Moderna COVID-19 vaccine: Difference between revisions
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In January 2020, Moderna announced development of an [[RNA vaccine]], named mRNA-1273, to induce immunity to [[Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)|SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vaccines-idUSKBN1ZN2J8|title=With Wuhan virus genetic code in hand, scientists begin work on a vaccine |last1=Steenhuysen |first1=Julie |last2=Kelland |first2=Kate | name-list-style = vanc |date=2020-01-24|work=Reuters|access-date=2020-01-26|archive-date=2020-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125203723/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vaccines-idUSKBN1ZN2J8|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="carey">{{cite web | first = Karen | last = Carey | name-list-style = vanc |title=Increasing number of biopharma drugs target COVID-19 as virus spreads |url=https://www.bioworld.com/articles/433331-increasing-number-of-biopharma-drugs-target-covid-19-as-virus-spreads |publisher=BioWorld |access-date=1 March 2020 |date=26 February 2020 |archive-date=27 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227150718/https://www.bioworld.com/articles/433331-increasing-number-of-biopharma-drugs-target-covid-19-as-virus-spreads |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="everett">{{cite web | first = Gwen | last = Everett | name-list-style = vanc |title=These 5 drug developers have jumped this week on hopes they can provide a coronavirus treatment |url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/drug-stocks-gain-companies-coronavirus-vaccine-potential-wall-street-buys-2020-2-1028947495 |publisher=Markets Insider |access-date=1 March 2020 |date=27 February 2020 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116154220/https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/drug-stocks-gain-companies-coronavirus-vaccine-potential-wall-street-buys-2020-2-1028947495 |url-status=live }}</ref> Moderna's technology uses a [[nucleoside-modified messenger RNA]] (modRNA) compound which is named mRNA-1273. Once it is inside of a human cell, the mRNA links up with the cell's [[endoplasmic reticulum]]. The mRNA-1273 is encoded to tell the cell to make a specific protein using the cell's normal manufacturing process. Once it is expelled from the cell, it is eventually detected by our immune system which begins generating efficacious antibodies. Because the "blueprints" for the antibody are already part of your immune system, the manufacturing time much shorter. |
In January 2020, Moderna announced development of an [[RNA vaccine]], named mRNA-1273, to induce immunity to [[Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)|SARS-CoV-2]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vaccines-idUSKBN1ZN2J8|title=With Wuhan virus genetic code in hand, scientists begin work on a vaccine |last1=Steenhuysen |first1=Julie |last2=Kelland |first2=Kate | name-list-style = vanc |date=2020-01-24|work=Reuters|access-date=2020-01-26|archive-date=2020-01-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125203723/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-vaccines-idUSKBN1ZN2J8|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="carey">{{cite web | first = Karen | last = Carey | name-list-style = vanc |title=Increasing number of biopharma drugs target COVID-19 as virus spreads |url=https://www.bioworld.com/articles/433331-increasing-number-of-biopharma-drugs-target-covid-19-as-virus-spreads |publisher=BioWorld |access-date=1 March 2020 |date=26 February 2020 |archive-date=27 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200227150718/https://www.bioworld.com/articles/433331-increasing-number-of-biopharma-drugs-target-covid-19-as-virus-spreads |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="everett">{{cite web | first = Gwen | last = Everett | name-list-style = vanc |title=These 5 drug developers have jumped this week on hopes they can provide a coronavirus treatment |url=https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/drug-stocks-gain-companies-coronavirus-vaccine-potential-wall-street-buys-2020-2-1028947495 |publisher=Markets Insider |access-date=1 March 2020 |date=27 February 2020 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116154220/https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/drug-stocks-gain-companies-coronavirus-vaccine-potential-wall-street-buys-2020-2-1028947495 |url-status=live }}</ref> Moderna's technology uses a [[nucleoside-modified messenger RNA]] (modRNA) compound which is named mRNA-1273. Once it is inside of a human cell, the mRNA links up with the cell's [[endoplasmic reticulum]]. The mRNA-1273 is encoded to tell the cell to make a specific protein using the cell's normal manufacturing process. Once it is expelled from the cell, it is eventually detected by our immune system which begins generating efficacious antibodies. Because the "blueprints" for the antibody are already part of your immune system, the manufacturing time is much shorter. |
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Upon the announcement Moderna's shares rose dramatically, and the CEO and other corporate executives began large program sales of their shareholdings.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-18/mit-professor-s-moderna-stake-on-the-brink-of-topping-1-billion | title=MIT Professor's Moderna Stake on the Brink of Topping $1 Billion | first1=Devon | last1=Pendleton | first2=Tom | last2=Maloney | name-list-style = vanc | website=[[Bloomberg News]] | date=18 May 2020 | access-date=18 May 2020 | quote=CEO Bancel, other Moderna executives have been selling shares }}</ref> |
Upon the announcement Moderna's shares rose dramatically, and the CEO and other corporate executives began large program sales of their shareholdings.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-05-18/mit-professor-s-moderna-stake-on-the-brink-of-topping-1-billion | title=MIT Professor's Moderna Stake on the Brink of Topping $1 Billion | first1=Devon | last1=Pendleton | first2=Tom | last2=Maloney | name-list-style = vanc | website=[[Bloomberg News]] | date=18 May 2020 | access-date=18 May 2020 | quote=CEO Bancel, other Moderna executives have been selling shares }}</ref> |
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The drug delivery system of mRNA-1273 uses a [[PEGylation|PEGylated]] [[Liposome|lipid]] [[nanoparticle drug delivery]] (LNP) system.<ref name=nylj1/> |
The drug delivery system of mRNA-1273 uses a [[PEGylation|PEGylated]] [[Liposome|lipid]] [[nanoparticle drug delivery]] (LNP) system.<ref name=nylj1/> |
Revision as of 20:05, 27 January 2021
![]() Vials of Moderna COVID-19 vaccine | |
Vaccine description | |
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Target | COVID-19 |
Vaccine type | mRNA |
Clinical data | |
Pronunciation | /məˈdɜːrnə/ mə-DUR-nə[1] |
Other names | mRNA-1273, CX-024414, COVID-19 Vaccine Moderna, COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine Moderna |
License data | |
Routes of administration | Intramuscular |
ATC code |
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Legal status | |
Legal status | |
Identifiers | |
DrugBank | |
UNII |
Part of a series on the |
COVID-19 pandemic |
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Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine, codenamed mRNA-1273, is a COVID-19 vaccine developed by the United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA), and Moderna. It is administered by two 0.5 mL doses given by intramuscular injection given four weeks apart.[11]
It is an RNA vaccine composed of nucleoside-modified mRNA (modRNA) encoding a spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, which is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles. It is one of the two RNA vaccines developed and deployed in 2020 against COVID-19, the other being the Pfizer–BioNTech vaccine.
On 18 December 2020, mRNA-1273 was issued an Emergency Use Authorization by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA).[6][12][13][14] It was authorized for use in Canada on 23 December 2020,[2][3] in the European Union on 6 January 2021,[9][15][10] and in the United Kingdom on 8 January 2021.[16]
Design
This section is missing information about sequence structure.(December 2020) |
In January 2020, Moderna announced development of an RNA vaccine, named mRNA-1273, to induce immunity to SARS-CoV-2.[17][18][19] Moderna's technology uses a nucleoside-modified messenger RNA (modRNA) compound which is named mRNA-1273. Once it is inside of a human cell, the mRNA links up with the cell's endoplasmic reticulum. The mRNA-1273 is encoded to tell the cell to make a specific protein using the cell's normal manufacturing process. Once it is expelled from the cell, it is eventually detected by our immune system which begins generating efficacious antibodies. Because the "blueprints" for the antibody are already part of your immune system, the manufacturing time is much shorter. Upon the announcement Moderna's shares rose dramatically, and the CEO and other corporate executives began large program sales of their shareholdings.[20] The drug delivery system of mRNA-1273 uses a PEGylated lipid nanoparticle drug delivery (LNP) system.[21]
Composition
The vaccine contains the following ingredients[22]
- nucleoside-modified messenger RNA encoding the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein (S) stabilized in its prefusion configuration;[23]
- lipids:
- SM-102,
- polyethylene glycol [PEG] 2000-dimyristoyl glycerol [DMG],
- cholesterol,
- and 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine [DSPC];
- tromethamine;
- tromethamine hydrochloride;
- acetic acid;
- sodium acetate;
- and sucrose.
Clinical trials
Phase I / II
In March 2020, the Phase I human trial of mRNA-1273 began in partnership with the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.[24] In April, the U.S. Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) allocated up to $483 million for Moderna's vaccine development.[25] Plans for a Phase II dosing and efficacy trial to begin in May were approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).[26] Moderna signed a partnership with Swiss vaccine manufacturer Lonza Group,[27] to supply 300 million doses per annum.[28]
On 25 May 2020, Moderna began a Phase IIa clinical trial recruiting 600 adult participants to assess safety and differences in antibody response to two doses of its candidate vaccine, mRNA-1273, a study expected to complete in 2021.[29] In June 2020, Moderna entered a partnership with Catalent in which Catalent will fill and package the vaccine candidate. Catalent will also provide storage and distribution.[30]
On 9 July, Moderna announced an in-fill manufacturing deal with Laboratorios Farmacéuticos Rovi, in the event that its vaccine is approved.[31]
On 14 July 2020, Moderna scientists published preliminary results of the Phase I dose escalation clinical trial of mRNA-1273, showing dose-dependent induction of neutralizing antibodies against S1/S2 as early as 15 days post-injection. Mild to moderate adverse reactions, such as fever, fatigue, headache, muscle ache, and pain at the injection site were observed in all dose groups, but were common with increased dosage.[32][33] The vaccine in low doses was deemed safe and effective in order to advance a Phase III clinical trial using two 100-μg doses administered 29 days apart.[32]
In July 2020, Moderna announced in a preliminary report that its Operation Warp Speed candidate had led to production of neutralizing antibodies in healthy adults in Phase I clinical testing.[32][34] "At the 100-microgram dose, the one Moderna is advancing into larger trials, all 15 patients experienced side effects, including fatigue, chills, headache, muscle pain, and pain at the site of injection."[35] The troublesome higher doses were discarded in July from future studies.[35]
Phase III
Moderna and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases began a Phase III trial in the United States on 27 July, with a plan to enroll and assign 30,000 volunteers to two groups — one group receiving two 100-μg doses of mRNA-1273 vaccine and the other receiving a placebo of 0.9% sodium chloride.[36] As of 7 August, over 4,500 volunteers had enrolled.
In September 2020, Moderna published the detailed study plan for the clinical trial.[37] On 30 September, CEO Stéphane Bancel said that, if the trial is successful, the vaccine might be available to the public as early as late March or early April 2021.[38] As of October 2020, Moderna had completed the enrollment of 30,000 participants needed for its Phase III trial.[39] The US National Institutes of Health announced on 15 November 2020 that overall trial results were positive.[40]
On 30 December 2020, Moderna published results from the Phase III clinical trial, indicating 94% efficacy in preventing COVID-19 infection.[41][42][43] Side effects included flu-like symptoms, such as pain at the injection site, fatigue, muscle pain, and headache.[42] The clinical trial is ongoing and is set to conclude in late-2022[44]
In November 2020, Nature reported that "While it's possible that differences in LNP formulations or mRNA secondary structures could account for the thermostability differences [between Moderna and BioNtech], many experts suspect both vaccine products will ultimately prove to have similar storage requirements and shelf lives under various temperature conditions".[45]
Since September 2020, Moderna has used Roche Diagnostics' Elecsys Anti-SARS-CoV-2 S test, authorized by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) on 25 November 2020. According to an independent supplier of clinical assays in microbiology, "this will facilitate the quantitative measurement of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and help to establish a correlation between vaccine-induced protection and levels of anti-receptor binding domain (RBD) antibodies". The partnership was announced by Roche on 9 December 2020.[46]
A review by the FDA in December 2020, of interim results of the Phase III clinical trial on mRNA-1273 showed it to be safe and effective against COVID-19 infection resulting in the issuance of an EUA by the FDA.[12]
It remains unknown whether the Moderna vaccine candidate is safe and effective in people under age 18 and how long it provides immunity.[42].
In January 2021, Moderna announced that it would be offering a third dose of its vaccine to people who were vaccinated twice in its phase I trial. The booster would be made available to participants six to twelve months after they got their second doses. The company said it may also study a third shot in participants from its Phase III trial, if antibody persistence data warranted it.[47][48][49]
In January 2021, Moderna started development of a new form of its vaccine that could be used as a booster shot against the virus mutation found in South Africa.[50][51] It also started testing to see if a third shot of the existing vaccine could be used to fend off the virus variants.[51]
Storage requirements
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Vaccine_storage_%282021%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Vaccine_storage_%282021%29_%28cropped%29.jpg)
The Moderna news followed preliminary results from the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine candidate, BNT162b2, with Moderna demonstrating similar efficacy, but requiring storage at the temperature of a standard medical refrigerator of 2–8 °C (36–46 °F) for up to 30 days or −20 °C (−4 °F) for up to four months, whereas the Pfizer-BioNTech candidate requires ultracold freezer storage between −80 and −60 °C (−112 and −76 °F).[52][42] Low-income countries only have cold chain capacity for refrigerator storage.[53][54]
Efficacy
The interim primary efficacy analysis was based on the per-protocol set, which consisted of all participants with negative baseline SARS-CoV-2 status and who received 2 doses of investigational product per schedule with no major protocol deviations. The primary efficacy endpoint was vaccine efficacy (VE) in preventing protocol defined COVID-19 occurring at least 14 days after dose 2. Cases were adjudicated by a blinded committee. The primary efficacy success criterion would be met if the null hypothesis of VE ≤30% was rejected at either the interim or primary analysis. The efficacy analysis presented is based on the data at the first pre-specified interim analysis timepoint consisting of 95 adjudicated cases.[55] The data are presented below.
Primary endpoint: COVID-19 | Vaccine group (N=13,934)
cases n (%) incidence per 1000 person-years |
Placebo group (N=13,883)
cases n (%) incidence per 1000 person-years |
Vaccine efficacy %
(confidence interval of 95%) |
---|---|---|---|
All participants | 5 cases in 13,934 (<0.1%)
1.840 |
90 cases in 13,883 (0.6%)
33.365 |
94.5% (86.5-97.8%) |
Participants 18–64 years of age | 5 cases in 10,407 (<0.1%)
2.504 |
75 cases in 10,384 (0.7%)
37.788 |
93.4% (83.7-97.3%) |
65 and older | 0 cases in 3,527 | 15 cases in 3,499 (0.4%) | 100% |
Chronic lung disease | 0/661 | 6/673 | 100% |
Significant cardiac disease | 0/686 | 3/678 | 100% |
Severe obesity (BMI>40) | 1/901 | 11/884 | 91.2% (32-98.9%) |
Diabetes | 0/1338 | 7/1309 | 100% |
Liver disease | 0/93 | 0/90 | |
Obesity (BMI>30) | 2/5269 | 46/5207 | 95.8% (82.6-99%) |
Manufacturing
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/South_Carolina_National_Guard_receives_first_shipment_of_Moderna_COVID-19_vaccines_%2850747385983%29.jpg/220px-South_Carolina_National_Guard_receives_first_shipment_of_Moderna_COVID-19_vaccines_%2850747385983%29.jpg)
Moderna is relying extensively on contract manufacturing organizations to scale up its vaccine manufacturing process. Moderna has contracted with Lonza Group to manufacture the vaccine at facilities in Portsmouth, New Hampshire in the United States, and in Visp in Switzerland, and is purchasing the necessary lipid excipients from CordenPharma.[56] For the tasks of filling and packaging vials, Moderna has entered into contracts with Catalent in the United States and Laboratorios Farmacéuticos Rovi in Spain.[56]
Purchase commitments
On 11 August 2020, the US government signed an agreement to buy 100 million doses of Moderna's anticipated vaccine,[57] which the Financial Times said Moderna planned to price its vaccine between $50–60 per course.[58] On November 2020, Moderna has stated that it will charge governments who purchase its vaccine between $25 and $37 per dose while the EU is seeking a price of under $25 per dose for the 160 million doses it plans to purchase from Moderna.[59][60]
In 2020, Moderna also obtained purchase agreements for mRNA-1273 with the European Union for 160 million doses and with Canada for up to 56 million doses.[61][62] On 17 December, a tweet by the Belgium Budget State Secretary revealed the EU would pay US$18 per dose, while The New York Times reported that the US would pay US$15 per dose.[63]
Authorizations
Expedited
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/South_Carolina_National_Guard_administers_its_first_Moderna_COVID-19_vaccinations_%2850752619036%29.jpg/220px-South_Carolina_National_Guard_administers_its_first_Moderna_COVID-19_vaccinations_%2850752619036%29.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Kamala_Harris_getting_her_second_COVID-19_vaccination.jpg/220px-Kamala_Harris_getting_her_second_COVID-19_vaccination.jpg)
As of December 2020, mRNA-1273 was under evaluation for emergency use authorization (EUA) by multiple countries which would enable rapid rollout of the vaccine in the United Kingdom, the European Union, Canada, and the United States.[64][65][66][67]
On 18 December 2020, mRNA-1273 was authorized by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under an EUA.[6][8][12] This is the first product from Moderna that has been authorized by the FDA.[68][13]
On 23 December 2020, mRNA-1273 was authorized by Health Canada.[2][3] Prime Minister Justin Trudeau previously stated that deliveries would begin within 48 hours of approval and that 168,000 doses would be delivered by the end of December.[69]
On 5 January 2021, mRNA-1273 was authorized for use in Israel by its Ministry of Health.[70]
Standard
On 6 January 2021, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended granting conditional marketing authorization[9][71] and the recommendation was accepted by the European Commission the same day.[10][15]
On 12 January, Swissmedic granted temporary authorization for the Moderna COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine in Switzerland.[72][73]
Society and culture
Controversies
![]() | This article's "criticism" or "controversy" section may compromise the article's neutrality. (December 2020) |
In May 2020, after releasing partial and non-peer reviewed results for only 8 of 45 candidates in a preliminary pre-Phase I stage human trial directly to financial markets, the CEO announced on CNBC an immediate $1.25 billion rights issue to raise funds for the company, at a $30 billion valuation,[74] while Stat said, "Vaccine experts say Moderna didn't produce data critical to assessing COVID-19 vaccine".[75]
On 7 July, disputes between Moderna and government scientists over the company's unwillingness to share data from the clinical trials were revealed.[76]
Pregnant and breastfeeding women were excluded from the initial trials used to obtain Emergency Use Authorization,[77] though trials in those populations are expected to be performed in 2021.[78]
Moderna also faced criticism for failing to recruit people of color in clinical trials.[79]
Patent litigation
The PEGylated lipid nanoparticle (LNP) drug delivery system of mRNA-1273 has been the subject of ongoing patent litigation with Arbutus Biopharma, from whom Moderna had previously licensed LNP technology.[21][80] On 4 September 2020, Nature Biotechnology reported that Moderna had lost a key challenge in the ongoing case.[81]
References
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- ^ a b c "Regulatory Decision Summary - Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine". Health Canada. 23 December 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
- ^ a b c "Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine (mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2)". COVID-19 vaccines and treatments portal. 23 December 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
- ^ "Information for Healthcare Professionals on COVID-19 Vaccine Moderna". Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). 8 January 2021. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
- ^ "Conditions of Authorisation for COVID-19 Vaccine Moderna". Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). 8 January 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
- ^ a b c "FDA Takes Additional Action in Fight Against COVID-19 By Issuing Emergency Use Authorization for Second COVID-19 Vaccine". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Press release). Retrieved 18 December 2020.
- ^ "Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine- cx-024414 injection, suspension". DailyMed. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- ^ a b Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine Emergency Use Authorization (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Report). 18 December 2020. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b c "COVID-19 Vaccine Moderna EPAR". European Medicines Agency (EMA). Retrieved 20 January 2021.
- ^ a b c "European Commission authorises second safe and effective vaccine against COVID-19". European Commission (Press release). Retrieved 6 January 2021.
- ^ "Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine". Dosing & Administration. Infectious Diseases Society of America. 4 January 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
- ^ a b c "Statement from NIH and BARDA on the FDA Emergency Use Authorization of the Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine". US National Institutes of Health. 18 December 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
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CEO Bancel, other Moderna executives have been selling shares
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{{cite news}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) - ^ Lee J. "Moderna signs on for another COVID-19 vaccine manufacturing deal". MarketWatch. Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
- ^ a b c Jackson LA, Anderson EJ, Rouphael NG, Roberts PC, Makhene M, Coler RN, et al. (November 2020). "An mRNA Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 - Preliminary Report". The New England Journal of Medicine. 383 (20): 1920–1931. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2022483. PMC 7377258. PMID 32663912.
- ^ Jackson LA, Anderson EJ, Rouphael NG, Roberts PC, Makhene M, Coler RN, et al. (November 2020). "An mRNA Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 - Preliminary Report". The New England Journal of Medicine. 383 (20): 1920–1931. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2022483. PMC 7377258. PMID 32663912.
- ^ Li Y (14 July 2020). "Dow futures jump more than 200 points after Moderna says its vaccine produces antibodies to coronavirus". CNBC. Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
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- ^ Cohen E. "First large-scale US Covid-19 vaccine trial reaches target of 30,000 participants". CNN. Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
- ^ "Promising Interim Results from Clinical Trial of NIH-Moderna COVID-19 Vaccine". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 15 November 2020.
- ^ Baden, Lindsey R. (30 December 2020). "Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine". New England Journal of Medicine: NEJMoa2035389. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2035389.
- ^ a b c d Lovelace Jr B, Higgins-Dunn N (16 November 2020). "Moderna says preliminary trial data shows its coronavirus vaccine is more than 94% effective, shares soar". CNBC. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
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External links
- "VRBPAC mRNA-1273 Sponsor Briefing Document" (PDF). Moderna. 17 December 2020.
- "How Moderna's Covid-19 Vaccine Works". The New York Times.