John F. Kennedy

John Fitzgerald Kennedy
35th President of the United States
In office January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963
Vice President	Lyndon B. Johnson
Preceded by	Dwight D. Eisenhower
Succeeded by	Lyndon B. Johnson
United States Senator from Massachusetts
In office January 3, 1953 – December 22, 1960
Preceded by	Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.
Succeeded by	Benjamin A. Smith
Member of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 11th congressional district
In office 1947–1953
Preceded by	James Michael Curley
Succeeded by	Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr.
Personal details
Born	May 29, 1917 Brookline, Massachusetts
Died	November 22, 1963(1963-11-22) (aged 46) 12:30 p.m. Dallas, Texas
Political party	Democratic
Spouse	Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy
Alma mater	Harvard University
Signature

John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), also referred to as John F. Kennedy, Kennedy, John Kennedy or Jack Kennedy, was the 35th President of the United States. In 1960 he became the youngest person ever to be elected President of the United States, and the second youngest, after Theodore Roosevelt, to serve. Kennedy served from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. The Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the American Civil Rights Movement and early events of the Vietnam War took place during his presidency.

Kennedy's leadership as commander of USS PT-109 during Second World War in the South Pacific, in which he swam with an injured shipmate to a nearby island after his ship had been split in two by a Japanese gunboat attack, turned his sights toward public service. Kennedy represented the state of Massachusetts as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 and in the U.S. Senate from 1953 until his inauguration in 1961. Kennedy, 43, the Democratic candidate in the elected president of the United States in 1960, defeated Republican candidate Richard Nixon, 47, in one of the closest presidential elections in American history. Though the youngest person ever elected U.S. president, he was not the youngest ever to hold the office. In 1901, Vice President Theodore Roosevelt, age 42, was elevated to the post following the assassination of President William McKinley. Kennedy is the most recent of the Democrats from outside the South to be elected president, and also the most recent to be elected while serving in the U.S. Senate. He is, to date, the only practicing Roman Catholic to be elected U.S president. He was also the first 20th century-born U.S. president.

President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas, United States. Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the crime, but was himself murdered two days later by Jack Ruby before Oswald could be put on trial. The Warren Commission concluded that Oswald had acted alone in killing the president. However, the House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded in 1979 that there may have been a conspiracy. The entire subject remains controversial, with multiple theories about the assassination still being debated. The assassination itself proved to be a defining moment in U.S. history due to its traumatic impact on the psyche of the nation and the ensuing political fallout, which continues to influence the temperament of American society. Many regarded President Kennedy as an icon of American hopes and aspirations; he continues to rate highly in public opinion rankings of former US presidents.

Early life and education

Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street in Brookline, Massachusetts on Tuesday, May 29, 1917, at 3:00 p.m., the second son of Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., and Rose Fitzgerald; Rose, in turn, was the eldest child of John "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald, a prominent Boston political figure who was the city's mayor and a three-term member of Congress.

John F. Kennedy was baptized at St. Aidan's church in Brookline, Massachusetts, where his family worshiped and where both he and his older brother Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr., were altar boys.

Kennedy lived in Brookline for his first ten years. He attended Brookline's public Edward Devotion School from kindergarten through the beginning of 3rd grade, then Noble and Greenough Lower School and its successor, the Dexter School, a private school for boys, through 4th grade.

In September 1927, Kennedy moved with his family to a rented 20-room mansion in Riverdale, Bronx, New York City, then two years later moved five miles northeast to a 21-room mansion on a six-acre estate in Bronxville, New York, purchased in May 1929. He was a member of Scout Troop 2 at Bronxville from 1929 to 1931 and was to be the first Scout to become President. Kennedy spent summers with his family at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, also purchased in 1929, and Christmas and Easter holidays with his family at their winter home in Palm Beach, Florida, purchased in 1933. He attended Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys in Riverdale, for 5th through 7th grade.

For 8th grade in September 1930, Kennedy was sent fifty miles away to Canterbury School, a lay Catholic boarding school for boys in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he had appendicitis requiring an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home. In September 1931, Kennedy was sent over sixty miles away to The Choate School, an elite private university preparatory boarding school for boys in Wallingford, Connecticut for 9th through 12th grades, following his older brother, Joe, who was two years ahead of him. In January 1934 during his junior year at Choate, he became ill, lost a lot of weight, was hospitalized at Yale-New Haven Hospital until Easter, and spent most of June 1934 hospitalized at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota for evaluation of colitis.

He graduated from Choate in June 1935. Kennedy's superlative in his yearbook was "Most likely to become President". In September 1935, he sailed on the SS Normandie on his first trip abroad with his parents and his sister Kathleen to London with the intent of studying for a year with Professor Harold Laski at the London School of Economics (LSE) as his older brother Joe had done, but after a brief hospitalization with jaundice after less than a week at LSE, he sailed back to America only three weeks after he had arrived. In October 1935, Kennedy enrolled late and spent six weeks at Princeton University, but was then hospitalized for two months observation for possible leukemia at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston in January and February 1936, recuperated at the Kennedy winter home in Palm Beach in March and April, spent May and June working as a ranch hand on a 40,000-acre cattle ranch outside Benson, Arizona, then July and August racing sailboats at the Kennedy summer home in Hyannis Port.

In September 1936, he enrolled as a freshman at Harvard College, residing in Winthrop House during his sophomore through senior years, again following two years behind his older brother Joe. In early July 1937, Kennedy took his convertible, sailed on the SS Washington to France, and spent ten weeks driving with a friend through France, Italy, Germany, Holland and England. In late June 1938, Kennedy sailed with his father and his brother Joe on the SS Normandie to spend July working with his father, recently appointed US Ambassador to the Court of St. James's by President Roosevelt, at the American embassy in London, and August with his family at a villa near Cannes. From February through September 1939, Kennedy toured Europe, the Soviet Union, the Balkans and the Middle East to gather background information for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He spent the last ten days of August in Czechoslovakia and Germany before returning to London on September 1, 1939, the day Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, 1939, Kennedy, along with his brother Joe, his sister Kathleen, and his parents were in the Strangers Gallery of the House of Commons to hear speeches in support of the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of the SS Athenia, before flying back to the U.S. on Pan Am's Dixie Clipper from Foynes, Ireland to Port Washington, New York on his first transatlantic flight at the end of September.

In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, "Appeasement in Munich," about British participation in the Munich Agreement. He initially intended his thesis to be private, but his father encouraged him to publish it as a book. He graduated cum laude from Harvard with a degree in international affairs in June 1940, and his thesis was published in July 1940 as a book entitled Why England Slept, and became a bestseller.

From September to December 1940, Kennedy was enrolled and audited classes at the Stanford Graduate School of Business. In early 1941, he helped his father complete the writing of a memoir of his three years as ambassador. In May and June 1941, Kennedy traveled throughout South America.

Military service

Main article: Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109

In the spring of 1941, Kennedy volunteered for the U.S. Army, but was rejected, mainly because of his troublesome back. Nevertheless, in September of that year, the U.S. Navy accepted him, due to the influence of the director of the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI), a former naval attaché to the Ambassador, his father. As an ensign, Kennedy served in the office which supplied bulletins and briefing information for the Secretary of the Navy. It was during this assignment that the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred. He attended the Naval Reserve Officers Training School and Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center before being assigned for duty in Panama and eventually the Pacific theater. He participated in various commands in the Pacific theater and earned the rank of lieutenant, commanding a patrol torpedo (PT) boat.

Lt. Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the PT-109.

On August 2, 1943, Kennedy's boat, the PT-109, was taking part in a nighttime patrol near New Georgia in the Solomon Islands. It was rammed by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri. Kennedy was thrown across the deck, injuring his already-troubled back. Still, Kennedy towed a wounded man to an island and later to a second island where his crew was subsequently rescued. For these actions, Kennedy received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal under the following citation:

For extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat 109 following the collision and sinking of that vessel in the Pacific War Theater on August 1-2, 1943. Unmindful of personal danger, Lieutenant (then Lieutenant, Junior Grade) Kennedy unhesitatingly braved the difficulties and hazards of darkness to direct rescue operations, swimming many hours to secure aid and food after he had succeeded in getting his crew ashore. His outstanding courage, endurance and leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.

Kennedy's other decorations in World War II included the Purple Heart, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal. He was honorably discharged in early 1945, just a few months before Japan surrendered. The incident was popularized when he became president and would be the subject of several magazine articles, books, comic books, TV specials and a feature length movie, making the PT-109 one of the most famous U.S. Navy ships of the war. Scale models and even G.I. Joe figures based on the incident were still being produced in the 2000s. The coconut which was used to scrawl a rescue message given to Solomon Islander scouts who found him was kept on his presidential desk and is still at the John F. Kennedy Library.

During his presidency, Kennedy privately admitted to friends that he didn't feel that he deserved the medals he had received, because the PT-109 incident had been the result of a botched military operation that had cost the lives of two members of his crew. When asked by a reporter how he became a war hero, Kennedy's joked: "It was involuntary. They sank my boat."

In May 2002, a National Geographic expedition found what is believed to be the wreckage of the PT-109 in the Solomon Islands. One of the Kennedy family also returned to the islands to give a gift to the scouts who are still alive today, but were turned away when they traveled to the inauguration because of communication problems. The Australian coastwatcher who dispatched the natives was also invited to the White House.

Early political career

After World War II, Kennedy considered becoming a journalist before deciding to run for political office. Prior to the war, he hadn't really considered becoming a politician because the family had already pinned its political hopes on his older brother, Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.. Joseph, however, was killed in World War II, making John tops in seniority. When in 1946 US Representative James Michael Curley vacated his seat in an overwhelmingly Democratic district to become mayor of Boston, Kennedy ran for the seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin. He was a congressman for six years but had a mixed voting record, often diverging from President Harry S. Truman and the rest of the Democratic Party. In 1952, he defeated incumbent Republican Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. for the U.S. Senate.

Kennedy married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier on September 12, 1953. He underwent several spinal operations over the following two years, nearly dying (in all he received the Catholic Church's "last rites" four times during his life), and was often absent from the Senate. During his convalescence, he wrote Profiles in Courage, a book describing eight instances in which U.S. Senators risked their careers by standing by their personal beliefs. The book was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957.

In 1956, presidential nominee Adlai Stevenson left the choice of a Vice Presidential nominee to the Democratic convention, and Kennedy finished 2nd in that balloting to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee. Despite this defeat, Kennedy received national exposure from that episode that would prove valuable in subsequent years. His father, Joseph Kennedy, Sr., pointed out that it was just as well that John did not get that nomination, as some people sought to blame anything they could on Catholics, even though it was privately known that any Democrat would have trouble running against Eisenhower in 1956.

John F. Kennedy voted for final passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 after having earlier voted for the "Jury Trial Amendment", which effectively rendered the Act toothless because convictions for violations could not be obtained. Staunch segregationists such as senators James Eastland and John McClellan and Mississippi Governor James Coleman were early supporters of Kennedy's presidential campaign. In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the United States Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a wide margin.

Years later it was revealed that in September 1947 when he was 30 years old and during his first term as a congressman, Kennedy had been diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at The London Clinic with Addison's disease, a rare endocrine disorder. The nature of this and other medical problems were kept secret from the press and public throughout Kennedy's lifetime.

Sen. Joseph McCarthy was a friend of the Kennedy family: Joe Kennedy was a leading McCarthy supporter; Robert F. Kennedy worked for McCarthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated Patricia Kennedy. In 1954, when the Senate was poised to condemn McCarthy, John Kennedy drafted a speech calling for McCarthy censure but never delivered it. When on December 2, 1954, the Senate rendered its highly publicized decision to censure McCarthy, Senator Kennedy in the hospital. Though absent, Kennedy could have "paired" his vote against that of another senator, but chose not to; neither did he ever indicate then or later how he would have voted. The episode seriously damaged Kennedy's support in the liberal community, especially with Eleanor Roosevelt, as late as the 1960 election.

1960 presidential election

Main article: United States presidential election, 1960

John and Jackie Kennedy campaigning in Appleton, Wisconsin in March 1960.

On January 2, 1960, Kennedy declared his intent to run for President of the United States. In the Democratic primary election, he faced challenges from Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota and Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon. Kennedy defeated Humphrey in Wisconsin and West Virginia and Morse in Maryland and Oregon, although Morse's candidacy is often forgotten by historians. He also defeated token opposition (often write in candidates) in New Hampshire, Indiana and Nebraska. In West Virginia, Kennedy visited a coal mine and talked to mine workers to win their support; most people in that conservative, mostly Protestant state were deeply suspicious of Kennedy's Catholicism. His victory in West Virginia cemented his credentials as a candidate with broad popular appeal.

With Humphrey and Morse out of the race, Kennedy's main opponent at the convention in Los Angeles was Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Adlai Stevenson, the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956, was not officially running but had broad grassroots support inside and outside the convention hall. Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri was also a candidate, as were several favorite sons. On July 13, 1960, the Democratic convention nominated Kennedy as its candidate for President. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his Vice Presidential candidate, despite opposition from many liberal delegates and Kennedy's own staff, including Robert Kennedy. He needed Johnson's strength in the South to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since 1916. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, Cuba, and whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his Catholicism would impact his decision-making, he famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters — and the Church does not speak for me." Kennedy also brought up the point of whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Catholic.

In September and October, Kennedy debated Republican candidate and Vice President Richard Nixon in the first televised U.S. presidential debates in US history. During these programs, Nixon, nursing an injured leg and sporting "five o'clock shadow", looked tense and uncomfortable, while Kennedy appeared relaxed, leading the huge television audience to deem Kennedy the winner. Radio listeners, however, either thought Nixon had won or that the debates were a draw. Nixon did not wear make-up during the initial debate, unlike Kennedy. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history--the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in national politics.

Presidency (1961–1963)

John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th President at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."

Foreign policy

Cuba and the Bay of Pigs Invasion

Main article: Bay of Pigs Invasion

Prior to Kennedy's election to the presidency, the Eisenhower Administration created a plan to overthrow the Fidel Castro regime in Cuba. Central to such a plan, which was structured and detailed by the CIA with minimal input from the State Department, was the arming of a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of anti-Castro Cubans. U.S.-trained Cuban insurgents were to invade Cuba and instigate an uprising among the Cuban people in hopes of achieving the goal of removing Castro from power. On April 17, 1961, Kennedy ordered the previously planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. With support from the CIA, in what is known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exiles, called "Brigade 2506," returned to the island in the hope of deposing Castro. However, Kennedy ordered the invasion to take place without US air support. By April 19, 1961, the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading exiles, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. The failure of the plan originated in a lack of dialogue among the military leadership, a result of which was the complete lack of naval support in the face of organized artillery troops on the island who easily incapacitated the exile force as it landed on the beach. After 20 months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident was a major embarrassment for Kennedy, but he took full personal responsibility for the debacle. Furthermore, the incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and lead him to believe that another invasion would occur.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Main article: Cuban Missile Crisis

Kennedy's Cabinet meets during the Cuban Missile Crisis on October 29, 1962.

Meeting Nikita Khrushchev in 1961.

The Cuban Missile Crisis began on October 14, 1962, when American U-2 spy planes took photographs of a Soviet intermediate-range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16, 1962. America would soon be posed with a serious nuclear threat. Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the U.S.S.R., but if the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the threat of nuclear weapons being launched from close distance. Because the weapons were in such close proximity, the U.S. might have been unable to retaliate if they were launched pre-emptively. Another consideration was that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own hemisphere.

Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites, but Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine in which the U.S. Navy inspected all ships arriving in Cuba. He began negotiations with the Soviets and ordered the Soviets to remove all "defensive" material that was being built on Cuba. Without doing so, the Soviet and Cuban peoples would face naval quarantine. A week later, he and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev reached an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles subject to U.N inspections if the U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba. Secretly, Kennedy also promised to remove U.S. ballistic Jupiter missiles from Turkey within six months, although these missiles were already slated for removal. Following this crisis, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since, Kennedy was more cautious in confronting the Soviet Union.

Latin America and Communism

Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, make violent revolution inevitable", Kennedy sought to contain communism in Latin America by establishing the Alliance for Progress, which sent foreign aid to troubled countries in the region and sought greater human rights standards in the region. He worked closely with Puerto Rican Governor Luis Muñoz Marín for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments in the autonomy of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.

Peace Corps

As one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy created the Peace Corps. Through this program, Americans volunteered to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as education, farming, health care and construction.

Vietnam

In South East Asia, Kennedy followed Eisenhower's lead by using limited military action to fight the Communist forces ostensibly led by Ho Chi Minh. Proclaiming a fight against the spread of Communism, Kennedy enacted policies providing political, economic, and military support for the unstable French-installed South Vietnamese government, which included sending 16,000 military advisors and U.S. Special Forces to the area. Kennedy also agreed to the use of free-fire zones, napalm, defoliants and jet planes. U.S. involvement in the area continually escalated until regular U.S. forces were directly fighting the Vietnam War in the next administration. The Kennedy Administration increased military support, but the South Vietnamese military was unable to make headway against the pro-independence Viet-Minh and Viet Cong forces. By July 1963, Kennedy faced a crisis in Vietnam. The Administration's response was to assist in the coup d'état of the Catholic President of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem. In 1963, South Vietnamese generals overthrew the Diem government, arresting Diem and later killing him (though the exact circumstances of his death remain unclear). Kennedy sanctioned Diem's overthrow. One reason for the support was a fear that Diem might negotiate a neutralist coalition government which included Communists, as had occurred in Laos in 1962. Dean Rusk, Secretary of State, remarked "This kind of neutralism...is tantamount to surrender."

It remains a point of controversy among historians whether or not Vietnam would have escalated to the point it did had Kennedy served out his full term and possibly been re-elected in 1964. Fueling this speculation are statements made by Kennedy's and Johnson's Secretary of Defense Robert MacNamara that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election. In the film "The Fog of War", not only does McNamara say this, but a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson confirms that Kennedy was planning to withdraw from Vietnam, a position Johnson states he disapproved of. Additional evidence is Kennedy's National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) #263 on October 11, 1963 that gave the order for withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963. Nevertheless, given the stated reason for the overthrow of the Diem government, such action would have been a dramatic policy reversal, but Kennedy was generally moving in a less hawkish direction in the Cold War since his acclaimed speech about World Peace at American University the previous June 10, 1963.

After Kennedy's assassination, new President Lyndon B. Johnson immediately reversed Kennedy's order to withdraw 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963 with his own NSAM #273 on November 26, 1963.

West Berlin Speech

Kennedy meeting with West Berlin governing mayor Willy Brandt, March 1961

Under simultaneous and opposing pressures from the Allies and the Soviets, Germany was divided. The Berlin Wall separated West and East Berlin, the latter being under the control of the Soviets. On June 26, 1963, Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a public speech criticizing communism. Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: "Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in." The speech is known for its famous phrase "Ich bin ein Berliner". Nearly five-sixths of the population was on the street when Kennedy said the famous phrase. He remarked to aides afterwards: "We'll never have another day like this one."

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

Troubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation, Kennedy pushed for the adoption of a Limited or Partial Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but did not prohibit testing underground. The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to the treaty. Kennedy signed the treaty into law in August 1963.

Ireland

Further information: The Ireland Funds

President Kennedy in motorcade in Ireland on June 27, 1963.

On the occasion of his visit to Ireland in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President Éamon de Valera to form The American Irish Foundation. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. Kennedy furthered these connections of cultural solidarity by accepting a grant of armorial bearings from the Chief Herald of Ireland.

He also visited the original cottage where previous Kennedys had lived before imigrating to America, and said: "This is where it all began ...".

On December 22, 2006, the Irish Justice Department released declassified police documents that indicated that Kennedy was the subject of three death threats during this visit. It was interpreted as a hoax[1]

Domestic policy

Kennedy called his domestic program the "New Frontier". It ambitiously promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also promised an end to racial discrimination. In 1963, he proposed a tax reform which included income tax cuts, but this was not passed by Congress until 1964, after his death. Few of Kennedy's major programs passed Congress during his lifetime, although, under his successor Johnson, Congress did vote them through in 1964–65.

As President, Kennedy oversaw the last pre-Furman federal execution, and last, to date, military execution. In both cases he refused to ask for commutation of the death sentences (Iowa governor Harold Hughes personally contacted Kennedy to request clemency for Victor Feguer, who was sentenced to death under federal law in Iowa, and executed on March 15, 1963).

Civil rights

Kennedy during the State of the Union Address, January 14, 1963.

The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The United States Supreme Court had ruled in 1954 that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. However, many schools, especially in southern states, did not obey the Supreme Court's judgment. Segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, bathrooms, and other public places remained. Kennedy supported racial integration and civil rights, and during the 1960 campaign he telephoned Coretta Scott King; wife of the jailed Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., which perhaps drew some additional black support to his candidacy. John and Robert Kennedy's intervention secured the early release of King from jail.

In 1962, James Meredith tried to enroll at the University of Mississippi, but he was prevented from doing so by white students. Kennedy responded by sending some 400 federal marshals and 3,000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class. Kennedy also assigned federal marshals to protect Freedom Riders.

As President, Kennedy initially believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself from it. As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts.

On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy intervened when Alabama Governor George Wallace blocked the doorway to the University of Alabama to stop two African American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from enrolling. George Wallace moved aside after being confronted by federal marshals, Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and the Alabama National Guard. That evening Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio. Kennedy proposed what would become the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Immigration

John F. Kennedy initially proposed an overhaul of American immigration policy that was later managed on the floor of the U.S. senate by his brother Teddy Kennedy. This 1965 legislation dramatically shifted the source of immigration from Northern and Western European countries towards immigration from Latin America and Asia and shifted the emphasis of selection of immigrants towards facilitating family reunification.

There is debate about how closely the legislation that resulted actually reflected John F. Kennedy's wishes. It is clear that he wanted to dismantle the selection of immigrants based on country of origin-and saw this as an extension of his civil rights policies.

The increase in immigration which resulted from these legislative changes has been quite large-and showed no immediate sign of being curtailed significantly even more than 40 years after JFK's death. By the early part of the 21st century, some of the original Kennedy supporters were critical of the 1965 immigration expansion, including Gene McCarthy who said the 1965 expansion was a huge mistake. However, prominent politicians in both parties were still seeking to further expand immigration including all major candidates in the 2004 and 2008 presidential elections.

Space program

President Kennedy looks at the space craft Friendship 7, the spacecraft which made three earth orbits, piloted by astronaut John Glenn, February 23, 1962, Cape Canaveral, Florida, Hangar S. Photo by Cecil Stoughton.

Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in the space race. Sergei Khrushchev says Kennedy approached his father, Nikita, twice about a "joint venture" in space exploration—in June 1961 and Autumn 1963. On the first occasion, Russia was far ahead of America in terms of space technology. Kennedy first made the goal for landing a man on the Moon in speaking to a Joint Session of Congress on May 25, 1961, saying

"First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish."

Kennedy later made a speech at Rice University in September 1962, in which he said

"No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space"

and

"We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."

On the second approach to Khrushchev, the Russian was persuaded that cost-sharing was beneficial and American space technology was forging ahead. The U.S. had launched a geostationary satellite and Kennedy had asked Congress to approve more than $25 billion for the Apollo Project.

Khrushchev agreed to a joint venture in Autumn 1963, but Kennedy died before the agreement could be formalized. On July 20, 1969, almost six years after JFK's death, Project Apollo's goal was finally realized when men landed on the Moon.

Cabinet

The Kennedy Cabinet
OFFICE	NAME	TERM
President	John F. Kennedy	1961–1963
Vice President	Lyndon B. Johnson	1961–1963
State	Dean Rusk	1961–1963
Treasury	C. Douglas Dillon	1961–1963
Defense	Robert S. McNamara	1961–1963
Justice	Robert F. Kennedy	1961–1963
Postmaster General	J. Edward Day	1961–1963
	John A. Gronouski	1963
Interior	Stewart L. Udall	1961–1963
Agriculture	Orville L. Freeman	1961–1963
Commerce	Luther H. Hodges	1961–1963
Labor	Arthur J. Goldberg	1961–1962
	W. Willard Wirtz	1962–1963
HEW	Abraham A. Ribicoff	1961–1962
	Anthony J. Celebrezze	1962–1963

Supreme Court appointments

Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:

• Byron Raymond White — 1962
• Arthur Joseph Goldberg — 1962

Image, social life and family

Further information: Kennedy political family

John F. Kennedy with wife Jacqueline and children, 1962.

Kennedy and his wife "Jackie" were very young in comparison to earlier Presidents and first ladies, and were both extraordinarily popular in ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines. Jacqueline bought new art and furniture, and eventually restored all the rooms in the White House.

Outside the White House lawn the Kennedys established a preschool, swimming pool and tree house. Jackie did not like the children to be photographed. The resulting photos are probably the most famous of the children, and especially John Jr., after he was photographed playing underneath the President’s desk.

The President was closely tied to popular culture. Things such as "Twisting at the White House" and "Camelot" (the popular Broadway play) were part of the JFK culture. Vaughn Meader's "First Family" comedy album – an album parodying the President, First Lady, their family and administration – sold about 4 million copies. On May 19, 1962, Marilyn Monroe sang for the president at a large birthday party in Madison Square Garden.

Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also suffered many personal tragedies. Jacqueline suffered a miscarriage in 1955 and gave birth to a stillborn daughter, Arabella Kennedy, in 1956. The death of their newborn son, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, in August 1963, was a great loss. Since Kennedy's death, allegations have been made that Kennedy carried on numerous extramarital dalliances during his presidency with women such as Hollywood actress Marilyn Monroe and socialite Mary Pinchot Meyer.

The charisma of Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of "Camelot" for his administration, credited by his widow to his affection for the contemporary Broadway musical of the same name. She gave an interview to Theodore White, where she mentioned the musical Camelot, and White later said that he had "found the headline".

He holds a record acknowledged by the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's fastest speaker in public life, with a speed of 327 words in one minute in a speech given in December 1961.

In October 1951, during his third term as Massachusetts 11th district congressman, the then 34-year-old Kennedy embarked on a seven-week Asian trip to Israel, India, Vietnam and Japan with his then 25-year-old brother Robert (who had just graduated from law school four months earlier) and his then 27-year-old sister Patricia. Because of their eight-year separation in age, the two brothers had previously seen little of each other. This 25,000 mile trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends in addition to being brothers. Robert was campaign manager for Kennedy's successful 1952 Senate campaign and successful 1960 Presidential campaign. The two brothers worked closely together from 1957 to 1959 on the Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor and Management Field (Senate Rackets Committee) when Robert was its chief counsel. During Kennedy's presidency, Robert served in his Cabinet as Attorney General and was his closest advisor.

Kennedy came third (behind Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mother Teresa) in a Gallup list of the most admired people of the twentieth century.

Assassination

Main article: John F. Kennedy assassination

File:JFKmotorcade.jpg

President Kennedy, Jackie, and Governor John Connally in the Presidential limousine shortly before the assassination

President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time on November 22, 1963, while on a political trip through Texas, he was pronounced dead at 1:00pm. Kennedy was struck by two bullets, according to the single bullet theory developed by Arlen Specter. Texas Governor John Connally, seated ahead of Kennedy, was also struck by a single bullet, but survived.

Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested in a theatre about 80 minutes after the assassination and was then charged at 7:00 p.m. for killing a Dallas policeman, J.D Tippit, under "murder with malice". Oswald was then charged at 11:30 p.m. for the murder of Kennedy (there being no charge for "assassination" of a president at that time). Oswald denied shooting anyone; he claimed that he was being set up as a "patsy", and that photographs of him holding the alleged murder weapon were fabrications. Oswald was fatally shot less than two days later on Sunday, November 24 in a Dallas police station by Jack Ruby, in front of TV cameras in the first live murder ever seen by U.S. audiences. Consequently, Oswald's guilt or innocence was never determined in a court of law, and some critics (such as New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison, and conspiracy researchers Mark Lane and David S. Lifton) contend that Oswald was either part of a conspiracy, or framed, or that he was not involved at all.

On November 29, President Lyndon B. Johnson created the Warren Commission—chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren—to investigate the assassination. It concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin.

Conspiracy theories that dispute the official version of US President John F. Kennedy's assassination have been given a major boost by tests in Italy.

Army-supervised tests on a rifle identical to the Italian-made weapon Lee Harvey Oswald allegedly used to murder the president suggest he could not have been working alone.

According to the official Warren Commission report on the assassination, Oswald loaded and fired three shots at Kennedy in seven seconds in Dallas on November 22, 1963. He used a Carcano M91/38 bolt-action rifle. The first shot missed the president, the second went through his back and neck and the third hit Kennedy in the head, killing him. But the Italian tests showed that it would take a minimum of 19 seconds to load and fire three shots using a Carcano M91/38. So there must have been at least one more sniper for so many shots to have been fired in such a short space of time, the experts believe. The tests were carried out at the former Carcano factory in the town of Terni, around 100km north of Rome, where the alleged murder weapon was produced in 1940. The research also raised questions about whether the Commission's conclusion that the third bullet disintegrated when it hit Kennedy's head is compatible with the supposition that Oswald was about 80 meters away in a book depository when he fired the shot.

Tests on the Carcano M91/38 suggested the bullet would have remained intact and come out of Kennedy's forehead, if fired from that distance. The tests also focused on the so-called 'magic bullet' of the second shot. The Warren Report concluded the bullet passed through Kennedy's body and hit then-Texas Governor John Connally in the back, chest and wrist, remaining almost perfectly intact at the end. Bullets fired through two blocks of meat in the Italian tests were so deformed that experts concluded it would have been impossible for the bullet to remain intact. Over the years sceptics have picked at suspected inconsistencies in the official version of the Warren Commission - named after Chief Justice Earl Warren - to support a wide range of conspiracy theories.

The CIA, the Mafia, former FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover and Cuban leader Fidel Castro have all been variously blamed for the assassination by conspiracy theorists.

A later investigation in 1976 by the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) also concluded that Oswald was the assassin, but that there was a "probable conspiracy" as well.

The assassination was captured on film, most famously by Dallas dress manufacturer Abraham Zapruder, directly to the north of the limousine and east of the grassy knoll, as well as by Orville Nix to the south of the motorcade route. Several other films were taken in Dealey Plaza, including that of Marianne "Maria" Muchmore, which shows the limousine slowing at the grassy knoll and agent Clint Hill climbing atop the vehicle.

On February 19, Presidents Day, 2007 new film footage relating to the JFK assassination was donated to the Sixth Floor Museum by George Jefferies, an amateur photographer. The film does not show the assassination, having been taken roughly 90 seconds beforehand and a couple of blocks away. One detail relevant to the investigation of the assassination is a clear view of Kennedy's bunched collar — which has led to different calculations about how low in the back Kennedy was first shot.

Burial

Kennedy's grave at Arlington National Cemetery

On March 14, 1967, Kennedy's body was moved to a permanent burial place and memorial at Arlington National Cemetery. Kennedy is buried with his wife and their deceased minor children, and his brother, the late Senator Robert Kennedy is also buried nearby. His grave is lit with an "Eternal Flame". In the film The Fog of War, then Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara claims that he picked the location in the cemetery — a location which Jackie agreed was suitable. Kennedy and William Howard Taft are the only two U.S. Presidents buried at Arlington.

Legacy

Kennedy's casket departs the White House.

Television became the primary source by which people were kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination. Newspapers were kept as souvenirs rather than sources of updated information. All three major U.S. television networks suspended their regular schedules and switched to all-news coverage from 22 November through 25 November 1963. Kennedy's state funeral procession and the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world.

The assassination had an effect on many people, not only in the U.S., but also among the world population. Many vividly remember where they were when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated. U.N. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson said of the assassination, "all of us... will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours."

Ultimately, the death of President Kennedy and the ensuing confusion surrounding the facts of his assassination are of political and historical importance insofar as they marked a decline in the faith of the American people in the political establishment — a point made by commentators from Gore Vidal to Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.

Coupled with the murder of his own brother, Sen. Robert F. Kennedy, D-N.Y., and that of Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., the five tumultuous years from 1963 to 1968 signalled a growing disillusionment within the well of hope for political and social change which so defined the lives of those who lived through the 1960s. Kennedy's introduction of the U.S. to the Vietnam War preceded President Johnson's escalation of a conflict which contributed to a decade of national difficulties and disappointment on the political landscape. The Watergate scandal of President Richard Nixon's administration is widely recognized as being the final stroke in this process of diminishing trust in the government.

File:Jk35 1.gif

Official Presidential portrait

Many of Kennedy's speeches (especially his inaugural address) are considered iconic; and despite his relatively short term in office and lack of major legislative changes during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best Presidents, in the same league as Abraham Lincoln, George Washington and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Some excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on a plaque at his grave at Arlington.

He was posthumously awarded the Pacem in Terris Award. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations. Pacem in Terris is Latin for 'Peace on Earth.'

Memorials

• New York International Airport (formerly known as Idlewild Airport) was renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24, 1963. Today, the airport is widely referred to as "JFK."
• The John F. Kennedy Expressway, a major expressway in Chicago, was renamed for Kennedy by unanimous vote of Chicago City Council a few days after the president's assassination.
• Kennedy Blvd (Florida State Road 60) in Tampa, Florida was renamed for Kennedy in 1964 by unanimous vote of Tampa City Council following his visit to Tampa on November 18, 1963, a year before his assassination. His motorcade drove five miles down Grand Central Avenue to the heart of the business district.
• NASA's Launch Operations Center at Cape Canaveral was renamed the John F. Kennedy Space Center. Cape Canaveral itself was likewise renamed Cape Kennedy, but reverted to its original name in 1973.
• A Kennedy memorial was established in Runnymede, England, where the Magna Carta was signed.
• A stretch of Interstate 95 in Maryland, running from the Baltimore Beltway to the State Line, where it becomes the Delaware Turnpike, had been dedicated by President Kennedy on November 14, 1963, eight days before his assassination. It was soon renamed the John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway.
• The U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy was named on April 30, 1964, and served until March 23, 2007.

Kennedy has appeared on the U.S. half-dollar coin since 1964

• The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library opened in 1979 as Kennedy's official presidential library.
• John F. Kennedy University opened in Pleasant Hill, California, in 1964 as a school for adult education.
• The John F. Kennedy National Historic Site preserves his home in Brookline.
• At Harvard University:
  • The Harvard Institute of Politics serves as a living memorial which promotes public service in his name.
  • The School of Government is known as the John F. Kennedy School of Government.
• The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts opened in 1971 in Washington, D.C. as a living memorial to him.
• A new, unnamed bridge spanning the Ohio River between Louisville, Kentucky and Jeffersonville, Indiana, completed four days ahead of Kennedy's assassination, was named the John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge soon after his assassination.
• Hundreds of schools across the U.S. were named in his honor.
• Philadelphia Municipal Stadium was renamed John F. Kennedy Stadium in 1964.
• Kennedy was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963.
• Since 1964, Kennedy's portrait has appeared on the United States half dollar coin, replacing Benjamin Franklin.
• Yad Kennedy, a memorial to the U.S. president, was established on a crest in the Jerusalem Forest, on the southwest outskirts of Jerusalem near Aminadav.
• One of the Solomon Islands is named Kennedy Island.
• The city of Evansville, Indiana observed John F. Kennedy Day on November 22, 2003 to mark the 40th anniversary of his death.
• One of the five residential towers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst is named Kennedy Tower in his honor.
• In February 2007, Kennedy's name, along with his wife's, was included on a list taken aboard the Japanese SELENE spacecraft to the Moon, as part of The Planetary Society's Messages From Earth project.
• The U.S. Army's John F. Kennedy School of Special Warfare is named after the late president because of his support for the Army Rangers and Green Berets.
• The first school in the United States named after him was Kennedy Middle School, in Cupertino, California, in 1960

The park in Eyre Square, Galway City, Ireland is called John F. Kennedy Park, after his visit in 1963.

Criticism

A right-wing anti-Kennedy handbill/poster circulated on November 21, 1963 in Dallas, Texas — one day before the assassination of John F. Kennedy

The Civil Rights Act which he sent to Congress in June 1963 was, in large part, conceived by his brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and it was signed into law by his successor to the Presidency, Lyndon B. Johnson, in 1964.

Kennedy dated actress Gene Tierney, who was separated from her then husband fashion designer Oleg Cassini in 1946. In her book Self-portrait Ms. Tierney recalls how over an informal brunch Jack just stated that he could never marry her because of her pending divorce, if he was to be the first elected Catholic President (moreover, she was also a Protestant). Subsequently, Tierney folded her napkin and left the cafe. Mr. Cassini was hired as the exclusive designer for the First Lady after the election.

Seymour Hersh's The Dark Side of Camelot (1998) presents a critical analysis of the Kennedy administration, stating that Kennedy "was probably one of the unhealthiest men ever to sit in the Oval Office". Robert Dallek's An Unfinished Life (2003) is a more traditional biography, but it contains many details about Kennedy's health issues.

Noam Chomsky, in his book Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War, and US Political Culture (1993), presents a thesis on the Kennedy administration in opposition to the one that lingers in the memory of many Americans.

See also

Family

• Caroline Kennedy
• Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis
• John F. Kennedy, Jr.
• Kennedy family
• Robert F. Kennedy
• Ted Kennedy

Transportation

• John F. Kennedy International Airport

History of

• United States presidential election, 1960
• History of the United States (1945–1964)
• State funeral of John F. Kennedy
• Jesuit Ivy

Political policy

• Peace Corps
• Kennedy Doctrine

Staff

• Evelyn Lincoln, personal secretary to the President

Assassination

• John F. Kennedy assassination
• Nellie Connally
• John Connally
• Zapruder film, photographer of the primary film of assassination
• Orville Nix, photographer of the second film of assassination
• Kennedy assassination theories
• Robert F. Kennedy assassination
• Kennedy Curse
• List of assassinated American politicians

Memorials/legacy

• John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame at Arlington National Cemetery
• John F. Kennedy Memorial at Runnymede, England
• John F. Kennedy Memorial near Jerusalem
• Kennedy Memorial Trust
• Kennedy half dollar
• Five cents John Kennedy postage stamp
• List of people on stamps of Ireland
• John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts
• John F. Kennedy Library in Boston
• Historical rankings of United States Presidents

Coincidences/trivia

• Coincidence theory
• "Senator, you are no Jack Kennedy" retort by Senator Lloyd Bentsen, 1988 VP debate
• G.I. Joe figure as PT-109 commander
• JFK Reloaded

Kennedy in fiction and song

Cartoons and comic books:

• In the South Park episode Weight Gain 4000, Kennedy's assassination is parodied when schoolteacher Mr. Garrison goes into the Book Depository in an attempt to shoot Kathie Lee Gifford during a motorcade.
• In an episode of The Simpsons, Homer Simpson and Abraham Lincoln sneak up on Lee Harvey Oswald and, in doing so, prevent the assassination of President Kennedy.
• "Superman" N0170 and Action Comics N0's 285 and 309 published by DC Comics, where President Kennedy appears as himself within fictional comic story lines.
• On the cartoon show Clone High, one of the main characters, "JFK", is a young, aggressive, hyper macho clone of Kennedy's who seems to very much look up to his forefather and namesake. Like Kennedy, he was outgoing, charismatic, a ladies man and athletic. Unfortunately, the clone only recognized those aspects of Kennedy's personality, and when told that Kennedy was a caring leader who inspired a generation of young people, the clone responded "I thought he was a macho womanizing stud who "conquered the moon".
• Kennedy's ghost appears in the comic book Hellblazer, in an arc titled "Damnation's Flame", where he accompanies protagonist John Constantine across a Hellish version of America.
• Kennedy's assassination is parodied in the cartoon Robot Chicken, when a mongoose is shown to shoot President Kennedy and, in doing so, frames Lee Harvey Oswald.
• In one episode of 'Family Guy' Lee Harvey Oswald is seen in the infamous book store window where he states: "Oh my god, that man on the grassy knoll is going to shoot President Kennedy!". He then takes up a rifle, looks through the scope, and utters the words: "C'mon Lee, time to become an American hero..." End Scene.

Films and television productions:

• In the 1997 episode "Tikka to Ride" of the British comedy series Red Dwarf, the main characters accidentally foil the Kennedy assassination, causing severe problems with their own time. They return, and after several failed attempts to correct the timeline, enlist the help of Kennedy, who survives to become his own second gunman. Kennedy dresses like a police officer, a reference to the Badge man photograph, and shoots from the "Grassy Knoll". This was a highly controversial episode.
• At the end of the 1996 film The Rock, the main character Stanley Goodspeed discovers a roll of microfilm, and then - when he examines it - asks his girlfriend 'You wanna know who killed JFK?'. These, however, are the last lines of the film.
• In the 2002 film Timequest, a group of time-travelers arrive back in time and thwart the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
• An early story for the film "Star Trek II" featured the crew of the "Enterprise" going back in time to save President Kennedy.

Songs:

• Several popular songs deal with Kennedy and his assassination. These include:
  • "Peter Pumpkin Head" by XTC. The song is about how Kennedy won the hearts of the common men with his integrity and idealism, but was killed by those who felt threatend by all the things he stood for.
  • "House on the Gassy Knoll" by SaltRock BikLop Records. The song is about how there could have been a shooter on the grassy knoll.
  • "PT-109" by Jimmy Dean in 1962 became a Top 10 single and was written in honor of President Kennedy.
  • Warmth of the Sun" by The Beach Boys, written as a tribute to Kennedy.
  • "Crucifixion" and "That was the President" by Phil Ochs.
  • "1963." by New Order. The song is loosely a fantasy about JFK having his wife killed so he could be with Marilyn Monroe.
  • "Abraham, Martin and John" by Dion, a memorial to Kennedy, his brother Robert, Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King.
  • "What the World Needs Now/Abraham, Martin and John" is an audio montage assembled by Tom Clay with the two songs in the title combined with radio soundbites from the Kennedy Assassinations, and Martin Luther King's mountaintop speech
  • "Foreign Policy" by The Buckinghams released in 1968 has a portion of a speech made by JFK on the flip side of "Susan".
  • "The Day John Kennedy Died" by Lou Reed, in which Reed lists some things he dreamed he forgot.
  • "Life in a Northern Town" by The Dream Academy.
  • Glenn Danzig wrote a song about the assassination called Bullet for his band at that time, The Misfits.
  • "Dallas 1 P.M." by Saxon. References by the English Heavy Metal band to the events of the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
  • "Brain of J." by Pearl Jam.
  • "Last Straw" by Jack's Mannequin.
  • "President Kennedy" by Son House.
  • "Glad I'm Not A Kennedy" by Shona Laing conjures up the whole Kennedy family myth.
  • "He Was a Friend of Mine" by the Byrds makes specific reference to his assassination.
  • "I Know Jack" by Megadeth refers to him.
  • "Sympathy for the Devil" by the Rolling Stones contains the line "I shouted out, 'Who killed the kennedys?' when after all, it was you and me."
  • "Misifts" by Neil Young mentions an astronaut in a space station, "living Kennedy's dream."
  • "Sleeping In" by The Postal Sevice mentions his assassination.
  • "Captain Kennedy" by Neil Young seems to reference the sinking of PT-109.
  • "We Didn't Start the Fire" by Billy Joel, which lists 20th century events.
  • "Martin Sheen or JFK" by Yellowcard.
  • "Family Snapshot" by Peter Gabriel is an account of the assassination from the perspective of Oswald.
  • "Civil War" by Guns n' Roses contains the line "[I]n my first memory, they shot Kennedy."
  • "A Place in the Dirt" by Marilyn Manson contains the line "[P]ut me in the Motorcade" which refers to Kennedy's motorcade when he was assassinated.
  • "Target Audience" by Marilyn Manson contains the line "[A]m I sorry I killed the Kennedy's, and Huxley too." which refers to John F Kennedy himself. Another line in this song says "Am I sorry for Booth and Oswald.." which references John F. Kennedy's alleged assassin Lee Harvy Oswald.
  • "Valentine's Day" by Marilyn Manson contains the line "[S]he was the color of TV. Her mouth curled under like a metal snake. Although holy wood was sad, they'd remember this as Valentine's day" which refers to JFK's wife Jackie and the grief that the country felt for the loss of their president on Valentine's day.
  • "God Eat God" by Marilyn Manson contains the line Dear John and all the king's men couldn't put your head together again," a reference to the fact that Kennedy's skull was shattered by the assassin's bullet.
  • "Coma White" by Marilyn Manson. The video generated controversy as it featured a reenactment of the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Manson said the video used the Kennedy assassination "as a metaphor for America's obsession and worship of violence. "My statement was always intended to make people think of how they view and sometimes participate in these events." Further, the video, "is in no way a mockery. In fact, it is a tribute to men like Jesus Christ and JFK who have died at the hands of mankind's unquenchable thirst for violence."

Kennedy portrayed in film and television

Films:

• PT 109 (1963): played by Cliff Robertson
• JFK (1991): about the assassination; played by Steve Reed
• Malcolm X (1992): played by Steve Reed again
• Ruby (1992): played by Gérard David and Kevin Wiggins
• Forrest Gump (1994): played by Jed Gillin
• Thirteen Days (2000): played by Bruce Greenwood
• Timequest (2002): played by Victor Slezak
• Bubba Ho-tep (2002): played by Ossie Davis
• C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America (2004): through use of historical archive footage, he is the Republican candidate for President of the Confederacy in 1960, winning against Democrat Richard Nixon. He ran on a platform of possible abolitionism of slavery and women's suffrage, but was still assassinated.

TV:

• The Missiles of October (1974, TV): played by William Devane
• The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover (1977): played by William Jordan
• Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye (1977, TV): played by Paul Rudd
• Young Joe, the Forgotten Kennedy (1977, TV): played by Sam Chew, Jr.
• King (1978, TV): played by William Jordan again
• Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy (1981, TV): played by James Franciscus
• Blood Feud (1983, TV): played by Sam Groom
• Kennedy (1983, TV): played by Martin Sheen
• Prince Jack (1985, TV): played by Robert Hogan
• Robert Kennedy & His Times (1985, TV): played by Cliff De Young
• J. Edgar Hoover (1987, TV): played by Art Hindle
• LBJ: The Early Years (1987, TV): played by Charles Frank
• Onassis: The Richest Man in the World (1988, TV): played by David Gillum
• The Kennedys of Massachusetts (1990, TV): played by Steven Weber
• A Woman Named Jackie (1991, TV): played by Stephen Collins
• Sinatra (1992, TV): played by James F. Kelly
• J.F.K.: Reckless Youth (1993, TV): played by Patrick Dempsey
• Norma Jean & Marilyn (1996, TV): played by Perry Stephens
• Red Dwarf: Tikka to Ride (1997, TV): played by Michael Shannon
• The Rat Pack (1998, TV): played by William L. Petersen
• Bonanno: A Godfather's Story (1999, TV): played by Matt Norklun
• Jackie Bouvier Kennedy Onassis (2000, TV): played by Tim Matheson, who at the time was also playing a fictional vice president on the series The West Wing
• How to Marry a Billionaire: A Christmas Tale (2000, TV): played by Dabney Coleman
• Jackie, Ethel, Joan: The Women of Camelot (2001, TV): played by Daniel Hugh Kelly
• Power and Beauty (2002, TV): played by Kevin Anderson
• RFK (2002, TV): played by Martin Donovan
• America's Prince: The John F. Kennedy Jr. Story (2003, TV): played by Randy Triggs
• Days That Shook the World episode JFK (2003, TV): played by Karl J. Morris

References

Primary sources

• Goldzwig, Steven R. and Dionisopoulos, George N., eds. In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy, text and analysis of key speeches (1995)

Secondary sources

• Brauer, Carl. John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (1977)
• Burner, David. John F. Kennedy and a New Generation (1988)
• Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life : John F. Kennedy, 1917 – 1963. Brown, Little. ISBN 0-316-17238-3.
• Collier, Peter & Horowitz, David. The Kennedys (1984)
• Freedman, Lawrence. Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam (2000)
• Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (1997)
• Giglio, James. The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1991), standard scholarly overview of policies
• Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited (1988), scholarly articles on presidency
• Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962)
• Heath, Jim F. Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy–Johnson Years (1976), general survey of decade
• Hersh, Seymour. The Dark Side of Camelot (1997), highly negative assessment
• House Select Committee on Assassinations. Final Assassinations Report (1979)
• Kunz, Diane B. The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s (1994)
• O'Brien, Michael. John F. Kennedy: A Biography (2005), the most detailed biography
• Parmet, Herbert. Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (1980)
• Parmet, Herbert. JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1983)
• Piper, Michael Collins. Final Judgment (2004: sixth edition). American Free Press.
• Reeves, Richard. President Kennedy: Profile of Power (1993), balanced assessment of policies
• Reeves, Thomas. A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy (1991) hostile assessment of his character flaws
• Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (1965), by a close advisor
• Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. Robert Kennedy And His Times (2002)
• Smith, Jean Edward. Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years. Air University Review (March–April 1967) [2]
• Smith, Jean Edward. The Defense of Berlin, Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Press (1963)
• Smith, Jean Edward. The Wall as Watershed, Arlington, Virginia. Institute for Defense Analysis (1966)
• Smith, Jean Edward. "The Bay of Pigs: The Unanswered Questions". The Nation, pp. 360–363 (April 13, 1964)
• Sorensen, Theodore. Kennedy (1966), by a close advisor
• Walsh, Kenneth T. Air Force One: A History of the Presidents and Their Planes (2003)

Media

President Kennedy comments on the possible prevention of the Cold War.

The sound file for President Kennedy

The sound file of the message to Turkish President Cemal Gursel and The Turkish People on the Anniversary of the Death of Kemal Ataturk, November 10, 1963

The sound file for Kennedy's speech

The Text of the message to Turkish President Cemal Gursel and The Turkish People on the Anniversary of the Death of Kemal Ataturk, November 10, 1963

File:JFKennedy1963 text.pdf

The text of Kennedy's speech

External links

• Extensive essay on John F. Kennedy (with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs)
• Full audio of Kennedy speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
• Kennedy's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
• Template:Nndb name
• Video Footage of John F. Kennedy
• Video, Audio, Text of John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address
• John F. Kennedy Library
• John F. Kennedy Birthplace National Historic Site
• The White House Biography
• JFK at the Avalon Project
• Kennedy Administration Official Documentary Historical Record of Major Foreign Policy Decisions from The Foreign Relations of the United States Series, United States Department of State, Office of the Historian, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
• Armigerous American Presidents Series
• The JFK Years And Popular Culture
• Audio clips of Kennedy's speeches and other commentary
• JFK Reloaded — Recreate the assassination of JFK
• InnerVIEWS with Ernie Manouse: Nellie Connally (TV interview with in-car eyewitness of Kennedy's assassination)
• Assassination of President Kennedy Encyclopaedia
• McAdams website about JFK
• Facts and Fiction in the Kennedy Assassination
• Interview with Lyndon Johnson’s mistress, (the late) Madeleine Duncan Brown, who states that LBJ and his Texas friends had JFK assassinated (1 hour and 21 minutes)
• John F. Kennedy in United States Census Records
• Medical and Health history of John F. Kennedy
• Works by John F. Kennedy at Project Gutenberg
• St. John the Liberal?
• Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
• Gretchen Rubin radio interview: November 4, 2005 on Up To Date
• John F. Kennedy's inaugural address: from the National Archives
• Presidents of the United States
• Archive.org collection of audio recordings
• JFK Speech on Secret Societies and Freedom of the Press
• New video footage released of JFK's last moments

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