al-Mukarram, who had been afflicted with facial paralysis resulting from war injuries, retired in 1087 and handed over power to his wife Arwa al-Sulayhi.[90] Queen Arwa moved the seat of the Sulayhid dynasty from Sana'a to Jibla, a small town in central Yemen near Ibb. Jibla was strategically located near the Sulayhid dynasty source of wealth, the agricultural central highlands. It was also within easy reach of the southern portion of the country, especially Aden. She sent Ismaili missionaries to India where a significant Ismail community was formed that exists to this day.[91] Queen Arwa continued to rule securely until her death in 1138.[91]
Arwa al-Sulayhi is still remembered as a great and much loved sovereign, as attested in Yemeni historiography, literature, and popular lore, where she is referred to as Balqis al-sughra , that is "the junior queen of Sheba".[92] Although the Sulayhids were Ismaili, they never tried to impose their beliefs on the public.[93] Shortly after queen Arwa's death, the country was split between five competing petty dynasties along religious lines.[94] The Ayyubid dynasty overthrew the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt. A few years after their rise to power, Saladin dispatched his brother Turan Shah to conquer Yemen in 1174.[95]
Ayyubid conquest
Turan Shah conquered Zabid from the Mahdids in May 1174, then marched toward Aden in June and captured it from the Zurayids.[96] The Hamdanid sultans of Sana'a resisted the Ayyubid in 1175 and it was not until 1189 that the Ayyubids managed to definitely secure Sana'a.[97] The Ayyubid rule was stable in southern and central Yemen where they succeeded in eliminating the mini-states of that region, while Ismaili and Zaidi tribesmen continued to hold out in a number of fortresses.[98] The Ayyubids failed to capture the Zaydis stronghold in northern Yemen.[99] In 1191, Zaydis of Shibam Kawkaban rebelled and killed 700 Ayyubid soldiers.[100] Imam Abdullah bin Hamza proclaimed the imamate in 1197 and fought al-Mu'izz Ismail, the Ayyubid Sultan of Yemen. Imam Abdullah was defeated at first but was able to conquer Sana'a and Dhamar in 1198[101] al-Mu'izz Ismail was assassinated in 1202[102] Abdullah bin Hamza carried on the struggle against the Ayyubid until his death in 1217. After his demise, the Zaidi community was split between two rival imams. The Zaydis were dispersed and a truce was signed with the Ayyubid in 1219.[103] The Ayyubid army was defeated in Dhamar in 1226.[103] Ayyubid Sultan Mas'ud Yusuf left for Mecca in 1228 never to return.[104] Other sources suggest that he was forced to leave for Egypt instead in 1123.[105]
Rasulid Dynasty
The Rasulid Dynasty was established in 1229 by Umar ibn Rasul. Ibn Rasul was a deputy governor appointed by the Ayyubids in 1223. In 1229, Umar ibn Rasul declared himself an independent king by assuming the title al-Malik Al-Mansur (the king assisted by Allah).[105] Umar established the Rasulid dynasty on a firm foundation and expanded its territory to include the area from Dhofar to Mecca[106] Umar first established himself at Zabid, then moved into the mountainous interior, making Sana'a the Rasulid capital. He was assassinated by his nephew in 1249.[104] Omar's son Yousef defeated the faction led by his father assassins and crushed several rebellions of Zaydi imams. It was mainly because of the victories which he scored over his rivals that he assumed the honorific title al-Muzaffar (the victorious).[107] After the fall of Baghdad to the Mongols in 1258, al-Muzaffar Yusuf I appropriated the title of caliph.[108] He chose The city of Ta'izz to became the political capital of the kingdom because of its strategic location and proximity to Aden.[109] al-Muzaffar Yusuf I died in 1296 having reigned for 47 years.[108] When the news of his death reached the Zaydi imam Al-Mutawakkil al-Mutahhar bin Yahya he commented by saying:[108]
The greatest king of Yemen, the Muawiyah of the time, has died. His pens used to break our lances and swords to pieces
The Rasulid state nurtured Yemen's commercial links with India and the Far East.[110] they profited greatly by the red sea transit trade via Aden and Zabid.[104] The economy was also boomed due to the agricultural development programs instituted by the kings who promoted massive cultivation of palms.[104] It was during this period that coffee became a lucrative cash corp in Yemen.[91] The Rasulid kings enjoyed the support of the population of Tihama and southern Yemen while they had to buy the loyalty of Yemen's restive northern highland tribes.[104] The Rasulid sultans built numerous Madrasas in order to solidify the Shafi'i school of thought which is still the dominant school of jurisprudence amongst Yemenis today.[111] Under their rule, Ta'izz and Zabid became major international centers of Islamic learning.[104] The Kings themselves were learned men in their own right who not only had important libraries but who also wrote treatises on a wide array of subjects, ranging from astrology and medicine to agriculture and genealogy.[109]
The dynasty is regarded as the greatest native Yemeni state since the fall of pre-Islamic Himyarite Kingdom.[112] They were, of course, of Turkic descent.[113] They claimed an ancient Yemenite origin to justify their rule. The Rasulids were not the first dynasty to create a fictitious genealogy for political purposes, nor were they doing anything out of the ordinary in the tribal context of Arabia.[114] By claiming decent from a solid Yemenite tribe, the Rasulid brought Yemen to a vital sense of unity in an otherwise chaotic regional milieu.[115] They had a difficult relationship with the Mamluks of Egypt because the latter considered them a vassal state.[109] Their competition centered over the Hejaz and the right to provide kiswa of the Ka'aba in Mecca.[109] The dynasty became increasingly threatened by disgruntled family members over the problem of succession, combined by periodic tribal revolts, as they were locked in a war of attrition with the Zaydi imams in the northern highlands.[104] During the last twelve years of Rasulid rule, the country was torn between several contenders for the kingdom. The weakening of the Rasulid provided an opportunity for the Banu Taher clan to take over and establish themselves as the new rulers of Yemen in 1454 AD.[111]
Tahiride Dynasty
The Tahirids were a local clan based in Rada'a. While they were not as impressive as their predecessors, they were still keen builders. They built schools, mosques and irrigation channels as well as water cisterns and bridges in Zabid and Aden, Rada'a, and Juban. Their best known monument is the Amiriya Madrasa in Rada' which was built in 1504. The Tahiride were too weak either to contain the Zaydi Imams or to defend themselves against foreign attacks. The Mamluks of Egypt tried to attach Yemen to Egypt and the Portuguese led by Afonso de Albuquerque, occupied Socotra and made an unsuccessful attack on Aden in 1513.[116] The Portuguese posed an immediate threat to the Indian ocean trade, the Mamluks of Egypt sent an army under the command of Hussein Al-Kurdi to fight the intruders.[117] The Mamluk sultan of Egypt sailed to Zabid in 1515 and begun diplomatic talks with Tahiride Sultan 'Amir bin Abdulwahab for money that would be needed for jihad against the Portuguese. instead of confronting the Portuguese, the Mamluks, who were running out of food and water, landed their fleet on the Yemen coastline and started to harass Tihama villagers for what they needed.[91] Realizing how rich the Tahiride realm was, they decided to conquer it.[91] The Mamluk army with the support of forces loyal to Zaydi Imam Al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din, conquered the entire realm of the Tahiride but failed to capture Aden in 1517. The Mamluk victory turned out to be short-lived. The Ottoman Empire conquered Egypt, hanging the last Mamluk Sultan in Cairo.[91] It was not until 1538 that the Ottomans decided to conquer Yemen. The Zaydi Highland tribes emerged as national heroes[105] by offering a stiff, vigorous resistance to the Turkish occupation.[118]
Modern History
The Zaydis and Ottomans
The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina and the trade route with India in spices and textiles, both of which were threatened and the latter virtually eclipsed by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea in the early part of the 16th century.[119] Hadım Suleiman Pasha, The Ottoman governor of Egypt, was ordered to command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer Yemen. The country was in state of incessant anarchy and discord as Hadım Suleiman Pasha described it by saying:[120]
Yemen is a land with no lord, an empty province. It would be not only possible but easy to capture, and should it be captured, it would be master of the lands of India and send every year a great amount of gold and jewels to Istanbul.
Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din ruled over the northern highlands including Sana'a while Aden was held by the last Tahiride Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Hadım Suleiman Pasha stormed Aden in 1538, killing its ruler and extended Ottoman's authority to include Zabid in 1539 and eventually Tihama in its entirety.[121] Zabid became the administrative headquarter of Yemen Eyalet.[122] The Ottoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands, they held sway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around Zabid, Mocha and Aden.[123] Out of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from Egypt between 1539 - 1547, only 7,000 survived.[124] The Ottoman accountant-general in Egypt remarks:[124]
We have seen no foundry like Yemen for our soldiers. Each time we have sent an expeditionary force there, it has melted away like salt dissolved in water.
The Ottoman sent yet another expeditionary force to Zabid in 1547 while Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din was ruling the highlands independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other son al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya.[125] al-Mutahhar was lame and therefore not qualified for the Imamate.[125] He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor in Zabid, to attack his father.[126] Indeed Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam al-Mutahhar stormed Ta'izz and marched north toward Sana'a in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imam al-Mutahhar a Sanjak-bey with authority over `Amran. Imam al-Mutahhar assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured Sana'a but the ottomans led by Özdemir Pasha, forced al-Mutahhar to retreat to his fortress in Thula. Özdemir Pasha effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552–60, he garrisoned the main cities. built new fortresses and rendered secure the main routes.[127] Özdemir died in Sana'a in 1561 to be succeeded by Mahmud Pasha.
Mahmud Pasha was described by other ottoman officials as corrupt and unscrupulous governor, he used his authority to take over a number of castles some of which belonged to the former Rasulid Kings.[125] Mahmud Pasha killed a Sunni scholar from Ibb.[128] The Ottoman historian claimed that this incident was celebrated by the Zaydi Shia community in the northern highlands.[128] Disregarding the delicate balance of power in Yemen by acting tactlessly, he alienated different groups within Yemeni society, causing them to forget their rivalries and unite against the Turks.[127] Mahmud Pasha was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen was split into two provinces: the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha and Tihama under Murad Pasha. Imam al-Mutahhar launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed contact with prophet Mohammed in a dream advising him to wage jihad against the Ottomans.[129] al-Mutahhar led the tribes to capture Sana'a from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried to relieve Sana'a, highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered everyone of them.[130] Over 80 battles were fought, the last decisive encounter took place in Dhamar around 1568 in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and had his head sent to al-Mutahhar in Sana'a.[130][131] By 1568, only Zabid remained under the possession of the Turks.[131]
Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Syria, was ordered by Selim II to suppress the Yemeni rebels,[132] the Turkish army in Egypt was reluctant to go to Yemen however.[132] Mustafa Pasha sent a letter with two Turkish shawishes hoping to persuade al-Mutahhar to give an apology and say that he did not promote any act of aggression against the Ottoman army, and claim that the ignorant Arabians according to the Turks, acted on their own.[133] Imam al-Mutahhar refused the Ottoman offer. Mustafa Pasha sent an expeditionary force under the command of Uthman Pasha, the expeditionary force was defeated with great casualties.[134] Sultan Selim II was infuriated by Mustafa's hesitation to go Yemen, he executed a number of sanjak-beys in Egypt and ordered Sinan Pasha to lead the entire Turkish army in Egypt to reconquer Yemen.[135] Sinan Pasha was a prominent Ottoman General of Albanian origin.[131] He reconquered Aden, Ta'izz, Ibb and besieged Shibam Kawkaban in 1770 for 7 months, the siege was lifted once a truce was reached.[136] Imam al-Mutahhar was pushed back but could not be entirely overcome.[137] After al-Mutahhar demise in 1572, the Zaydi community was not united under an imam, the Turks took advantage of their disparity and conquered Sana'a, Sa'dah and Najran in 1583.[138] Imam al-Nasir Hassan was arrested in 1585 than exiled to Istanbul, thereby putting an end to the Yemeni rebellion.[131]
The Zaydi tribesmen in the northern highlands particularly those of Hashid and Bakil, were ever the Turkish bugbear in entire Arabia.[139] The Ottomans who justified their presence in Yemen as a triumph for Islam, accused the Zaydis of being infidels.[140] Hassan Pasha was appointed governor of Yemen eyalet and enjoyed a period of relative peace from 1585 to 1597. Pupils of al-Mansur al-Qasim suggested him to claim the immamate and fight the Turks, he declined at first but the promotion of the Hanafi school of jurisprudence at the expense of Zaydi Islam infuriated al-Mansur al-Qasim. He proclaimed the Imamate in September 1597, which was the same year the ottoman authorities inaugurated al-Bakiriyya Mosque.[138] By 1608, Imam al-Mansur (the victorious) regained control over the highlands and signed a truce for 10 years with the Ottomans.[141] Imam al-Mansur al-Qasim died in 1620. His son Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad succeeded him and confirmed the truce with the Ottomans. In 1627, the Ottomans lost Aden and Lahej. 'Abdin Pasha was ordered to suppress the rebels but failed and had to retreat to Mocha.[138] Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad expelled the Ottomans from Sana'a in 1628, only Zabid and Mocha remained under Ottoman possession. Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad captured Zabid in 1634 and allowed the Ottomans to leave Mocha peacefully.[142] The reason behind Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad's success was the possession of firearms by the tribes and their unity behind him.[143]
In 1632, Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad sent an expeditionary force of 1000 men to conquer Mecca.[144] The army entered the city in triumph and killed its governor.[144] The Ottomans were not ready to lose Mecca after Yemen, so they sent an army from Egypt to fight the Yemenites.[144] Seeing that the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni army retreated to a valley outside Mecca.[145] Ottoman troops attacked the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water. This plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over 200 casualties, most from thirst.[145] The tribesmen eventually surrendered and returned to Yemen.[146] Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad died in 1644. He was succeeded by Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il, another son of al-Mansur al-Qasim, who conquered Yemen in its entirety, from Asir in the north to Dhofar in the east.[147][148][149][150] The Qasimid state was the strongest Zaydi state to ever exist.
During that period, Yemen was the sole Coffee producer in the world.[151] The country established diplomatic relations with the Safavid dynasty of Persia, Ottomans of Hejaz, Mughal Empire in India and Ethiopia as well. Fasilides of Ethiopia sent three diplomatic missions to Yemen, but the relations did not developed into political alliance as Fasilides had hoped, due to the rise of powerful feudalists in his country.[152] By the end of the 17th century, the Europeans had broken Yemen's monopoly on coffee by smuggling coffee trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in East Asia. East Africa and Latin America.[153] The imammate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the collapse of the Qasimi dynasty in mid 18th century.[154] In 1740, the chief representative of Lahej declared himself an independent Sultan from the Qasimid Dynasty and conquered Aden thus establishing the Sultanate of Lahej.
Great Britain and the Nine Regions
The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to India. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-trip from Suez to Bombay. East India Company officials decided on Aden. The British Empire tried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam of Sana'a permitting them a foothold in Mocha; and when unable to secure their position, they extracted a similar agreement from the Sultan of lahej, enabling them to consolidate a position in Aden.[155] An incident played into British hands when, while passing Aden for trading purposes, one of their sailing ships sank and Arab tribesmen boarded it and plundered its contents. The British India government dispatched a warship under the command of Captain Stafford Bettesworth Haines to demand compensation.[155]
Haines bombarded Aden from his warship in January 1839. The ruler of Lahej, who was in Aden at the time, ordered his guards to defend the port, but they failed in the face of overwhelming military and naval power. The British managed to occupy Aden and agreed to compensate the sultan with an annual payment of 6000 riyals.[155] The British evicted the Sultan of Lahej from Aden and forced him to accept their "protection".[155] In November 1839, 5000 tribesmen tried to retake the town but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The British realized that Aden's prosperity depended on their relations with the neighboring tribes, which required that they rest on a firm and satisfactory basis.[156]
The British government concluded "protection and friendship" treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden wheres they would remain independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they do not conclude treaties with foreigners (non Arab colonial powers).[157] Aden was declared a free zone in 1850. With emigrants from India, East Africa and South east Asia, Aden grew into a "world city". in 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitant of the city.[158] The English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the whole of Arabia, including Yemen as successor of Prophet Mohammed and the chief of the universal Caliphate.[159]
Ottoman Return
The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from India to the Red Sea and Arabia. They returned to the Tihama in 1849 after an absence of two centuries.[160] Rivalries and disturbances continued among the Zaydi imams, between them and their deputies, with the ulema, with the heads of tribes, as well as with those who belonged to other sects. Some citizens of Sana'a were desperate to return law and order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in Tihama to pacify the country.[161] Yemeni merchants knew that the return of the Ottomans would improve their trade, for the Ottomans would become their customers.[162] An Ottoman expedition force tried to capture Sana'a but was defeated and had to evacuate the highlands.[163] The Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, strengthened the Ottoman decision to remain in Yemen.[164] In 1872, military forces were dispatched from Istanbul and moved beyond the Ottoman stronghold in the lowlands (Tihama) to conquer Sana'a. By 1873 the Ottomans succeeded in conquering the northern highlands. Sana'a became the administrative capital of Yemen Vilayet.
The ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions. they even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society, Yemenite Jews came to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms.[165] The Ottomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country’s economic welfare. On the other hand, corruption was wide spread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This stemmed from the fact that only the worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.[166] The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for temporary duration.[160] The so-called Tanzimat reforms were considered heretic by the Zaydi tribes. In 1876, the Hashid and Bakil tribes rebelled against the Ottomans, the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising.[167]
The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed the Ottoman efforts to pacify the land. Ahmed Izzet Pasha proposed that the Ottoman army should evacuate the highlands and confined itself to Tihama and not to be unnecessarily burdened with continuing military operation against the Zaydi tribes.[166] The hit-and-run tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out the Ottoman military. They resented the Turkish Tanzimat and defied all attempts to impose a central government upon them.[164] The northern tribes united under the leadership of the House of Hamidaddin in 1890. Imam Yahya Hamidaddin led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904, the rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.[168] The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing them as much as 10,000 solider and 500,000 pound per year.[169] The Ottomans signed a treaty with imam Yahya Hamidaddin in 1911. Under the treaty, imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the Zaydi northern highlands. The Ottomans continued to rule Shafi'i areas in the mid-south until their departure in 1918.
Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen
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Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil was ruling the northern highlands independently from 1911. After the Ottoman departure in 1918, he sought to recapture the lands of his Qasimid ancestors. He dreamed of Greater Yemen stretching from Asir to Dhofar. These schemes brought him into conflict with the de facto rulers in the territories claimed, namely the Idrsids, Ibn Saud and the British government in Aden.[170] The Zaydi imam did not recognize the Anglo-Ottoman border agreement of 1905 on the ground that it was made between two foreign powers occupying Yemen.[171] The border treaty effectively divided Yemen into "north" and "south."[172] In 1915, the British signed a treaty with the Idrsids guaranteeing their security and independence if they would fight against the Turks.[173] In 1919, Imam Yahya hamid ed-Din moved southward to liberate the nine British protectorates. The British responded by moving quickly toward Tihama and occupying al-Hudaydah than they handed it over to their idrisi allies.[174] Imam Yahya attacked the southern protectorates again in 1922. The British bombed Yahya's tribal forces using aircraft to which the tribes had no effective counter.[175]
In 1925, Imam Yahya captured al-Hudaydah from the Idrisi.[176] He continued to follow and attack the Idrisis until Asir fell under the control of the Imam's forces, forcing the Idrisi to request an agreement that would enable them to administer the region in the name of the Imam.[177] Imam Yahya refused the offer on the ground that the Idrisis were of a Moroccan decent. According to Imam Yahya, the Idrisis along with the British were nothing but recent intruders ought to be driven out of Yemen permanently.[178] In 1927, Imam Yahya's forces were 50 kilometers away from Aden, Ta'izz and Ibb were bombed by the British for five days and the imam had to pull back.[179] Small Bedouin forces mainly from the Madh'hij confederation of Marib, attacked Shabwah but were bombed by the British and had to retreat to.
The Italian Empire was the first to recognize Imam Yahya as the King of Yemen in 1926. This created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted as recognition of imam Yahya's claim to sovereignty over Greater Yemen which included the Aden protectorate and Asir.[180]
Two states
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Arab nationalism made an impact in some circles who opposed the lack of modernization efforts in the Mutawakkilite monarchy. This became apparent when Imam Ahmad bin Yahya died in 1962. He was succeeded by his son, but army officers attempted to seize power, sparking the North Yemen Civil War.[181] The Hamidaddin royalists were supported by Saudi Arabia, Britain, and Jordan, whilst the republicans were backed by Egypt. After six years of civil war, the republicans were victorious (February 1968) and formed the Yemen Arab Republic.[182]
The revolution in the north coincided with the Aden Emergency, which hastened the end of British rule in the south. On 30 November 1967, the state of South Yemen was formed, comprising Aden and the former Protectorate of South Arabia. This socialist state was later officially known as the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and a programme of nationalisation was begun.[183]
Relations between the two Yemeni states remained relatively friendly, although sometimes strained. In 1972, a small border conflict was resolved with a ceasefire and negotiations brokered by the Arab League, where it was declared that unification would eventually occur. In 1978, Ali Abdallah Saleh was named as president of the Yemen Arab Republic.[184] Fresh fighting between the two states resumed in 1979 and there were renewed efforts to bring about unification.[184] Thousands were killed in the South Yemen Civil War of 1986. President Ali Nasser Muhammad fled to the north and a new government was formed.[184]
Unification
In 1990, the two governments reached a full agreement on the joint governing of Yemen, and the countries were merged on 22 May 1990 with Saleh as President.[184] The President of South Yemen, Ali Salim al-Beidh, became Vice-President.[184] A unified parliament was formed and a unity constitution was agreed upon.[184] In the 1993 parliamentary election, the first held after unification, the General People's Congress won 122 of 301 seats.[185]: 309
After the invasion of Kuwait crisis in 1990, Yemen's President opposed military intervention from non-Arab states.[186] As a member of the United Nations Security Council for 1990 and 1991, Yemen abstained on a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait[187] and voted against the "use of force resolution". The vote outraged the U.S.[188] Saudi Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 to punish Yemen for its opposition to the war.[189]
Following food riots in major towns in 1992, a new coalition government made up of the ruling parties from both the former Yemeni states was formed in 1993. However, Vice-President al-Beidh withdrew to Aden in August 1993 and said he would not return to the government until his grievances were addressed. These included northern violence against his Yemeni Socialist Party, as well as the economic marginalization of the south.[190] Negotiations to end the political deadlock dragged on into 1994. The government of Prime Minister Haydar Abu Bakr Al-Attas became ineffective due to political infighting[191]
An accord between northern and southern leaders was signed in Amman, Jordan on 20 February 1994, but this could not stop the civil war.[citation needed] During these tensions, both the northern and southern armies (which had never integrated) gathered on their respective frontiers.[192] The May – July 1994 civil war in Yemen resulted in the defeat of the southern armed forces and the flight into exile of many Yemeni Socialist Party leaders and other southern secessionists.[citation needed] Saudi Arabia actively aided the south during the 1994 civil war.[193]
Saleh became Yemen's first directly elected president in the 1999 presidential election, winning 96.2% of the vote.[185]: 310 The only other candidate, Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was the son of Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi, a former President of South Yemen. Though a member of Saleh's General People's Congress (GPC) party, Najeeb ran as an independent.[194]
In October 2000, seventeen U.S. personnel died after a suicide attack on the U.S. naval vessel USS Cole in Aden which was subsequently blamed on al-Qaeda. After the September 11 attacks on the United States, President Saleh assured U.S. President George W. Bush that Yemen was a partner in his War on Terror. In 2001, there was violence surrounding a referendum which apparently supported extending Saleh's rule and powers.
The Shia insurgency in Yemen began in June 2004 when dissident cleric Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi, head of the Zaidi Shia sect, launched an uprising against the Yemeni government. The Yemeni government alleged that the Houthis were seeking to overthrow it and to implement Shī'a religious law. The rebels counter that they are "defending their community against discrimination" and government aggression.[195]
In 2005, at least 36 people were killed in clashes across the country between police and protesters over rising fuel prices.
In the 2006 presidential election, held on 20 September, Saleh won with 77.2% of the vote. His main rival, Faisal bin Shamlan, received 21.8%.[196][197] Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27 September.[198]
A suicide bomber killed eight Spanish tourists and two Yemenis in the province of Marib in July 2007. There was a series of bomb attacks on police, official, diplomatic, foreign business and tourism targets in 2008. Car bombings outside the U.S. embassy in Sana'a killed 18 people, including six of the assailants in September 2008. In 2008, an opposition rally in Sana'a demanding electoral reform was met with police gunfire.
Al Qaeda
In January 2009, the Saudi and Yemeni al-Qaeda branches merged to form Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula is based in Yemen, and many of its members were Saudi nationals who had been released from Guantanamo Bay.[199] Saleh released 176 al-Qaeda suspects on condition of good behaviour, but terrorist activities continued.
The Yemeni army launched a fresh offensive against the Shia insurgents in 2009, assisted by Saudi forces. Tens of thousands of people were displaced by the fighting. A new ceasefire was agreed upon in February 2010. However, by the end of the year, Yemen claimed that 3,000 soldiers had been killed in renewed fighting. The Shia rebels accused Saudi Arabia of providing support to salafi groups to suppress Zaidism in Yemen.[200] Saleh's government used Al-Qaeda in its wars against the insurgent Houthis clan.[201]
Some news reports have suggested that, on orders from U.S. President Barack Obama, U.S. warplanes fired cruise missiles at what officials in Washington claimed were Al Qaeda training camps in the provinces of Sana'a and Abyan on 17 December 2009.[202] Instead of hitting Al-Qaeda operatives, it hit a village killing 55 civilians.[203] Officials in Yemen said that the attacks claimed the lives of more than 60 civilians, 28 of them children. Another airstrike was carried out on 24 December.[204]
The U.S. launched a series of drone attacks in Yemen to curb a perceived growing terror threat due to political chaos in Yemen.[205] Since December 2009, U.S. strikes in Yemen have been carried out by the U.S. military with intelligence support from CIA.[206] The drone strikes are protested by human-rights groups who say they kill innocent civilians and that the U.S. military and CIA drone strikes lack sufficient congressional oversight, including the choice of human targets suspected of being threats to America.[207] Controversy over U.S. policy for drone attacks mushroomed after a September 2011 drone strike in Yemen killed Anwar al-Awlaki and Samir Khan, both U.S. citizens.[208] Another drone strike in October 2011 killed Anwar's teenage son, Abdulrahman al-Awlaki.
In 2010 the Obama administration policy allowed targeting of people whose names are not known. The U.S. government increased military aid to $140 million in 2010.[209] U.S. drone strikes continued after the ousting of President Saleh.[210]
Revolution and aftermath
The 2011 Yemeni revolution followed other Arab Spring mass protests in early 2011. The uprising was initially against unemployment, economic conditions, and corruption, as well as against the government's proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen so that Saleh's son could inherit the presidency.
In March 2011, police snipers opened fire on the pro-democracy camp in Sana'a, killing more than 50 people. In May, dozens were killed in clashes between troops and tribal fighters in Sana'a. By this point, Saleh began to lose international support. In October 2011, Yemeni human rights activist Tawakul Karman won the Nobel Peace Prize and the UN Security Council condemned the violence and called for a transfer of power. On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew to Riyadh, in neighbouring Saudi Arabia, to sign the Gulf Co-operation Council plan for political transition, which he had previously spurned. Upon signing the document, he agreed to legally transfer the office and powers of the presidency to his deputy, Vice President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi.
Hadi took office for a two-year term upon winning the uncontested presidential elections in February 2012, in which he was the only candidate standing.[211] A unity government – including a prime minister from the opposition – was formed. Al-Hadi will oversee the drafting of a new constitution, followed by parliamentary and presidential elections in 2014. Saleh returned in February 2012. In the face of objections from thousands of street protesters, parliament granted him full immunity from prosecution. Saleh's son, General Ahmed Ali Abdullah Saleh continues to exercise a strong hold on sections of the military and security forces.
AQAP claimed responsibility for the February 2012 suicide attack on the presidential palace which killed 26 Republican Guards on the day that President Hadi was sworn in. AQAP was also behind the suicide bombing which killed 96 soldiers in Sana'a three months later. In September 2012, a car bomb attack in Sana'a killed 11 people, a day after a local al-Qaeda leader Said al-Shihri was reported killed in the south.
By 2012, there has been a "small contingent of U.S. special-operations troops" — in addition to CIA and "unofficially acknowledged" U.S. military presence – in response to increasing terror attacks by AQAP on Yemeni citizens.[212] Many analysts have pointed out the former Yemeni government role in cultivating terrorist activity in the country.[213] Following the election of new president Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi, the Yemeni military was able push Ansar al-Sharia back and recapture the Shabwah Governorate.
Geography
Yemen is located in Western Asia, in the southern half of the Arabian Peninsula, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea. It lies south of Saudi Arabia and west of Oman, between latitudes 12° and 19° N and longitudes 42° and 55° E.
A number of Red Sea islands, including the Hanish Islands, Kamaran, and Perim, as well as Socotra in the Arabian Sea, belong to Yemen. Many of the islands are volcanic; for example Jabal al-Tair had a volcanic eruption in 2007 and before that in 1883.
At 527,970 km2 (203,850 sq mi), Yemen is the world's 50th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Thailand and larger than the U.S. state of California. Yemen is situated at 15°N 48°E / 15°N 48°E.
The country can be divided geographically into four main regions: the coastal plains in the west, the western highlands, the eastern highlands, and the Rub al Khali in the east.
The Tihamah ("hot lands" or "hot earth") form a very arid and flat coastal plain along Yemen's entire Red Sea coastline. Despite the aridity, the presence of many lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for malaria mosquitoes. There are extensive crescent-shaped sand dunes. The evaporation in the Tihamah is so great that streams from the highlands never reach the sea, but they do contribute to extensive groundwater reserves. Today, these are heavily exploited for agricultural use. Near the village of Madar about 48 km (30 mi) north of Sana'a, dinosaur footprints were found, indicating that the area was once a muddy flat.
The Tihamah ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands. This area, now heavily terraced to meet the demand for food, receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 mm (3.9 in) per year to about 760 mm (29.9 in) in Ta'izz and over 1,000 mm (39.4 in) in Ibb.
Temperatures are hot in the day but fall dramatically at night. There are perennial streams in the highlands but these never reach the sea because of high evaporation in the Tihamah.
The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) in elevation. This area is drier than the western highlands because of rain-shadow influences but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for extensive cropping. Water storage allows for irrigation and the growing of wheat and barley. Sana'a is located in this region. The highest point in Yemen is Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb, at 3,666 metres (12,028 ft).
Yemen's portion of the Rub al Khali desert in the east is much lower, generally below 1,000 metres (3,281 ft), and receives almost no rain. It is populated only by Bedouin herders of camels. The growing scarcity of water is a source of increasing international concern. See Water supply and sanitation in Yemen.
Politics
As a result of the Yemeni revolution, the constitution of Yemen is expected to be rewritten, and then new elections held in 2014. The national government administers the capital and largest cities, but some other regions are outside of its grasp, governed by armed militant groups which expanded their control during the chaos of the 2011–12 uprising. The two major groups are Ansar al-Sharia (a branch or affiliate of Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula), which has declared several "Islamic emirates" in the southern provinces of Abyan and Shabwah, and the Houthis, a Shia rebel group centered in the Saada Governorate.
Yemen is a republic with a bicameral legislature. Under the 1991 constitution, an elected President, an elected 301-seat Assembly of Representatives, and an appointed 111-member Shura Council share power. The President is the head of state, and the Prime Minister is the head of government.
The 1991 constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by at least fifteen members of the Parliament. The prime minister, in turn, is appointed by the president and must be approved by two-thirds of the Parliament. The presidential term of office is seven years, and the parliamentary term of elected office is six years. Suffrage is universal for people age 18 and older, but only Muslims may hold elected office.[214]
President Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first elected President in reunified Yemen in 1999 (though he had been President of unified Yemen since 1990 and President of North Yemen since 1978). He was re-elected to office in September 2006. Saleh's victory was marked by an election that international observers judged to be "partly free", though the election was accompanied by violence, violations of press freedoms, and allegations of fraud.[215] Parliamentary elections were held in April 2003, and the General People's Congress (GPC) maintained an absolute majority. Saleh remained almost uncontested in his seat of power until 2011, when local frustration at his refusal to hold another round of elections, as combined with the impact of the 2011 Arab Spring, resulted in mass protests.[211] In 2012, he was forced to resign from power, though he remains an important actor in Yemeni politics.
The constitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former northern and southern legal codes have been unified. The legal system includes separate commercial courts and a Supreme Court based in Sana'a. Sharia is the main source of laws, with many court cases being debated according to the religious basis of law and many judges being religious scholars as well as legal authorities.
Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962.[216]
Foreign relations
The geography and ruling Imams of North Yemen kept the country isolated from foreign influence before 1962. The country's relations with Saudi Arabia were defined by the Taif Agreement of 1934, which delineated the northernmost part of the border between the two kingdoms and set the framework for commercial and other intercourse. The Taif Agreement has been renewed periodically in 20-year increments, and its validity was reaffirmed in 1995. Relations with the British colonial authorities in Aden and the south were usually tense.
The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions established in 1958 and 1959 were the first important non-Muslim presence in North Yemen. Following the September 1962 revolution, the Yemen Arab Republic became closely allied with and heavily dependent upon Egypt. Saudi Arabia aided the royalists in their attempt to defeat the Republicans and did not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic until 1970. At the same time, Saudi Arabia maintained direct contact with Yemeni tribes, which sometimes strained its official relations with the Yemeni Government. Saudi Arabia remained hostile to any form of political and social reform in Yemen[217] and continued to provide financial support for tribal elites.[218]
In February 1989, North Yemen joined Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt in forming the Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), an organization created partly in response to the founding of the Gulf Cooperation Council and intended to foster closer economic cooperation and integration among its members. After unification, the Republic of Yemen was accepted as a member of the ACC in place of its YAR predecessor. In the wake of the Persian Gulf crisis, the ACC has remained inactive. Yemen is not a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council mainly for its republican government.[219]
Yemen is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and also participates in the nonaligned movement. The Republic of Yemen accepted responsibility for all treaties and debts of its predecessors, the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). Yemen has acceded to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.
Since the end of the 1994 civil war, tangible progress has been made on the diplomatic front in restoring normal relations with Yemen's neighbors. In the summer of 2000, Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed an International Border Treaty settling a 50-year-old dispute over the location of the border between the two countries. Until the signing of the Yemen-Saudi Arabia peace treaty in July 2000,[220] Yemen's northern border was undefined; the Arabian Desert prevented any human habitation there. Yemen settled its dispute with Eritrea over the Hanish Islands in 1998. The Saudi – Yemen barrier was constructed by Saudi Arabia against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.[221] The Independent headed an article with "Saudi Arabia, one of the most vocal critics in the Arab world of Israel's "security fence" in the West Bank, is quietly emulating the Israeli example by erecting a barrier along its porous border with Yemen".[222]
Human rights
The government and its security forces, often considered to suffer from rampant corruption,[223] have been responsible for torture, inhumane treatment, and extrajudicial executions. There are arbitrary arrests of citizens, especially in the south, as well as arbitrary searches of homes. Prolonged pretrial detention is a serious problem, and judicial corruption, inefficiency, and executive interference undermine due process. Freedom of speech, the press, and religion are all restricted.[224] Journalists who tend to be critical of the government are often harassed and threatened by the police.[187]
Since the start of the Shia insurgency, many people accused of supporting Al-Houthi have been arrested and held without charge or trial. According to the U.S. State Department International Religious Freedom Report 2007, "Some Zaydis reported harassment and discrimination by the Government because they were suspected of sympathizing with the al-Houthis. However, it appears the Government's actions against the group were probably politically, not religiously, motivated".[225]
The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants reported several violations of refugee and asylum seekers' rights in the organization's 2008 World Refugee Survey. Yemeni authorities reportedly deported numerous foreigners without giving them access to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, despite the UN's repeated requests. Refugees further reported violence directed against them by Yemeni authorities while living in refugee camps. Yemeni officials reportedly raped and beat camp-based refugees with impunity in 2007.[226]
Yemen is ranked last of 135 countries in the 2012 Global Gender Gap Report.[227] Human Rights Watch reported on discrimination and violence against women as well as on the abolition of the minimum marriage age of fifteen for women. The onset of puberty (interpreted by some to be as low as the age of nine) was set as a requirement for marriage instead.[228] Publicity about the case of ten-year-old Yemeni divorcee Nujood Ali brought the child marriage issue to the fore not only in Yemen but also worldwide.[229][230][231]
Human trafficking
The United States Department of State 2013 Trafficking in Persons report classified Yemen as a Tier 3 country,[232] meaning that its government does not fully comply with the minimum standards against human trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.[233]
Military
The armed forces of Yemen include the Yemen Army (includes Republican Guard), Navy (includes Marines), Yemeni Air Force (Al Quwwat al Jawwiya al Yamaniya; includes Air Defense Force). A major reorganization of the armed forces continues. The unified air forces and air defenses are now under one command. The navy has concentration in Aden. Total armed forces manning numbers about 401,000 active personnel, including moreover especially conscripts. The Yemen Arab Republic and The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen joined to form the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990.[234] The supreme commander of the armed forces is Field Marshal, Abd Rabbuh Mansur Al-Hadi, the President of the Republic of Yemen.
The number of military personnel in Yemen is relatively high; in sum, Yemen has the second largest military force on the Arabian Peninsula after Saudi Arabia. In 2012 total active troops were estimated as follows: army, 390,000; navy, 7,000; and air force, 5,000. In September 2007, the government announced the reinstatement of compulsory military service. Yemen’s defense budget, which in 2006 represented approximately 40 percent of the total government budget, is expected to remain high for the near term, as the military draft takes effect and internal security threats continue to escalate. By 2012 Yemen now has 401,000 active personnel.
Administrative divisions
As of February 2004, Yemen is divided into twenty one governorates (muhafazat) and one municipality called "Amanat Al-Asemah" (the latter containing the capital, Sana'a).[235][unreliable source?] The governorates are subdivided into 333 districts (muderiah), which are subdivided into 2,210 sub-districts, and then into 38,284 villages (as of 2001). In 2014, a constitutional panel decided to divide the country into six regions—four in the north, two in the south, and capital Sanaa outside of any region—creating a federalist model of governance.[236]
Economy
Yemen is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the Arab World, with a formal 35% employment rate, dwindling natural resources, a young population and increasing population growth. Yemen's economy is weak compared to most countries in the Middle-East, mainly because Yemen has very small oil reserves. Yemen's economy depends heavily on the oil it produces,[238] and its government receives the vast majority of its revenue from oil taxes. But Yemen's oil reserves are expected to be depleted by 2017, possibly bringing on economic collapse.[239] Yemen does have large proven reserves of natural gas.[240] Yemen's first liquified natural gas (LNG) plant began production in October 2009.
Rampant corruption is a prime obstacle to development in the country, limiting local reinvestments and driving away regional and international capital. Foreign investments remain largely concentrated around the nation's hydrocarbon industry.
Agriculture here is very diverse, with such crops as sorghum dominating. Cotton and many fruit trees are also grown, with mangoes being the most valuable. A big problem in Yemen is the cultivation of Qat, a mild narcotic plant that releases a stimulant when chewed, and accounts for up to 40 percent of the water drawn from the Sana’a Basin each year, and that figure is rising. That is both because the plant takes a lot of water to farm (much more than coffee, another plant that does well in Yemen’s fertile soil) and because cultivation of it increases by around 12 percent each year, according to Yemen’s Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources. Not only is the crop drying the Sana’a Basin, it has displaced a lot of vital crops—fruits, vegetables, and coffee—which has sent food prices soaring. According to the World Bank, rising food prices, in turn, pushed an additional six percent of the country into poverty in 2008 alone.[241]
Beginning in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union and China provided large-scale assistance. For example, China and the United States are involved with the expansion of the Sana'a International Airport. In the south, pre-independence economic activity was overwhelmingly concentrated in the port city of Aden. The seaborne transit trade, which the port relied upon, collapsed with the closure of the Suez Canal and Britain's withdrawal from Aden in 1967.
Since unification in 1990,[187] the government has worked to integrate two relatively disparate economic systems. However, severe shocks, including the return in 1990 of approximately 850,000 Yemenis from the Persian Gulf states, a subsequent major reduction of aid flows, and internal political disputes culminating in the 1994 civil war hampered economic growth.
Since the conclusion of the war, the government made an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to implement a structural adjustment program. Phase one of the program included major financial and monetary reforms, including floating the currency, reducing the budget deficit, and cutting subsidies. Phase two will address structural issues such as civil service reform.
In early 1995, the government of Yemen launched an economic, financial, and administrative reform program (EFARP) with the support of the World Bank and the IMF, as well as international donors. These programs had a positive impact on Yemen's economy and led to the reduction of the budget deficit to less than 3% of gross domestic product (GDP) during the period 1995–1999 and the correction of macro-financial imbalances.[242] The real growth rate in the non-oil sector rose by 5.6% from 1995 to 1997.[243]
Demographics
The population of Yemen was about 24 million according to June 2011 estimates, with 46% of the population being under 15 years old and 2.7% above 65 years. In 1950, it was 4.3 million.[244][245] By 2050, the population is estimated to increase to about 60 million.[246]
Yemen has a high total fertility rate, at 4.45 children per woman. It is the 30th highest in the world.[247]
In the late 20th century Sana'a's population grew rapidly, from roughly 55,000 in 1978 to more than 1 million in the early 21st century.[248]
Yemenis are mainly of Arab origin.[249] When the former states of North and South Yemen were established, most resident minority groups departed.[250] Yemen is still a largely tribal society.[251] In the northern, mountainous parts of the country, there are some 400 Zaidi tribes.[252] There are also hereditary caste groups in urban areas such as Al-Akhdam.[253]
Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962,[216] but slavery is still being practised.[254] Turks arrived in the region during the Ottoman colonization process; today, there are between 10,000–30,000 people of Turkish origin still living in the country.[255][256] In addition, Yemenite Jews once formed a sizable Jewish minority in Yemen with a distinct culture from other Jewish communities in the world[257] Most emigrated to Israel in the mid-20th century, following the Jewish exodus from Arab lands and Operation Magic Carpet.[258]
Most of the prominent Indonesians, Malaysians, and Singaporeans of Arab descent are Hadhrami people with origins in southern Yemen in the Hadramawt coastal region.[259] Today there are almost 10,000 Hadramis in Singapore.[260] The Hadramis emigrated not only to Southeast Asia but also to East Africa and the Indian subcontinent.[261] Maqil were a collection of Arab Bedouin tribes of Yemeni origin who migrated westwards via Egypt. Several groups of Yemeni Arabs turned south to Mauritania, and by the end of the 17th century, they dominated the entire country. They can also be found throughout Morocco and in Algeria as well as in other North African Countries.[262]
According to the US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Yemen hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 124,600 in 2007. Refugees and asylum seekers living in Yemen were predominantly from Somalia (110,600), Iraq, Ethiopia (2,000),[226] and Syria.[263] There are about 70,000 Iraqis presently living in Yemen.[264] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that in 2008 more than 50,000 Somalis reached Yemen.[265] The Shia insurgency has forced at least 175,000 Yemenis to flee their homes.[266]
The Yemeni diaspora is largely concentrated in Saudi Arabia, where between 800,000 and 1 million Yemenis reside,[267] and the United Kingdom, home to between 70,000 and 80,000 Yemenis; just over 15,000 to 20,000 Yemenis reside in the United States, and 2,000 live in France.[268]
Religion
Religion in Yemen consists primarily of two principal Islamic religious groups: 53% of the Muslim population is Sunni and over 45% is Shia, according to the UNHCR.[269] Other put the numbers of Shias at 30%.[270][271] Sunnis are primarily Shafi'i but also include significant groups of Malikis and Hanbalis. Shias are primarily Zaidi and also have significant minorities of Twelver[269][272] and Ismaili Shias.[269]
The Sunnis are predominantly in the south and southeast. The Zaidis are predominantly in the north and northwest whilst the Ismailis are in the main centers such as Sana'a and Ma'rib. There are mixed communities in the larger cities. About 1 percent of Yemenis are non-Muslim, adhering to Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, or atheism.[273]
An estimated 100,000 people of Indian origin are concentrated in the southern part of the country, around Aden, Mukalla, Shihr, Lahaj, Mokha and Hodeidah.[274]
Languages
Arabic is the official language, although English is increasingly understood by citizens in major cities. In the Mahra area (the extreme east) and the island Soqotra, several ancient south-Arabic Semitic languages are spoken.[275][276] Yemeni Sign Language is used by the deaf community.
The official language is Modern Standard Arabic. Yemeni Arabic is spoken in several regional dialects.
Yemen is one of the main homelands of the South Semitic family of languages. Mehri is the largest South Semitic language in Yemen with more than 70,000 speakers. The ethnic group itself is called Mahra. Soqotri is another South Semitic language, with speakers on the island of Socotra isolated from the pressures of Arabic on the Yemeni mainland. According to the 1990 census in Yemen, the number of speakers there was 57,000.
Ancient Himyaritic, which today is extinct, is another South Semitic language that once was spoken in Yemen.
Foreign languages in public schools are taught from grade seven onwards, though the quality of public school instruction is low. Private schools using a British or American system teach English and produce proficient speakers, but Arabic is the dominant language of communication. The number of English speakers in Yemen is small compared to other Arab countries such as Egypt, Lebanon, the United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia.
There is a significant number of Russian speakers, originating from Yemeni-Russian cross-marriages occurring mainly in the 1970s and 1980s. A small Cham-speaking community is found in the capital city of Sana'a, originating from refugees expatriated from Vietnam after the Vietnam War in the 1970s.[citation needed]
A small yet rising number of ethnic Chinese in Sana'a brought the Chinese language to the country, a byproduct of historic Chinese immigration. Also there are South Asian languages spoken by the small South Asian community, most notably Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam and Marathi languages.
Culture
Yemen is a culturally rich country with influence from many civilizations, such as the early civilization of Sheba.
Media
Radio broadcasting in Yemen began in the 1940s when it was still divided into South by the British and North by Imami ruling system.[277] After the unity of Yemen in 1990, Yemeni government reformed its corporations and founded some additional radio channels which can broadcast locally. However it drew back after 1994 due to destroyed infrastructures by the civil war.
Television is the most significant media platform in Yemen. Given the low literacy rate in the country, television is the main source of news for Yemenis. There are six free-to-air channels currently headquartered in Yemen, of which four are state-owned.[278]
The Yemeni film industry is in its early stages; only two Yemeni films have been released as of 2008.
Theatre
Sport
Football is the most popular sport in Yemen. The Yemen Football Association is a member of FIFA and the Asian Football Confederation, and the national team participates in. The country also hosts many football clubs that compete in the national or international leagues.
Yemen's mountains provide many opportunities for outdoor sports, such as biking, rock climbing, hill climbing, hiking, mountain jumping, and more challenging mountain climbing. Mountain climbing and hiking tours to the Sarawat Mountains and the Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb, including the 5,000 m (16,000 ft) peaks in the region, are seasonally organized by local and international alpine agencies.
The coast of Yemen and Socotra island also provide many opportunities for water sports, such as surfing, bodyboarding, sailing, swimming, and scuba diving. Socotra island is home to one of the best surfing destinations in the world.
Camel jumping is popular among the Zaraniq tribe on the west coast of Yemen on the desert plain by the Red Sea. Camels are rounded up and placed side to side. Athletes jump from a running start to achieve height and length in the air. The jumpers train year round for competitions. Tribesmen tuck their robes around their waists to reduce impediment while running and leaping.[279]
Yemen's biggest sports event was hosting the 2010 Gulf Cup of Nations in Aden and Abyan in the southern part of the country on 22 November 2010. Yemen was thought to be the strongest competitor, but was defeated in the first three matches of the tournament.[280]
The Yemeni national team has never won a championship, though it includes many renowned Arab players.
World Heritage sites
Among Yemen's natural and cultural attractions are four World Heritage sites.
The Old Walled City of Shibam in Wadi Hadhramaut, inscribed by UNESCO in 1982, two years after Yemen joined the World Heritage Committee, is nicknamed "Manhattan of the Desert" because of its "skyscrapers." Surrounded by a fortified wall made of mud and straw, the 16th-century city is one of the oldest examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction.
The ancient Old City of Sana'a, at an altitude of more than 2,100 metres (7,000 ft), has been inhabited for over two and a half millennia and was inscribed in 1986. Sana'a became a major Islamic centre in the 7th century, and the 103 mosques, 14 hammams (traditional bath houses), and more than 6,000 houses that survive all date from before the 11th century.
Close to the Red Sea Coast, the Historic Town of Zabid, inscribed in 1993, was Yemen's capital from the 13th to the 15th century, and is an archaeological and historical site. It played an important role for many centuries because of its university, which was a center of learning for the whole Arab and Islamic world. Algebra is said to have been invented there in the early 9th century by the little-known scholar Al-Jazari.
The latest addition to Yemen's list of World Heritage Sites is the Socotra Archipelago. Mentioned by Marco Polo in the 13th century, this remote and isolated archipelago consists of four islands and two rocky islets delineating the southern limit of the Gulf of Aden. The site has a rich biodiversity. Nowhere else in the world do 37% of Socotra's 825 plants, 90% of its reptiles and 95% of its snails occur. It is home to 192 bird species, 253 species of coral, 730 species of coastal fish, and 300 species of crab and lobster, as well as a range of Aloes and the Dragon's Blood Tree (Dracaena cinnabari). The cultural heritage of Socotra includes the unique Soqotri language.
Education
The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 63.9%.[281] The government has committed to reduce illiteracy to less than 10% by 2025.[282] Although Yemen's government provides for universal, compulsory, free education for children ages six through 15, the U.S. Department of State reports that compulsory attendance is not enforced. The government developed the National Basic Education Development Strategy in 2003 that aimed at providing education to 95% of Yemeni children between the ages of six and 14 years and also at decreasing the gap between males and females in urban and rural areas.[283]
A seven-year project to improve gender equity and the quality and efficiency of secondary education, focusing on girls in rural areas, was approved by the World Bank in March 2008. Following this, Yemen has increased its education spending from 4.5% of GDP in 1995 to 9.6% in 2005.[187]
According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are the Yemeni University of Science & Technology (6532nd worldwide), Al Ahgaff University (8930th) and Sanaa University (11043rd).[284]
Health
According to 2009 estimates, life expectancy in Yemen is 63.27 years.[249] Despite the significant progress Yemen has made to expand and improve its health care system over the past decade, the system remains severely underdeveloped. Total expenditures on health care in 2004 constituted 5% of gross domestic product. In that same year, the per capita expenditure for health care was very low compared with other Middle Eastern countries – US$34 per capita according to the World Health Organization.
According to the World Bank, the number of doctors in Yemen rose by an average of more than 7% between 1995 and 2000, but as of 2004 there were still only three doctors per 10,000 people. In 2005 Yemen had only 6.1 hospital beds available per 10,000 persons. Health care services are particularly scarce in rural areas; only 25% of rural areas are covered by health services, compared with 80% of urban areas. Most childhood deaths are caused by illnesses for which vaccines exist or that are otherwise preventable.[285]
Sana'a may be the first capital city in the world to run out of drinking water.[286]
See also
- Outline of Yemen
- List of Yemen-related topics
- List of newspapers in Yemen
- List of Yemenis
- List of cities in Yemen
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Large numbers of Ethiopian slaves were exported through Dahlak to Yemen
- ^ Stephen W. Day Regionalism and Rebellion in Yemen: A Troubled National Union p.31 Cambridge University Press, 2012 ISBN 1107022150
- ^ Gerhard Lichtenthäler Political Ecology and the Role of Water: Environment, Society and Economy in Northern Yemen p. 55 Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. 2003 ISBN 0754609081
- ^ First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936 p. 145 BRILL, 1993 ISBN 9004097961
- ^ E. J. Van Donzel Islamic Desk Reference p. 492 BRILL, 1994 ISBN 9004097384
- ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 237.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Henry Cassels Kay (1999). Yaman its early medieval history. Adegi Graphics LLC. p. 14. ISBN 1421264641.
- ^ J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3 p. 119 Cambridge University Press,1977 ISBN 0521209811
- ^ William Charles Brice An Historical Atlas of Islam [cartographic Material] P.338 BRILL, 1981 ISBN 9004061169
- ^ Farhad Daftary Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community p. 92 I.B.Tauris, 2005 ISBN 1845110919
- ^ Farhad Daftary The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines p. 199 Cambridge University Press, 2007 ISBN 1139465783
- ^ a b Fatima Mernissi The Forgotten Queens of Islam p.14 U of Minnesota Press, 1997 ISBN 0816624399
- ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 237.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Farhad Daftary Ismailis in Medieval Muslim Societies: A Historical Introduction to an Islamic Community p. 93 I.B.Tauris, 2005 ISBN 1845110919
- ^ a b c d e f Steven C. Caton Yemen p.51 ABC-CLIO, 2013 ISBN 159884928X Cite error: The named reference "autogenerated51" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Bonnie G. Smith (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History (in Arabic). Vol. 4. Oxford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 0195148908.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 414.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 303.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Alexander Mikaberidze (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 159. ISBN 1598843370.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدو المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 311.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Farhad Daftary (2007). The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. Cambridge University Press. p. 260. ISBN 1139465783.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Farhad Daftary (2007). The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. Cambridge University Press. p. 260. ISBN 1139465783.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Josef W. Meri (2004). Medieval Islamic Civilization. Psychology Press. p. 871. ISBN 0415966906.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 350.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 354.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 371.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Mohammed Abdo Al-Sururi (1987). الحياة السياسية ومظاهر الحضارة في اليمن في عهد الدول المستقلة (in Arabic). University of Sana'a. p. 407.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e f g Alexander D. Knysh (1999). Ibn 'Arabi in the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam. SUNY Press. p. 230. ISBN 1438409427.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) Cite error: The named reference "Alexander D. Knysh 1999 231" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b c Abdul Ali (1996). slamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 84. ISBN 8175330082.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) Cite error: The named reference "Abdul Ali 1996 84" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Abdul Ali (1996). slamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 85. ISBN 8175330082.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Abdul Ali (1996). Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 86. ISBN 8175330082.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ a b c Abdul Ali (1996). slamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 86. ISBN 8175330082.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ a b c d Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index. Taylor & Francis. p. 669. ISBN 0415966922.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ David J Wasserstein, Ami Ayalon (2013). Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter. Routledge. p. 201. ISBN 1136579176.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ a b David J Wasserstein, Ami Ayalon (2013). Mamluks and Ottomans: Studies in Honour of Michael Winter. Routledge. p. 201. ISBN 1136579176.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Abdul Ali (1996). M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 94. ISBN 8175330082.
{{cite book}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ Jane Hathaway (2003). A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791458830.
- ^ ^ Daniel Martin Varisco (1993). the Unity of the Rasulid State under al-Malik al-Muzaffar . Revue du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée P.21 Volume 67
- ^ ^ Daniel Martin Varisco (1993). the Unity of the Rasulid State under al-Malik al-Muzaffar . Revue du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée P.21 Volume 67
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 320. ISBN 0521343151.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert (1994). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 320. ISBN 0521343151.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Bernard Haykel (2003). Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 0521528909.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71. OI.B.Tauris. p. 2. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Giancarlo Casale (2010). The Ottoman Age of Exploration. Oxford University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0199798796.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 88. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 88. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Jane Hathaway (2012). A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen. SUNY Press. p. 83. ISBN 0791486109.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ a b Robert W. Stookey (1978). Yemen: the politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. p. 134. ISBN 0891583009.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ a b c Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 95. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ R. B. Serjeant, Ronald Lewcock (1983). Sana: An Arabian Islamic City. World of Islam Festival Pub. Co. p. 70. ISBN 0905035046.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ a b Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert (19894). An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 333. ISBN 0521343151.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|year=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ a b Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 132. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 134. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 180. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d Abdul Ali (1996). Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 103. ISBN 8175330082.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=(help) - ^ a b Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 198. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 200. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 208. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 210. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Nancy Um (2009). he merchant houses of Mocha: trade and architecture in an Indian Ocean port. University of Washington Press. p. 19. ISBN 0295989106.
- ^ Robert W. Stookey (1978). Yemen: the politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Westview Press. p. 141. ISBN 0891583009.
- ^ a b c Michel Tuchscherer. "Chronologie du Yémen (1506-1635)', Chroniques yémenites". Retrieved Feb 3 2014.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ Harold F. Jacob (2007). Kings of Arabia: The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovranty in the Arabian Peninsula. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. 70. ISBN 1859641989.
- ^ Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī (2002). Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569-71 (in Arabic). OI.B.Tauris. p. 197. ISBN 1860648363.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ 'Abd al-Samad al-Mawza'i (1986). al-Ihsan fî dukhûl Mamlakat al-Yaman taht zill Adalat al-'Uthman [الإحسان في دخول مملكة اليمن تحت ظل عدالة آل عثمان] (in Arabic). New Generation Library. pp. 99–105.
- ^ Amira Maddah (1982). l-Uthmâniyyun wa-l-Imam al-Qasim b. Muhammad b. Ali fo-l-Yaman (in Arabic). p. 839.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Musflafâ Sayyid Salim (1974). al-Fath al-'Uthmani al-Awwal li-l-Yaman (in Arabic). p. 357.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France. Vol. 2. R. Faulder. 1789. p. 75.
- ^ a b Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France. Vol. 2. R. Faulder. 1789. p. 76.
- ^ Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France. Vol. 2. R. Faulder. 1789. p. 78.
- ^ Kjetil Selvik, Stig Stenslie (2011). Stability and Change in the Modern Middle East. I. B. Tauris. p. 90. ISBN 1848855893.
- ^ Anna Hestler, Jo-Ann Spilling (2010). Yemen. Marshall Cavendish. p. 23. ISBN 0761448500.
- ^ Richard N. Schofield (1994). Territorial foundations of the Gulf states. UCL Press. p. 90. ISBN 1857281217.
- ^ Robert D. Burrowes (2010). Historical Dictionary of Yemen. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 295. ISBN 0810855283.
- ^ Nelly Hanna (2005). Society and Economy in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, 1600-1900: Essays in Honor of André Raymond. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 124. ISBN 9774249372.
- ^ Roman Loimeier (2013). Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Indiana University Press. p. 193. ISBN 0253007976.
- ^ Marta Colburn (2002). The Republic of Yemen: Development Challenges in the 21st Century. CIIR. p. 15. ISBN 1852872497.
- ^ Ari Ariel (2013). Jewish-Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. BRILL. p. 24. ISBN 9004265376.
- ^ a b c d Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 120. ISBN 1860647677.
- ^ Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 124. ISBN 1860647677.
- ^ Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 121. ISBN 1860647677.
- ^ R. J. Gavin (1975). Aden Under British Rule, 1839-1967. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 60. ISBN 0903983141.
- ^ Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 132. ISBN 1860647677.
- ^ a b Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 120. ISBN 1860647677.
- ^ Reeva S. Simon, Michael Menachem Laskier, Sara Reguer (2013). The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times. Columbia University Press. p. 390. ISBN 0231507593.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 59. ISBN 1860647677.
- ^ Derryl N. Maclean, Sikeena Karmali Ahmed (2012). Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts: Perspectives from the Past. Edinburgh University Press. p. 54. ISBN 0748644563.
- ^ a b B. Z. Eraqi Klorman (1993). The Jews of Yemen in the Nineteenth Century: A Portrait of a Messianic Community. BRILL. p. 11. ISBN 9004096841.
- ^ Ari Ariel (2013). Jewish-Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. BRILL. p. 37. ISBN 9004265376.
- ^ a b Doğan Gürpınar (2013). Ottoman/Turkish Visions of the Nation, 1860-1950. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 71. ISBN 1137334215.
- ^ Caesar E. Farah (2002). The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule. I.B.Tauris. p. 96. ISBN 1860647677.
- ^ B. Z. Eraqi Klorman (1993). The Jews of Yemen in the Nineteenth Century: A Portrait of a Messianic Community. BRILL. p. 12. ISBN 9004096841.
- ^ Eugene L. Rogan (2002). Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850-1921. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521892236.
- ^ Clive Leatherdale (1983). Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925-1939: The Imperial Oasis. Psychology Press. p. 140. ISBN 0714632201.
- ^ Nikshoy C. Chatterji (1973). Muddle of the Middle East, Volume 1. Abhinav Publications. p. 197. ISBN 0391003046.
- ^ Harold F. Jacob (2007). Kings of Arabia: The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovereignty in the Arabian Peninsula. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. 82. ISBN 1859641989.
- ^ James Minahan (2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A-C. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 195. ISBN 0313321094.
- ^ Bernard Reich (1990). Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 508. ISBN 0313262136.
- ^ Paul Dresch (2000). A History of Modern Yemen. Cambridge University Press. p. 34. ISBN 052179482X.
- ^ Bernard Reich (1990). Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 509. ISBN 0313262136.
- ^ Bernard Reich (1990). Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 509. ISBN 0313262136.
- ^ Ameen Rihani (1960). Kings of the Arabs [Muluk al-Arab]. Beirut: Dar al-Rihani. p. 214,215,216.
- ^ Paul Dresch (2000). A History of Modern Yemen. Cambridge University Press. p. 34. ISBN 052179482X.
- ^ Massimiliano Fiore (2010). Anglo-Italian Relations in the Middle East, 1922-1940. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 21. ISBN 0754697479.
- ^ F. Gregory Gause (1990). Saudi-Yemeni Relations: Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence. Columbia University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-231-07044-7. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ Dresch, Paul (2000). A History of Modern Yemen. Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-521-79482-4. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ Schmitthoff, Clive Macmillan, Clive M. Schmitthoff's select essays on international trade law p. 390
- ^ a b c d e f "Yemen profile (timeline)". BBC. 26 October 2013. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
1978 - Ali Abdallah Saleh named as president of YAR. 1979 - Fresh fighting between YAR and PDRY. Renewed efforts to unite the two states. 1986 - Thousands die in south in political rivalry. President Ali Nasser Muhammad flees the country and is later sentenced to death for treason. New government formed. 1990 May - Unified Republic of Yemen proclaimed, with Saleh as president." 1993 August - Vice-President Ali Salim al-Baid withdraws to Aden, alleging that south is being marginalised and that southerners are being attacked by northerners.
{{cite web}}: line feed character in|quote=at position 53 (help) - ^ a b Nohlen, Dieter; Grotz, Florian; Hartmann, Christof, eds. (2001). Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume I. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 309–310. ISBN 978-0-199-24958-9. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ "Persian Gulf War, Desert Storm – War with Iraqi". Laughtergenealogy.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2004. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ a b c d "Country Profile: Yemen" (PDF). Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. August 2008. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ^ "Fighting al-Qaeda: The Role of Yemen's President Saleh". Realclearworld.com. 17 December 2009. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ Hill, Ginny (1 April 2009). "Yemen's point of no return". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ "Civil war". Yca-sandwell.org.uk. Yementi Community Association in Sandwell. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
- ^ U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Mideast, March 2011. InfoStrategist.com. ISBN 978-1-59243-126-7.
- ^ "Yemen timeline". BBC. 28 November 2012. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
- ^ John Pike (11 July 2011). "Yemeni Civil War (1990–1994)". Global Security. Retrieved 22 February 2013. (Requires 3rd-party cookies)
- ^ "In eleventh-hour reversal, President Saleh announces candidacy". IRIN. 25 June 2006. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- ^ "Deadly blast strikes Yemen mosque". BBC News. 2 May 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
- ^ "President Ali Abdullah Saleh Web Site". Presidentsaleh.gov.ye. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "Saleh re-elected president of Yemen". Al Jazeera. 23 September 2006. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- ^ "Yemeni president takes constitutional oath for his new term". News.xinhaunet.com. Xinhua. 27 September 2006. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- ^ Daniel Cassman. "Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula". Stanford University. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ "Regime and Periphery in Northern Yemen: The Huthi Phenomenon" (PDF). 17 September 2010. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ "Yemen's Forever War: The Houthi Rebellion". Washington Institute. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ Ross, Brian; Esposito, Richard; Cole, Matthew; et al. (18 December 2009). "Obama Ordered U.S. Military Strike on Yemen Terrorists". ABC News. New York.
{{cite news}}: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Losing Yemen: How this forgotten corner of the Arabian Peninsula became the most dangerous country in the world". Foreign Policy. Washington DC. 5 November 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ "In wake of airline incident: Drumbeat for US war in Yemen". The Intelligence Daily. 30 December 2009. Archived from the original on 1 January 2010.
- ^ Hakim Almasmari (31 January 2013). "US makes a drone attack a day in Yemen". The National. Abu Dhabi. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ Siobhan Gorman, Adam Entous (14 June 2011). "CIA Plans Drone Strikes in Yemen". Wall Street Journal. New York. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ Adam Entous, Siobhan Gorman, Julian E. Barnes (26 April 2012). "U.S. Relaxes Drone Rules". Wall Street Journal. New York.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Memo on Drone Strikes Draws Scrutiny". Wall Street Journal. New York. 5 February 2013. Archived from the original on 6 February 2013. (subscription required)
- ^ Wheaton, Sarah (10 January 2010). "Obama Plays Down Military Role in Yemen". New York Times. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
- ^ Andrew Katz: U.S. Officials: Drone Strike That Hit Yemen Wedding Convoy Killed Militants, Not Civilians, 2013-12-20.
- ^ a b Lewis, Alexandra (May 2012). "Changing Seasons: The Arab Spring's Position Within the Political Evolution of the Yemeni State" (PDF). Post-war Reconstruction and Development Unit Working Paper Series. 3.[dead link]
- ^ Ghosh, Bobby (17 September 2012). "The End of Al-Qaeda?". Time. New York. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Whose Side Is Yemen On?". Foreign Policy. Washington, D.C. 29 August 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ "Yemen". State.gov. 8 November 2005. Retrieved 17 October 2010.
- ^ "Freedom in the World – Yemen (2007)". Freedomhouse.org. 2007. Retrieved 17 October 2010.
- ^ a b "Slaves in Saudi". Naeem Mohaiemen. The Daily Star. 27 July 2004.
- ^ Bidwell, Robin (1983). The Two Yemens. Harlow: Longman and Westview Press. pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-0-865-31295-1.
- ^ F. Gregory Gause. Saudi-Yemeni Relations: Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence. p. 26
- ^ F. Gregory Gause. Saudi-Yemeni Relations: Domestic Structures and Foreign Influence. Columbia University Press p.4
- ^ "The Yemeni-Saudi Border Treaty". Theestimate.com. June 2000. Archived from the original on 15 April 2001. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
- ^ al-Kibsi, Mohammed (12 January 2008). "Saudi authorities erect barriers on Yemeni border". Yemen Observer.
- ^ Bradley, John (11 February 2004). "Saudi Arabia enrages Yemen with fence". The Independent. London. Retrieved 23 March 2007.[unreliable source?]
- ^ Lewis, Alexandra (14 May 2013). "Violence in Yemen: Thinking About Violence in Fragile States Beyond the Confines of Conflict and Terrorism". Stability: International Journal of Security and Development. 2 (1).
- ^ "Human Rights in Yemen". Derechos – Human Rights. January 2001. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
- ^ "Yemen: International Religious Freedom Report 2007". U.S. State Department. 14 September 2007. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
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- Works cited
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
- Template:Ar icon Yemen Government official portal (At the Wayback Machine, March 2009)
- "Yemen". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
- Yemen web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- Yemen at Curlie
- Yemen profile from the BBC News
Wikimedia Atlas of Yemen
Yemen travel guide from Wikivoyage
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- Yemen
- Arab republics
- Arabic-speaking countries and territories
- Countries in Africa
- Islamic states
- Least developed countries
- Member states of the Arab League
- Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
- Member states of the United Nations
- Middle Eastern countries
- States and territories established in 1990
- Western Asia
- Western Asian countries