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For other uses, see Elizabeth II (disambiguation).

Elizabeth II
Elderly Elizabeth with a smile
Elizabeth II in 2007
Queen of the Commonwealth realms
List
Reign6 February 1952 – present
Coronation2 June 1953
PredecessorGeorge VI
Heir apparentCharles, Prince of Wales
Prime MinistersSee list
Born (1926-04-21) 21 April 1926 (age 98)
Mayfair, London, England, United Kingdom
SpousePrince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (m. 1947)
Issue
Detail
Names
Elizabeth Alexandra Mary
HouseHouse of Windsor
FatherGeorge VI
MotherElizabeth Bowes-Lyon
Religion

Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926)[note 1] is the constitutional monarch of 16 sovereign states (known as the Commonwealth realms) and their territories and dependencies, as well as head of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations. She is Supreme Governor of the Church of England and, in some of her realms, carries the title of Defender of the Faith as part of her full title.

On her accession on 6 February 1952, Queen Elizabeth became Head of the Commonwealth and queen regnant of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon. From 1956 to 1992, the number of her realms varied as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. At present, in addition to the first four aforementioned countries, Elizabeth is Queen of Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda and Saint Kitts and Nevis. Her reign of 72 years is currently the second longest for a British monarch; only Queen Victoria has reigned longer at 63 years.

Elizabeth was born in London and educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne as George VI in 1936 on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, in which she served in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In 1947, she married Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, with whom she has four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward. Her coronation service took place in 1953 and was the first to be televised.

The Queen's many historic visits and meetings include a state visit to the Republic of Ireland and reciprocal visits to and from the Pope. The Queen has seen major constitutional changes in her realms, such as devolution in the United Kingdom and the patriation of the Canadian constitution. Times of personal significance have included the births and marriages of her children, the births of her grandchildren, the investiture of the Prince of Wales, and the celebration of milestones such as her Silver, Golden, and Diamond Jubilees in 1977, 2002, and 2012, respectively.

Major events in the Queen's reign have included the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Falklands War, wars with Iraq and the War in Afghanistan. There have been times of personal sorrow for her which include the death of her father at 56, the assassination of Prince Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten, the breakdown of her children's marriages in 1992 (a year deemed her annus horribilis), the death in 1997 of her daughter-in-law, Diana, Princess of Wales, and the deaths of her mother and sister in 2002. The Queen has occasionally faced severe press criticism of the royal family and republican sentiments, but support for the monarchy and her personal popularity remain high.

Early life

Elizabeth as a thoughtful-looking toddler with curly, fair hair
Princess Elizabeth aged 3, 1929

Elizabeth was the first child of Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), and his wife, Elizabeth. Her father was the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. Her mother was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was born by Caesarean section at 2.40 am (GMT) on 21 April 1926 at her maternal grandfather's London house: 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair.[1] She was baptised by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May,[2][note 2] and named Elizabeth after her mother, Alexandra after George V's mother, who had died six months earlier, and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[3] Her close family called her "Lilibet".[4] George V cherished his granddaughter, and during his serious illness in 1929 her regular visits were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.[5]

Elizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was four years younger. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as "Crawfie".[6] Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music.[7] To the dismay of the royal family,[8] in 1950 Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses. The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness and her attitude of responsibility.[9] Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant."[10] Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[11]

Heiress presumptive

Elizabeth (right) with her grandmother Queen Mary and sister Margaret, 1939

As a granddaughter of the monarch in the male line, Elizabeth's full style at birth was Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth of York. She was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle, Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young and many assumed he would marry and have children of his own.[12] In 1936, when her grandfather, George V, died and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second in line to the throne after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[13] Elizabeth's father became king and she became heiress presumptive, with the style Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth.[14] If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as heiress presumptive as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[15]

Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[16] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[17] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her own age.[18] Later she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[17]

In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and visited the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, as her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[19] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[20] They corresponded regularly and,[20] on 18 May, she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call.[19]

Second World War

In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During this period, when London was frequently subject to aerial bombardment, many of London's children were evacuated. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[21] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[22] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[23] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[24] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[25] She stated:

We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.[25]

In 1943, at the age of 16, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed Colonel-in-Chief the previous year.[26] As she approached her 18th birthday, the law was changed so that she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[27] In February 1945, she joined the Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service, as an honorary Second Subaltern with the service number of 230873.[28] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was promoted to honorary Junior Commander five months later.[29][30]

Elizabeth (left) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with (left to right) her mother Queen Elizabeth, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, King George VI, and Princess Margaret, 8 May 1945

At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, the princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[31]

During the war, several proposals were made within the government to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales.[32] The proposals included making the princess the Constable of Caernarvon Castle, a post that was held at the time by David Lloyd George. Home Secretary Herbert Morrison took forward another plan: for her to become patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth).[32] Welsh politicians proposed that Elizabeth be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday.[33] The ideas were all abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[32] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[34]

In 1947 Princess Elizabeth made her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge:

"I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong."[35]

Marriage

Further information: Wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh

Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[36] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip and they began to exchange letters.[37] Their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[38]

The engagement was not without controversy: Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[39] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[40] Elizabeth's mother was reported, in later biographies, to have opposed the union initially, even dubbing Philip "The Hun".[41] In later life, however, she told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[42]

Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[43] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[44]

Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2500 wedding gifts from around the world.[45] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[46] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[47] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited.[48]

Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[49] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[50]

Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until 4 July 1949,[45] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Protectorate of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently, for several months at a time, in the Maltese hamlet of Gwardamanġia, at the Villa Gwardamanġia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[51]

Reign

Accession and coronation

Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
Elizabeth in crown and robes next to her husband in military uniform
Coronation portrait of Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh, June 1953

During 1951, George VI's health declined and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Truman in Washington, D.C. in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration for use if the King died while she was on tour.[52] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King. Philip broke the news to the new queen.[53] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[54] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[55] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[56]

With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so Windsor it remained. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[57] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[58]

Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret informed her sister that she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcee 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[59] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit re-marriage after divorce. If Margaret contracted a civil marriage, she would be expected to renounce her right of succession.[60] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[61] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They were divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[62]

Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation went ahead, as Mary had asked before she died, taking place as planned on 2 June 1953.[63] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[64][note 3] Elizabeth's coronation gown was commissioned from Norman Hartnell and embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of the Commonwealth countries:[65] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[66]

Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth

Further information: Historical development of the Commonwealth realms
A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven prime ministers in evening dress or national costume.
Elizabeth II and her Commonwealth Prime Ministers, at the 1960 Commonwealth Prime Minister's Conference, Windsor Castle

The Queen witnessed, over her life, the ongoing transformation of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations.[67] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[68] Spanning 1953–54, the Queen and her husband embarked on a six-month around-the-world tour. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[69] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[70] Throughout her reign, the Queen has undertaken state visits to foreign countries and tours of Commonwealth ones and she is the most widely travelled head of state in history.[71]

In 1956, French Prime Minister Guy Mollet and British Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor of the European Union.[72] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[73]

The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended that she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, as a result of which the Queen appointed their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[74]

The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[75] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[76] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and physically attacked by a member of the public appalled at his comments.[77] Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised the Queen to appoint the Earl of Home as prime minister, advice that she followed.[78] The Queen again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister.[78] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving her of involvement.[79]

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In 1957, she made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session.[80] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada,[80][81] despite learning upon landing at St. John's, Newfoundland, that she was pregnant with her third child.[82] In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[83] On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins.[84] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen."[84] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported that extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination.[85][86][87] No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; the Queen's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.[88]

The Queen with Prime Minister Edward Heath (left), U.S. President Richard Nixon and First Lady Pat Nixon, 1970

Elizabeth's pregnancies with Princes Andrew and Edward, in 1959 and 1963, mark the only times she has not performed the State Opening of the British parliament during her reign.[89] In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, she also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[90]

The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. Over 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith, in opposition to moves toward majority rule, declared unilateral independence from Britain while still expressing "loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth. Although the Queen dismissed him in a formal declaration, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade.[91]

In February 1974, British Prime Minister Edward Heath advised the Queen to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[92] The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. Heath only resigned when discussions on forming a coalition government foundered, after which the Queen asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[93]

A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.[94] As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, stating that she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general.[95] The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.[94]

Silver Jubilee

In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed the Queen's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband.[96] In 1978, the Queen endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena,[97] though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands".[98] The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[99]

According to Paul Martin, Sr., by the end of the 1970s the Queen was worried the Crown "had little meaning for" Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.[100] Tony Benn said that the Queen found Trudeau "rather disappointing".[100] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind the Queen's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[100] In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found the Queen "better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[100] She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.[100] Patriation removed the role of the British parliament from the Canadian constitution, but the monarchy was retained. Trudeau said in his memoirs that the Queen favoured his attempt to reform the constitution and that he was impressed by "the grace she displayed in public" and "the wisdom she showed in private".[101]

1980s

Elizabeth in red uniform on a black horse
Elizabeth riding Burmese at a Trooping the Colour ceremony

During the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony and only six weeks before the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at the Queen from close range as she rode down The Mall on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered that the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three.[102] The Queen's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.[103] From April to September 1982, the Queen remained anxious[104] but proud[105] of her son, Prince Andrew, who was serving with British forces during the Falklands War. On 9 July, the Queen awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. Remaining calm and through two calls to the palace police switchboard, she spoke to Fagan while he sat at the foot of her bed until assistance arrived seven minutes later.[106] Though she hosted US President Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visited his Californian ranch in 1983, she was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.[107]

Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, not all of which were entirely true.[108] As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards."[109] Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not." It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that the Queen was worried that British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation.[110] Thatcher reputedly said the Queen would vote for the Social Democratic Party—Thatcher's political opponents.[111] Thatcher's biographer John Campbell claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[112] Belying reports of acrimony between them, Thatcher later conveyed her personal admiration for the Queen and,[113] after Thatcher's replacement as Prime Minister by John Major, the Queen gave two honours in her personal gift to Thatcher: appointment to the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter.[114] Former Canadian prime minister Brian Mulroney said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending apartheid in South Africa.[115][116]

In 1987, in Canada, Elizabeth publicly pronounced her support for that country's politically divisive Meech Lake Accord, prompting criticism from opponents of the constitutional amendments, including Pierre Trudeau.[115] The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. Elizabeth, as monarch of Fiji, supported the attempts of the Governor-General, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau, and declared Fiji a republic.[117] By the start of 1991, republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of the Queen's private wealth—which were contradicted by the palace—and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family.[118] The involvement of the younger royals in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout was ridiculed,[119] and the Queen was the target of satire.[120]

1990s

In 1991, in the wake of victory in the Gulf War, the Queen became the first British monarch to address a joint session of the United States Congress.[121]

Elizabeth, in formal dress, holds a pair of spectacles to her mouth in a thoughtful pose
Prince Philip and Elizabeth II, October 1992

In a speech on 24 November 1992, to mark the 40th anniversary of her accession, the Queen called 1992 her annus horribilis, meaning horrible year.[122] In March, her second son Prince Andrew, Duke of York, and his wife Sarah, Duchess of York, separated; in April, her daughter Anne, Princess Royal, divorced her husband Captain Mark Phillips;[123] during a state visit to Germany in October, angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at her;[124] and, in November, Windsor Castle suffered severe fire damage. The monarchy received increased criticism and public scrutiny.[125] In an unusually personal speech, the Queen said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it be done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding".[126] Two days later, Prime Minister John Major announced reforms of the royal finances that had been planned since the previous year, including the Queen paying income tax for the first time from 1993 and a reduction in the civil list.[127] In December, Charles, Prince of Wales and his wife, Diana, Princess of Wales, formally separated.[128] The year ended with a lawsuit as the Queen sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before its broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity.[129]

In the ensuing years, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued.[130] Even though support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republicanism remained a minority viewpoint and the Queen herself had high approval ratings.[131] Criticism was focused on the institution of monarchy itself and the Queen's wider family rather than the Queen's own behaviour and actions.[132] In consultation with Prime Minister Major, Archbishop of Canterbury George Carey, her private secretary Robert Fellowes and her husband, she wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, saying that a divorce was desirable.[133] A year after the divorce, which took place in 1996, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997. The Queen was on holiday with her son and grandchildren at Balmoral. Diana's two sons wanted to attend church and so the Queen and Prince Philip took them that morning.[134] After that single public appearance, for five days the Queen and the Duke shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private,[135] but the royal family's seclusion and a failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace caused public dismay.[116][136] Pressured by the hostile reaction, the Queen agreed to a live broadcast to the world and returned to London to deliver it on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral.[137] In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings "as a grandmother" for Princes William and Harry.[138] As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.[138]

Golden Jubilee

In evening wear, Elizabeth and President Bush hold wine glasses of water and smile
Elizabeth II and George W. Bush share a toast during a state dinner at the White House, 7 May 2007
Street scene of Elizabeth and spectators
Elizabeth II (centre, in pink) during a walkabout in Queen's Park, Toronto, 6 July 2010

In 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee as queen. Her sister and mother died in February and March, respectively, and the media speculated as to whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure.[139] She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, which began in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable" after a power cut plunged the King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness.[140] As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events and monuments were named to honour the occasion. A million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London,[141] and the enthusiasm shown by the public for the Queen was greater than many journalists had predicted.[142]

Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.[143] Two months later, she was seen in public with a bandage on her right hand, which led to press speculation of ill health.[144] She had been bitten by one of her corgis while she was separating two that were fighting.[145]

In May 2007, The Daily Telegraph newspaper reported claims from unnamed sources that the Queen was "exasperated and frustrated" by the policies of British Prime Minister Tony Blair, that she had shown concern that the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair repeatedly.[146] She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland.[147] On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, the Queen attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.[148] At the invitation of Irish President Mary McAleese, the Queen in May 2011 made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch.[149]

The Queen addressed the United Nations for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as queen of all her realms and Head of the Commonwealth.[150] UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon introduced her as "an anchor for our age".[151] During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for the British victims of the 11 September attacks.[151] The Queen's visit to Australia in October 2011, her 16th since 1954, was called her "farewell tour" in the press because of her age.[152]

Diamond Jubilee and beyond

Main article: Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II

Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee in 2012 marks 60 years as queen, with celebrations throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. In a message released on Accession Day, she stated: "In this special year, as I dedicate myself anew to your service, I hope we will all be reminded of the power of togetherness and the convening strength of family, friendship and good neighbourliness ... I hope also that this Jubilee year will be a time to give thanks for the great advances that have been made since 1952 and to look forward to the future with clear head and warm heart".[153] She and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth realms on her behalf.[154][155][156] On 4 June, jubilee beacons were lit around the world.[157]

She is the longest-lived and second-longest-reigning monarch of the United Kingdom and the second-longest-serving current head of state (after King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand). She does not intend to abdicate,[158] though the proportion of public duties performed by Prince Charles may increase as Elizabeth reduces her commitments.[159]

The Queen opened the 2012 Summer Olympics on 27 July and the Paralympics on 29 August 2012 in London. She played herself in a short film as part of the Olympics opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond.[160] Her father opened the 1948 London Olympics and her great-grandfather, Edward VII, opened the 1908 London Olympics. She also opened the 1976 Olympics in Montreal and Prince Philip opened the 1956 Olympics in Melbourne.[161] She is the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two different countries.[162]

Public perception and character

Main article: Personality and image of Queen Elizabeth II

Since Elizabeth rarely gives interviews, little is known of her personal feelings. As a constitutional monarch, she has not expressed her own political opinions in a public forum. She does have a deep sense of religious and civic duty and takes her coronation oath seriously.[163] Aside from her official religious role as Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, she personally worships with that church and with the national Church of Scotland.[164] She has demonstrated support for inter-faith relations and has met with leaders of other churches and religions, including three popes: John XXIII, John Paul II and Benedict XVI. A personal note about her faith often features in her annual Royal Christmas Message broadcast to the Commonwealth, such as in 2000, when she spoke about the theological significance of the millennium marking the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Jesus Christ:

To many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and example.[165]

Elizabeth and Ronald Reagan on black horses. He bare-headed; she in a headscarf; both in tweeds, jodhpurs and riding boots.
Elizabeth II and President Ronald Reagan riding at Windsor, 1982

She is the patron of over 600 organisations and charities.[166] Her main leisure interests include equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis.[167] Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the first corgi owned by her family.[168][169] Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life have occasionally been witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepare a meal together and do the washing up afterwards.[170]

In the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous "fairytale Queen".[171] After the trauma of the war, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a "new Elizabethan age".[172] Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a "priggish schoolgirl" was an extremely rare criticism.[173] In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales.[174] She took to wearing in public clothes that consist mostly of solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, which allow her to be seen easily in a crowd.[175]

At her Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic,[176] but in the 1980s public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny.[177] Elizabeth's popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public.[178] Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, though Elizabeth's personal popularity and support for the monarchy rebounded after her live broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.[179]

In November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state.[180] Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for Elizabeth,[181] and referenda in Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 both rejected proposals to become republics.[182]

Finances

Further information: Finances of the British Royal Family
View of Sandingham House from the south bank of the Upper Lake
Sandringham House, Elizabeth's private residence in Sandringham, Norfolk

Elizabeth's personal fortune has been the subject of speculation for many years. Forbes magazine estimated her net worth at around US$450 million in 2010,[183] but official Buckingham Palace statements in 1993 called estimates of £100 million "grossly overstated".[184] Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth in 1971 at £2 million (the equivalent of about £36 million today[185]).[186][187] The Royal Collection (which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels) is not owned by the Queen personally and is held in trust,[188] as are the occupied palaces, such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle,[189] and the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued in 2011 at £383 million.[190] Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are privately owned by the Queen.[189] The British Crown Estate—with holdings of £7.3 billion in 2011[191]—is held in trust for the nation and cannot be sold or owned by Elizabeth in a private capacity.[192]

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Capital letter E surmounted by a crown and surrounded by a wreath of Tudor roses, in gold on a blue background
Personal Flag of Queen Elizabeth II

Titles and styles

Main article: List of titles and honours of Queen Elizabeth II

Elizabeth has held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, is Sovereign of many orders in her own countries, and has received honours and awards from around the world. Officially, she has a distinct title in each of her realms: Queen of Jamaica in Jamaica, Queen of Australia in Australia, etc. In the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, which are Crown dependencies rather than separate realms, she is known as Duke of Normandy and Lord of Mann, respectively. Additional styles include Defender of the Faith and Duke of Lancaster. When in conversation with the Queen, the practice is to initially address her as Your Majesty and thereafter as Ma'am.[193]

Arms

See also: Flags of Elizabeth II and Coats of arms of Elizabeth II

From 21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of St George.[194] After her accession as sovereign, she adopted the royal coat of arms undifferenced in the United Kingdom. The shield of the royal arms is also used on the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom. There are additional flags for use in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, and elsewhere.[195]

Issue

See also: Line of succession to the British throne
Name Birth Marriage Children Grandchildren
Charles, Prince of Wales 14 November 1948 29 July 1981
Divorced 28 August 1996		 Lady Diana Spencer Prince William, Duke of Cambridge
Prince Harry of Wales
9 April 2005 Camilla Shand
Anne, Princess Royal 15 August 1950 14 November 1973
Divorced 28 April 1992		 Mark Phillips Peter Phillips Savannah Phillips
Isla Phillips
Zara Phillips
12 December 1992 Timothy Laurence
Prince Andrew, Duke of York 19 February 1960 23 July 1986
Divorced 30 May 1996		 Sarah Ferguson Princess Beatrice of York
Princess Eugenie of York
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex 10 March 1964 19 June 1999 Sophie Rhys-Jones Lady Louise Windsor
James, Viscount Severn

Ancestry

Main articles: Ancestry of Elizabeth II and Descent of Elizabeth II from William I
Family of Elizabeth II
16. Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
8. Edward VII of the United Kingdom
17. Victoria of the United Kingdom (niece of 22)
4. George V of the United Kingdom
18. Christian IX of Denmark
9. Princess Alexandra of Denmark
19. Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel
2. George VI of the United Kingdom
20. Duke Alexander of Württemberg
10. Francis, Duke of Teck
21. Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde
5. Princess Mary of Teck
22. Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge (uncle of 17)
11. Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge
23. Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel
1. Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom
24. Thomas Lyon-Bowes, Lord Glamis
12. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 13th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne
25. Charlotte Grimstead
6. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne
26. Oswald Smith
13. Frances Dora Smith
27. Henrietta Mildred Hodgson
3. Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
28. Lord Charles Cavendish-Bentinck
14. Charles Cavendish-Bentinck
29. Anne Wellesley
7. Cecilia Cavendish-Bentinck
30. Edwyn Burnaby
15. Caroline Louisa Burnaby
31. Anne Caroline Salisbury

See also

Notes

References

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Bibliography

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  • Bradford, Sarah (2012). Queen Elizabeth II: Her Life in Our Times. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-670-91911-6
  • Brandreth, Gyles (2004). Philip and Elizabeth: Portrait of a Marriage. London: Century. ISBN 0-7126-6103-4
  • Briggs, Asa (1995). The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom: Volume 4. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-212967-8
  • Campbell, John (2003). Margaret Thatcher: The Iron Lady. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-06156-9
  • Crawford, Marion (1950). The Little Princesses. London: Cassell & Co.
  • Hardman, Robert (2011). Our Queen. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-193689-1
  • Heald, Tim (2007). Princess Margaret: A Life Unravelled. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84820-2
  • Hoey, Brian (2002). Her Majesty: Fifty Regal Years. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-653136-9
  • Lacey, Robert (2002). Royal: Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-85940-0
  • Macmillan, Harold (1972). Pointing The Way 1959–1961 London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-12411-1
  • Marr, Andrew (2011). The Diamond Queen: Elizabeth II and Her People. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-74852-1
  • Neil, Andrew (1996). Full Disclosure. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-64682-7
  • Nicolson, Sir Harold (1952). King George the Fifth: His Life and Reign. London: Constable & Co.
  • Petropoulos, Jonathan (2006). Royals and the Reich: the princes von Hessen in Nazi Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516133-5
  • Pimlott, Ben (2001). The Queen: Elizabeth II and the Monarchy. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-255494-1
  • Roberts, Andrew; Edited by Antonia Fraser (2000). The House of Windsor. London: Cassell & Co. ISBN 0-304-35406-6
  • Shawcross, William (2002). Queen and Country. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-8056-5
  • Thatcher, Margaret (1993). The Downing Street Years. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-255049-0
  • Trudeau, Pierre Elliott (1993). Memoirs. Toronto: McLelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-8588-5
  • Wyatt, Woodrow; Edited by Sarah Curtis (1999). The Journals of Woodrow Wyatt: Volume II. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-77405-1
Titles and succession
Elizabeth II
Cadet branch of the House of Wettin
Born: 21 April 1926
Regnal titles
Preceded by Queen of the United Kingdom
1952–present 		Incumbent
Heir apparent:
Charles, Prince of Wales
Preceded byas King of the British Dominions beyond the Seas Queen of Canada
1952–present
Queen of Australia
1952–present
Queen of New Zealand
1952–present
Queen of Pakistan
1952–1956 		End of title
Queen of South Africa
1952–1961
Queen of Ceylon
1952–1972
Preceded by
Herself
as Queen of the United Kingdom 		Queen of Ghana
1957–1960
Queen of Nigeria
1960–1963
Queen of Sierra Leone
1961–1971
Queen of Tanganyika
1961–1962
Queen of Jamaica
1962–present 		Incumbent
Heir apparent:
Charles, Prince of Wales
Queen of Trinidad and Tobago
1962–1976 		End of title
Queen of Uganda
1962–1963
Queen of Kenya
1963–1964
Queen of Malawi
1964–1966
Queen of Malta
1964–1974
Queen of the Gambia
1965–1970
Queen of Guyana
1966–1970
Queen of Barbados
1966–present 		Incumbent
Heir apparent:
Charles, Prince of Wales
Queen of Mauritius
1968–1992 		End of title
Queen of Fiji
1970–1987
Queen of the Bahamas
1973–present 		Incumbent
Heir apparent:
Charles, Prince of Wales
Queen of Grenada
1974–present
Preceded by
Herself
as Queen of Australia 		Queen of Papua New Guinea
1975–present
Preceded by
Herself
as Queen of the United Kingdom 		Queen of the Solomon Islands
1978–present
Queen of Tuvalu
1978–present
Queen of Saint Lucia
1979–present
Queen of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1979–present
Queen of Belize
1981–present
Queen of Antigua and Barbuda
1981–present
Queen of Saint Kitts and Nevis
1983–present
Political offices
Preceded by Head of the Commonwealth
1952–present 		Incumbent
Military offices
Preceded by
The Earl Jellicoe
as First Lord of the Admiralty
 Lord High Admiral
1964–2011 		Succeeded by
British royalty
Preceded by
Prince Albert, Duke of York
later King George VI
 Heir to the Throne
as heiress presumptive
1936–1952 		Succeeded by
Order of precedence
First Orders of precedence in the United Kingdom
as the Sovereign 		Succeeded by
Order of Precedence in Canada
as the Sovereign 		Succeeded byas Governor General

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