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Methamphetamine

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"Meth" redirects here. For other uses, see Meth (disambiguation).
Methamphetamine
File:Methamphetamine molecular structure.jpg
Clinical data
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration		Medical: Oral, 5 mg and 10 mg tablets
Recreational: Oral, I.V, I.M., Insufflation, Inhalation, Suppository
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
BioavailabilityDepends on route of administration
MetabolismHepatic
Elimination half-life4-12 hours, 8 hours on average
ExcretionRenal
Identifiers
  • (S)-N-methyl-1-phenyl-propan-2-amine
CAS Number
PubChem CID
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.007.882 Edit this at Wikidata
Chemical and physical data
FormulaTemplate:Carbon10Template:Hydrogen15Template:Nitrogen
Molar mass149.2

Methamphetamine (also referred to as methylamphetamine or desoxyephedrine) is a synthetic stimulant drug used for both medicinal and recreational purposes (see Legal issues). Methamphetamine is highly psychologically addictive. Like most stimulants, large doses of methamphetamine can result in a strong feeling of euphoria at the expense of physical fatigue and a strong "come-down" as the drug's effect wears off.

Availability and names

In the US, medically prescribed methamphetamine is distributed in tablet form under the brand name Desoxyn®.

Illicit methamphetamine comes in a variety of forms. Most commonly it is found as a colourless crystalline solid, sold on the street under a variety of names, such as: crystal meth or crystal. Crystal methamphetamine may also be referred to as shards, rock, P, upside-down b, pony, crissie, crystal, glass, ice, devil's dandruff, chimichanga, Jib, critter, Tina, Crawford, Working Man's Cocaine, Pook, or tik. It is also known as clear in the local street slang of Honolulu, Hawaii. People may confuse crack cocaine with methamphetamine.[citation needed]

It is also sold as a less-pure crystalline powder called crank or speed, or in crystalline rock form called dope, shit, tina, or tweak; both "dope" and "speed" are often used to refer to other drugs. Colourful flavored pills containing methamphetamine and caffeine are known as yaba (Thai for "crazy medicine"). At its most impure, it is sold as a crumbly brown or off-white rock commonly referred to as peanut butter crank. See the list of street names for a more comprehensive list of common street names for methamphetamine.

Methamphetamine found on the street may be pure, or adulterated with chemicals that were used to synthesize it. In some instances, it may be diluted or cut with non-psychoactive substances like inositol. In other instances, it may be mixed with other psychoactive drugs.

History

Methamphetamine was first synthesized in Japan on 1919 by Akira Ogata using a reduction of ephedrine using red phosphorus and iodine. The related compound Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by Lazar Edeleanu.

One of the early uses of Methamphetamine occurred during World War II by the Allies and the Axis to troops, under the name Pervitin.[1] The Nazis widely distributed methamphetamine to their soldiers for use as a stimulant, particularly to SS personnel and Wehrmacht forces in the Eastern Front. Adolf Hitler received shots of methamphetamine from his personal physician, Theodore Morell.

After World War II, a massive supply of methamphetamine, formerly stockpiled by the Japanese military, became available in Japan under the street name shabu[citation needed] (also Philopon, it's tradename there[2]). The Japanese Ministry of Health banned it in 1951, which is thought to have added to the growing yakuza activities related to illicit drug production.[3] Today, the Japanese underworld is still associated with the drug, although its use is discouraged by strong social taboos.

With the 1950s came a rise in the legal prescription of methamphetamine to the American public. According to the 1951 edition of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (by Arthur Grollman), it was to be prescribed for "narcolepsy, post-encephalitic parkinsonism, alcoholism, ... in certain depressive states...and in the treatment of obesity."

File:Methlab.jpg
Meth lab.

The 1960s saw the start of the significant use of clandestine manufacture to supply methamphetamine. Prior to 1983, U.S. laws prohibiting the possession of precursors and equipment for methamphetamine production were not yet in place. The recreational use of methamphetamine sky-rocketed in the 1980s. The December 2, 1989 edition of The Economist described San Diego, California as the "methamphetamine capital of North America."

In 1986, the U.S. government passed the Federal Controlled Substance Analogue Enforcement Act in an attempt to combat the growing usage of designer drugs. In spite of this, its use expanded throughout the rural United States, especially in the Midwest and South. Growth of methamphetamine use continues into the 21st century, and many states are considering tougher legislation.

On August 8, 2005, an issue of Newsweek devoted a cover story to methamphetamine and its abuse,[4] including criticism of the Bush administration's policies regarding methamphetamine. Newsweek blamed the administration for not devoting enough resources to education about and prevention of the drug's use. The Bush administration has countered with the position that cannabis is a dangerous 'gateway drug', so prevention of cannabis use should prevent potential abusers from trying and becoming hooked on "hard" drugs such as methamphetamine. This is known as the "stepping stone theory."

Meanwhile, the online magazine Slate posted an article in reaction to the Newsweek article,[5] attacking Newsweek for failing to appropriately cite sources and data to back up the claim that this is a "new" problem.

The topic remains controversial. The most recent figures released by the Federal government indicate that contrary to public perception, methamphetamine use has actually declined nationally in recent years.[6]

Production

Methamphetamine is structurally similar to methcathinone, amphetamine, and other stimulants, and it may be produced from ephedrine or pseudoephedrine by chemical reduction. Most of the necessary chemicals are readily available in household products or over-the counter medicines. This makes methamphetamine appear unusually easy to make.

Many different syntheses for conversion can be found on the internet, although most sources are usually not considered trustworthy. Almost every method of synthesis involves highly dangerous chemicals and processes.

Most production methods involve hydrogenation of the hydroxyl group on the ephedrine/pseudoephedrine molecule. The most common method in the United States involves red phosphorus and iodine which forms hydroiodic acid. This is a fairly dangerous process; in fact, on the Darwin Awards site, there is a story of a man who burned himself trying to conceal these chemicals.(See the Hot Pants story.) An increasingly common method utilizes a Birch reduction process, where metallic lithium is substituted for metallic sodium (due to the difficulty in obtaining metallic sodium). The Birch reduction is extremely dangerous since the alkali metal and liquid anhydrous ammonia are both extremely reactive, and because the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added. Other less-common methods use other means of hydrogenation, such as hydrogen gas in the presence of a catalyst.

A completely different synthesis procedure involves creating methamphetamine by the reductive amination of phenylacetone with methylamine, both of which are currently DEA list I chemicals (as are pseudoephedrine and ephedrine). This was once the preferred method of production by motorcycle gangs in California, but DEA restrictions on the chemicals have made this an uncommon way to produce the drug today.

The chemicals used in methamphetamine manufacturing are safely used in and around the household for a variety of different purposes, but despite this, their use in the production of methamphetamine is generally quite dangerous. Because of the dangers, specially trained and certified professionals wearing full hazardous materials protection suits must be called in to dismantle and dispose of illegal methamphetamine lab equipment and materials. It is estimated that, for every pound of methamphetamine produced, 5 pounds of hazardous waste are also produced.[1] The highly toxic by-products of methamphetamine synthesis are often dumped in unsafe places.

Some of the more obvious signs of a production lab of metamphetamine in operation is the smell of a cat-urine-like odor and witnessing brass fittings on pipes, such as propane bottles, turn a blue colour. This is caused by hydrochloric acid vapours and in some cases from anhydrous HCl gas. It also makes stainless steel go a blackish colour and become rusted; anything made of regular steel ends up quickly coated in rust.[citation needed]

When performed by individuals who are not trained chemists, methamphetamine manufacture can lead to extremely dangerous situations. For example, in certain syntheses, if a particular reaction is allowed to overheat, phosphine gas can be produced. When produced in large quantities, it usually explodes, due to autoignition from diphosphine formation caused by overheating phosphorus, injuring or killing any individuals who are present. Since the late 1990s, the number of burn victims in the United States whose injuries were sustained from meth labs has skyrocketed[citation needed].

Until the early 1990s, methamphetamine was made mostly in clandestine labs run by drug traffickers in Mexico and California. These areas are still the largest producers for the U.S. market. Since then, however, authorities have discovered increasing numbers of small-scale methamphetamine labs all over the United States, mostly located in rural, suburban, or low-income areas. The Indiana state police found 1,260 labs in 2003, compared to just 6 in 1995, although this may only be a result of increased police activity[2].

Recently, mobile and motel-based methamphetamine labs have caught the attention of both the news media and law enforcement agencies. The labs can cause explosions and fires, as well as expose the public to hazardous chemicals. In addition to these issues, individuals who manufacture methamphetamine are often armed and dangerous. Many police forces have responded by creating a specialized task force educated in responding to persons involved in methamphetamine production.

The amount of methamphetamine actually contributed to the market by small-scale labs is disputed. Large-scale labs maintained by criminal organizations continue to exist, and rely more on diverted or stolen shipments of laboratory-grade precursors than over-the-counter prescriptions. Drug policy critics suggest that restriction of over-the-counter medication is more politically than socially motivated, and may in fact shift the balance of supply more in favor of large criminal organizations.

Distribution

A wide variety of groups are involved in the distribution of methamphetamine, from the aforementioned prison gangs and motorcycle gangs to street gangs, traditional organized crime operations, and impromptu small networks made up of users. The government of North Korea is said to promote the manufacture of crystal meth, and allegedly plays a role in distribution networks throughout Asia as well as those in Australia and even in North America [citation needed]. Regardless, meth trafficking is not exclusively dominated by cartels along the lines of Colombia's cocaine cartels or Pakistan's heroin cartels.

Medical use

Methamphetamine is used medically to treat the following conditions:

Pharmacology

Methamphetamine is a potent central nervous system stimulant, that affects neurochemical mechanisms responsible for regulating heart rate, body temperature, blood pressure, appetite, attention, mood and responses associated with alertness or alarm conditions. Methamphetamine causes the norepinephrine- and dopamine transporter to reverse its direction of flow, in the same manner as amphetamine.[citation needed] This inversion leads to a release of these both transmitters from the vesicles to the cytoplasm and from the cytoplasm to the synapse and it also prevents the re-uptake of these neurotransmitters, causing them to remain in the synaptic cleft longer.[citation needed] In medicine it is used as an appetite suppressant in treating obesity, anesthetic overdose, and narcolepsy.

The acute effects of the drug closely resemble the physiological and psychological effects of the fight-or-flight response, including increased heart rate and blood pressure, vasoconstriction (constriction of the arterial walls), pupil dilation, bronchodilation, and hyperglycemia (increased blood sugar). The person who ingests meth will experience an increased focus and mental alertness and the elimination of the subjective effects of fatigue, as well as a decrease in appetite. Many of these effects are broadly interpreted as euphoria or a sense of well-being, intelligence, and power.

The 17th edition of "The Merck Manual" (1999) describes the effects of heavy methamphetamine use in these terms: "Continued high doses of methamphetamine produce anxiety reactions during which the person is fearful, tremulous, and concerned about his physical well-being; an amphetamine psychosis in which the person misinterprets others' actions, hallucinates, and becomes unrealistically suspicious; an exhaustion syndrome, involving intense fatigue and need for sleep, after the stimulation phase; and a prolonged depression, during which suicide is possible".[7] Depending on delivery method and dosage, a dose of methamphetamine will potentially keep the user awake with a feeling of euphoria for periods lasting 2–24 hours.

Tolerance

The acute central effects decline as the natural transmitter resources (within the vesicles) depletes and as the body gradually metabolizes the chemical, leading to a rapid loss of the initial effect and a significant rebound effect as the previously-saturated synaptic cleft becomes depleted of the same neurotransmitters that had previously been elevated (tachyphylaxis). Many users then compensate by administering more of the drug to maintain their current state of euphoria and alertness. This process can be repeated many times, often leading to the user remaining awake for days, after which secondary sleep deprivation effects manifest in the user. Classic sleep deprivation effects include irritability, blurred vision, memory lapses, confusion, paranoia, hallucinations, nausea, and (in extreme cases) death. After prolonged use, the meth user will begin to become irritable, most likely due to lack of sleep.

Side effects

Methamphetamine is reported to attack the immune system, resulting in increased susceptibility to a variety of opportunistic infections (including MRSA, streptococcus, pseudomonads, and other bacterias and yeasts). This, too, may simply be a result of long-term sleep deprivation and/or chronic malnutrition.

It is a common belief that methamphetamine gives people super-human strength. This is not really true, although methamphetamine inhibits pain and increases metabolism, which allows a person to push muscles to points of failure that would otherwise be harder or impossible to reach. (See the article entitled Exercise and Stimulants for a better description of the factors involved.)

Other side effects include twitching, "jitteriness", repetitive behavior (known as "tweaking"), and jaw clenching or teeth grinding. It has been noted anecdotally that methamphetamine addicts lose their teeth abnormally fast, a condition known as "methmouth"; this may be due to the jaw clenching, although heavy meth users also tend to neglect personal hygiene, such as brushing teeth. It is often claimed that smoking methamphetamine speeds this process by leaving a crystalline residue on the teeth, but no studies have been done to support that claim. Often when methamphetamine is produced, battery acid is used to manufacture it. In fact, it is largely believed by most dentists that the cause of tooth rot in methamphetamine users is dry mouth. Methamphetamine causes the user to have a loss of saliva and increased thirst, which is quenched usually by soda[citation needed]. The combination of high sugar content and loss of acid fighting saliva create an increased risk for tooth decay. Some users exhibit sexually compulsive behavior and may engage in extended sexual encounters with one or more individuals, often strangers. As it is symptomatic to continue taking the drug to combat fatigue, an encounter or series of encounters can last for several days. This compulsive behavior has created a link between meth use and sexually transmitted disease (STD) transmission, especially HIV and syphilis. This caused great concern among larger gay communities, particularly those in Atlanta, Miami, Chicago, New York City, and San Francisco, leading to outreach programs and rapid growth in 12-step organizations such as Crystal Meth Anonymous.

Effects

Methamphetamine is used both medically and recreationally for one or more of the following effects:

  • Increased alertness, motivation, and brain activity (short-term)
  • Euphoria in high doses
  • Weight loss (may also be an adverse effect, depending upon circumstances)
  • Heightened sexual stimulation

The undesirable effects of methamphetamine use include:

The drug can stay in your system between three to four days

Side effects

Common side effects of methamphetamine include:

  • Decrease in Appetite

Severe side effects (with chronic use) include:

Contraindications

The use of methamphetamine should be avoided in persons with the following:

Addiction

Methamphetamine is a highly psychologically addictive drug. The mental and social consequences of quitting can be severe and extremely difficult for the addict. As with all addictions, relapse is common. To combat relapse, many recovering addicts attend 12 Step meetings, such as Crystal Meth Anonymous.

In an article about his son's addiction to methamphetamine, a California writer who has also experimented with the drug put it this way:

[T]his drug has a unique, horrific quality. In an interview, Stephan Jenkins, the singer in the band Third Eye Blind, said that methamphetamine makes you feel 'bright and shiny.' It also makes you paranoid, incoherent and both destructive and pathetically and relentlessly self-destructive. Then you will do unconscionable things in order to feel bright and shiny again (David Sheff, "My Addicted Son," New York Times Magazine, February 6, 2005, p. 44).

Former users have noted that they feel stupid or dull when they quit using methamphetamine. This is because the brain is adapting a need for methamphetamine to think faster, or at what seems to be a higher level. Individuals with ADHD are often at especially higher risk for addiction to methamphetamine, because the drug often increases the user's ability to focus and reduces impulsivity, creating a mechanism by which one is better able to cope. For this reason, drugs like this should be used only under the supervision of a physician. The individual with ADHD is susceptible to meth's adverse effects (see below), so prescription stimulants such as methylphenidate (Ritalin®), dextroamphetamine (Dexadrine®) and amphetamine salt (Adderall®) are overwhelmingly indicated.

Chronic use may result in a tolerance of the drug.

With long-term methamphetamine use, enough dopamine will have flooded the brain to cause chemical cell damage. This often leads to slow thinking (which in turn requires that the addict use meth to 'fix' it), and depression. This is known colloquially as "The Vampire Life." However, in a small unscientific study, researchers were able to reverse many of the addict's symptoms by treatment with fish oil, which contains omega-3 fatty acids. [3] This study has encouraged possible further research into the recuperative effects of omega-3 supplements on the psychological recovery of meth addicts. [4]

Very serious long-term meth abuse correlates highly with poor hygiene and general self-care, and many of the health risks inherent in administering the drug are often severely exacerbated by this. Poor hydration and infrequent dental hygiene strongly increase the risks of damage to teeth from smoking or snorting, while infrequent bathing increases the chance that minor skin rashes or irritations on the arm from needle use will progress to infection and complications. Generally poor maintenance of living conditions can increase the general risk of exposure to illness through a wide variety of malaise-causing agents, such as bacteria that may grow in poorly cleaned living spaces. Finally, if methamphetamine does in fact attack the immune system, it follows that the ability of the individual to resist any illness is compromised, and that heavy meth users, over time, become more susceptible to poor health and illness in general. Severe cases of addiction are often marked by many of these symptoms and hallmarks, which can work in combination to almost completely destroy the user's health.

Routes of administration

Methamphetamine can be swallowed, snorted, smoked, dissolved in water and injected, inserted anally (with or without dissolution in water), or into the urethra. [8] As with all addictive drugs, the potential for addiction is greater when it is delivered by methods that cause the concentration in the blood to rise quickly, principally because the effects desired by the user are felt more quickly and with a higher intensity than through a moderated delivery mechanism. In fact, studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (the reinforcing component of addiction) is proportional to the rate that the blood level of the drug increases. In general, smoking is the "fastest" mechanism (i.e., it causes the blood concentration to rise the most quickly in the shortest period of time as it allows the substance to travel to brain through a more direct route than intravenous injection), followed by injecting, then snorting, then swallowing. It is not entirely certain where anal insertion would fall on this list, but some scant anecdotal evidence puts the effects somewhere between those of smoking and snorting.

Methamphetamine is a powerful decongestant, so methamphetamine users who snort it will often have very clear nasal cavities. However, there have been rare cases of people snorting so much meth that their nose cartilage deteriorates, though snorting cocaine is far more likely to cause nasal degeneration, due to its vasoconstrictive properties. Snorting methamphetamine may also cause tooth decay, since the nasal passages are directly connected to the mouth region, and it is theorized that damaging crystalline particles can still attach to the teeth. Another theory is that the drug directly affects calcium balance in the body. Crystal Meth has also been shown to decrease the production of saliva, the lack of which causes tooth decay.

Methamphetamine is commonly smoked in glass pipes, or in aluminum foil heated by a flame underneath. This method is also known as "chasing the white dragon". (as derived from the method of smoking heroin known as "chasing the dragon"), Methamphetamine must be heated (not burned) to cause the desired smoke. Smoking methamphetamine is probably the most impure form of ingestion. In addition to the possible effects on teeth, it is very damaging to the lungs. Methamphetamine users who smoke it sometimes experience mild asthma, which can be countered by inhaling salbutamol aerosol spray, or epinephrine aerosol. Another problem with smoking meth is the potential presence of oxidation byproducts created when the heated drug comes in contact with air. Even if the initial drug is pure methamphetamine, the act of smoking it produces other chemicals, some of which may be toxic.

Injection is a popular method for use, but potentially carries quite serious risks. The hydrochloride salt of methamphetamine is soluble in water; injection users may use any dose from 200 mg to over a gram in one I.V. dose using a small needle. This dosage range may be fatal to non-addicts; addicts rapidly develop tolerance to the drug. In methamphetamine research, injection users often do not experience severe tooth decay, presumably because there is no residue left as there is through smoking it. But injection users experience greater jaw-clenching than users who snort or smoke it, since injecting methamphetamine has a much more powerful effect. This can cause loose teeth, so injection users still do lose their teeth. Also, this method of ingestion brings the risk of infection; injection users often experience skin rashes (sometimes called "speed bumps") and all kinds of infections due to the methamphetamine damage to the skin. As with any injected drug, if a group of users shares a common needle without sterilization procedures, blood-borne diseases such as HIV or hepatitis can be transmitted as well.

Very little research has focused on anal insertion as a method, and anecdotal evidence of its effects is infrequently discussed, possibly due to social taboos in many cultures regarding the anus. This is often known within communities that use meth for sexual stimulation as a "booty bump" or "Keistering," and is anecdotally reported to increase sexual pleasure[5] while the effects of the drug last. The rectum is where the majority of the drug would likely be taken up, through the mucous membranes lining its walls. Lack of direct exposure to teeth probably insulates users from the majority of damaging dental effects, but damage to sensitive anal and rectal tissues is a risk. Weakness in these tissues may increase the risk of transmission of sexually-transmitted infections during sex. If enough methamphetamine is taken so that not all of it is completely dissolved, abrasion of any prophylactic devices (such as condoms) used during sex can occur due to friction with undissolved meth crystals. This can contribute to breakage of the prophylactic, and increased risk of disease transmission. (See Crystal and sex for further information on other risk factors.)

The least-detrimental method of taking methamphetamine may be oral administration. The effects are moderated over time to a greater degree, and neither teeth, skin, nor nasal passages are directly exposed to potentially harmful chemicals (assuming the user is careful not to allow pure crystal meth to come in contact with these parts of the body during ingestion). The less-intense "hit" may make this a less popular current choice for administration.

Methamphetamine is classified as a Schedule II substance by the Drug Enforcement Agency under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances [6]. While there is technically no difference between the laws regarding methamphetamine and other controlled stimulants, most medical professionals are averse to prescribing it due to its status in society. Further, there is some anecdotal evidence that the DEA audits such prescriptions far more often than prescriptions for similar drugs.

Methamphetamine is legally marketed in the United States under the trade name Desoxyn, manufactured by Ovation Pharma. Generic formulations of the drug are also available.

Australia

In Australia , a program called "Pseudo Watch" was introduced in pharmacies in 2002 in an effort to combat methamphetamine production. This policy mandated that only one box of pseudoephedrine pills could be bought at a time and all pseudoephedrine-only preparations were taken off the shelves, making the analgesic and antihistamine laced blends the only over the counter sources available.

From 1 April 2006 all pseudoephidrine containing products will be reschedule up to S3 or S4 medication depending on the amount of pseudoephidrine there is in the particular product. PseudoWatch has also been reemphasised. And now pharmacists have to record all purchases of pseudoephidrine single and multiingredient products.

The Ice Age Reporter: Matthew Carney Broadcast: 20/03/2006 http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/content/2006/s1593168.htm It’s cheap, highly addictive and ultra-powerful. "Ice", or crystal methamphetamine, is now more popular than heroin, playing havoc with the minds and the bodies of nearly 50,000 Australians.

Canada

In August 2005, Canada moved methamphetamine from Drug Schedule III to Schedule I which increased the maximum penalty for the production and distribution from 10 years to life in prison, placing it on par with cocaine and heroin offenses.

South Africa

In South Africa methamphetamine is classified as a Schedule 5 drug, and is listed as Undesirable Dependence-Producing Substances in Part III of Schedule 2 of the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act, 1992 (Act No 140 of 1992). [7]

The Chemical Monitoring Programme (CMP) of the Narcotics Desk, Organised Crime of the South African Police Service was established in 1994. Its objectives are to reduce illicitly manufactured drugs by identifuing and prosecuting illicit drug laboratories, and to slow traffic in the diversion of chemicals for illicit use by means of monitoring the import, manufacture and distribution of such chemicals. [8]

Compliance with this programme by the chemical industry was voluntary until 2002, when legislation was introduced with a view to controlling the import and export of twenty-three chemicals scheduled in the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1998 (1988 Convention). [9]

In terms of section 3 of the Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act, 1992, (Act 140 of 1992), it is an offence for any person or company to supply these chemicals if they know or suspect that the chemicals will be used in the manufacture of illicit drugs. [9]

United Kingdom

In the UK, methamphetamine is classified as a Class B drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. This has now been upgraded to Class A - 2006. The maximum penalty for possession is five years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is 14 years. If methamphetamine (or any other Class B drug) is prepared for injection, then it is re-classified as a Class A drug. The maximum penalty for such possession is seven years imprisonment, and the maximum penalty for supplying is life imprisonment.

On 14 June 2006 Under-secretary of State for policing, security and community safety in the Home Office, Vernon Coaker, announced that methamphetamine is to be reclassified as a Class A drug, following a recomendation made by the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs earlier in the month.[10] The reasons for the ACMD's recommendation [11] were that there is now evidence that the drug is becoming more widely used within the United Kingdom, that the police have become aware of several illicit laboratories synthesising the drug, and also that media interest in it has grown.

This replaced the Council's previous advice, which was contained in a November 2005 review[12], that there was little evidence of use of the drug in the United Kingdom at that time, and that reclassifying it would create unnecessary interest in it from potential recreational users.

United States

Methamphetamine has become a major focus of the 'war on drugs' in the US in recent years. In some localities (e.g., Pierce County in Washington state, in 2000), special task forces were formed by police to attack the problem of rampant methamphetamine production.

In some areas of the United States, manufacturing methamphetamine is punishable by a mandatory ten-year prison sentence. In some cases, however, judges have ruled for life in prison without the possibility of parole, especially in cases where victims were killed by overdoses or impure substances.

In Michigan (USA) as of 2005, some county prosecutors have begun to charge methamphetamine producers with environmental crimes for reckless and illegal disposal of hazardous wastes in addition to drug violations as well as child abuse if children live in or near the site. Such sentences can extend prison terms for an offender by several years should sentencing be consecutive.

Crackdowns on the theft of anhydrous ammonia, a substance used in the manufacture of the drug, have resulted in additional prison time. Persons who steal anhydrous ammonia while exposing livestock or pets to it, resulting in the deaths of such creatures, may also be subjected to charges of cruelty to animals.

On April 6, 2004, Oklahoma (USA) issued a state law prohibiting the non-prescription sale of certain over-the-counter medications known to contain ingredients used in meth production. Iowa enacted a law concerning the sale of precursors such as pseudoephedrine. This law requires that non-prescription drugs with pseudoephedrine be placed behind the pharmacist's counter. A person can buy only 330 mg of pseudoephedrine per day. The customer must also show identification and sign a logbook when purchasing the drug. Oregon passed a similar law which adds that names of the purchasers are to be placed on a list which is kept for up to two years. In August 2005, Oregon strengthened its anti-methamphetamine laws even further by passing legislation requiring a prescription to purchase drugs containing pseudoephedrine. Alabama, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, North Carolina, Tennessee, Montana, South Dakota and Wisconsin also have similar laws, requiring that the drug be kept behind pharmacy counters, not be sold to persons under the age of 18, customers purchasing pseudoephedrine must show identification and sign their names, and limits the amount of the drug that may be bought at a time.

U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration state factsheets, the Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration Treatment Episode Date Set, and the National Alliance for Model State Drug Laws.

On March 9, 2006, President Bush signed The Combat Meth Act, which provides minimum standards for retailers across the country that sell products containing ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. The law limits sales to 3.6 grams of the base ingredient (the pure ephedrine or pseudoephedrine) per day and 9 grams per 30 days, and requires that purchasers provide identification and sign a sales log. In addition, sellers must now keep these products behind the counter or in a locked case and register on-line with the U.S. Attorney General.

References

  1. ^ SID 271075 PubChem Substance Page on Methamphetamine
  2. ^ Digital Creators Studio Yama-Arashi (2006-04-16). "抗うつ薬いろいろ (Various Antidepressants)". 医療情報提供サービス (in Japanese). Retrieved 2006-07-14.
  3. ^ M. TAMURA (1989-01-01). "Japan: stimulant epidemics past and present". Bulletin on Narcotics. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. pp. 83–93. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Jefferson, David J. (2005-08-08). "The Meth Epidemic: Inside America's New Drug Crisis". Newsweek. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
  5. ^ Shafer, Jack (2005-08-03). "Meth Madness at Newsweek: This is your magazine on drugs". Slate. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
  6. ^ Merck Manual, chapter 195, p. 1593
  7. ^ Ellison, J.M.; Dobies, D.F. Ann. Emerg. Med., Vol 13, No 3, pp. 198-200
  8. ^ Drugs and Drug Trafficking Act
  9. ^ Crystal meth to be class A drug, BBC News, 14 June 2006
  10. ^ Letter from the Chairman of the ACMD to the Home Secretary, 5 June 2006
  11. ^ Methylamphetamine Review, A Report by the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, November 2005

See also



Template:ChemicalSources


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