Anarchism: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Political philosophy and movement}} |
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{{Anarchism}} |
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{{Other uses|Anarchy|Anarchism (disambiguation)|Anarchist (disambiguation)}} |
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'''Anarchism''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἀν (without) + ἄρχειν (to rule) + ισμός (from stem -ιζειν), "without [[archon]]s," "without rulers")<ref>[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/anarchy Anarchy] [[Merriam-Webster]]'s Online dictionary</ref> is a [[political philosophy]] encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory [[government]]<ref>[[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta, Errico]], "[http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1930s/xx/toanarchy.htm Towards Anarchism]", ''MAN!''. [[Los Angeles]]: International Group of San Francisco. {{OCLC|3930443}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |
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|title=Working for The Man |journal=[[The Globe and Mail]] |accessdate=2008-04-14 |last=Agrell |first=Siri |date=[[2007-05-14]] }}</ref><ref name=definitions>"[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117285 Anarchism]". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. [[29 August]] [[2006]]</ref><ref name=definitions2>"Anarchism". ''The Shorter [[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''. 2005. P. 14 "Anarchism is the view that a society without the state, or government, is both possible and desirable."</ref> (including but not limited to the [[state]]), and is often described as opposition to all forms of [[authority]].<ref>[[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin, Mikhail]], ''[[God and the State]]'', pt. 2.; [[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]], ''State Socialism and Anarchism''.; [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Piotr]], ''Anarchism: its Philosophy and Ideal''; [[Errico Malatesta|Malatesta, Errico]], ''Towards Anarchism''; [[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin, Murray]], ''Anarchism: Past and Present'', pt. 4; [http://www.spunk.org/texts/intro/sp001550.html An Introduction to Anarchism] by Liz A. Highleyman</ref> Anarchism is defined by ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics'' as "the view that society can and should be organized without a coercive state."<ref name=slevin>Slevin, Carl. "Anarchism". ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics''. Ed. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan. Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref> Some authors use the term "anarchism" to refer exclusively to [[libertarian socialism]], while calling anarchism that favors free markets in society as "libertarianism" without the "socialism" descriptor.<ref>Ross, Dr. Jeffery Ian. ‘Controlling State Crime’ Transaction Publishers (200) p.400</ref> |
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{{Use British English|date=August 2021}} |
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{{Anarchism sidebar}} |
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'''Anarchism''' is a [[political philosophy]] and [[Political movement|movement]] that is against all forms of [[authority]] and seeks to abolish the [[institutions]] it claims maintain unnecessary [[coercion]] and [[Social hierarchy|hierarchy]], typically including the [[state (polity)|state]] and [[capitalism]]. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with [[Stateless society|stateless societies]] and [[Voluntary association|voluntary]] [[Free association (communism and anarchism)|free associations]]. As a historically [[left-wing]] movement, this reading of anarchism is placed on the [[Far-left politics|farthest left]] of the [[political spectrum]], usually described as the [[libertarian]] wing of the [[socialist movement]] ([[libertarian socialism]]). |
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There are many types and traditions of anarchism,<ref>[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin, Peter]]. ''Anarchism: A Collection of Revolutionary Writings'', Courier Dover Publications, 2002, p.5</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=R.B. Fowler|title=The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought|year=1972|journal=Western Political Quarterly|volume=25|issue=4|pages=738–752|doi=10.2307/446800}}</ref> not all of which are mutually exclusive.<ref>Sylvan, Richard. "Anarchism". ''A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy'', editors Goodwin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.231</ref> Anarchism is usually considered to be a radical left-wing ideology, and as such [[anarchist economics]] and [[anarchist law|legal]] philosophy lean toward anti-authoritarian interpretations of [[anarcho-communism|communism]], [[collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]] or [[participatory economics]]; however, anarchism has always included an individualist strain, including those who support [[market]] systems like [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] or [[free-market capitalism]].<ref>"Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today." Brooks, Frank H. 1994. ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908)''. Transaction Publishers. p. xi</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Colin Moynihan |title=Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway|year=2007|journal=New York Times|issue=April 16}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Dennis Roddy|title=Anarchists: Can they get it together?|year=2003|journal=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |issue=February 02}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Joseph Kahn|title=Anarchism, the Creed That Won’t Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |year=2000|journal=New York Times|issue=August 5}}</ref> Or, claimed by the anarchist [[Cindy Milstein]], anarchism is a "political tradition that has consistently grappled with the tension between the individual and society." [http://www.social-ecology.org/article.php?story=20031028151308269] Others, such as [[Panarchism|panarchists]] and [[anarchists without adjectives]] neither advocate nor object to any particular form of organization. According to ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', "there is no single defining position that all anarchists hold, beyond their rejection of compulsory government, and those considered anarchists at best share a certain [[family resemblance]]".<ref name=oxcom>"Anarchism". ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'', [[Oxford University Press]], 2007, p. 31</ref> [[Anarchist schools of thought]] differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme [[individualism]] to complete [[collectivism]].<ref name=slevin/> Some anarchists have vocally opposed all types of [[coercion]], while others have supported the use of some coercive measures, including violent revolution on the path to [[anarchy]] or [[utopia]].<ref>Fowler, R.B. "The Anarchist Tradition of Political Thought". ''The Western Political Quarterly'', Vol. 25, No. 4. (Dec., 1972), pp. 743–744</ref> |
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Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for [[emancipation]]. [[#Schools of thought|Various anarchist schools of thought]] formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the [[Paris Commune]], the [[Russian Civil War]] and the [[Spanish Civil War]], whose end marked the end of the [[classical era of anarchism]]. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within [[anti-capitalist]], [[anti-war]] and [[anti-globalisation]] movements. |
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==Origins== |
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{{main|History of anarchism}} |
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[[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|left|[[James Northcote]], ''[[William Godwin]],'' oil on canvas, 1802, the [[National Portrait Gallery]]. William Godwin is credited as one of the founders of modern anarchism.]] |
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Some claim anarchist themes can be found in the works of [[Taoism|Taoist]] sages [[Laozi]]<ref name="EB1910">Peter Kropotkin, [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/britanniaanarchy.html "Anarchism"], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 1910</ref> and [[Zhuangzi]]. The latter has been translated, ''"There has been such a thing as letting mankind alone; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind [with success]."'' and ''"A petty thief is put in jail. A great brigand becomes a ruler of a State."''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf|title=Concepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire|author=[[Murray Rothbard]]}}</ref> [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynic]]s and their contemporary, [[Zeno of Citium]], the founder of [[Stoicism]], also introduced similar topics.<ref name="EB1910"/><ref>{{iep|c/cynics.htm|Cynics|Julie Piering}}</ref> |
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Anarchists employ [[diversity of tactics|diverse approaches]], which may be generally divided into revolutionary and [[evolutionary strategies]]; there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and [[Praxis (process)|praxis]]. |
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Modern anarchism, however, sprang from the secular or religious thought of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], particularly [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.<ref name=Encarta>"Anarchism", ''[[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia'' 2006 (UK version)</ref> Although by the turn of the 19th century the term "anarchist" had an entirely positive connotation,<ref name=bbc/> it first entered the English language in 1642 during the [[English Civil War]] as a term of [[abuse]] used by [[Cavalier|Royalists]] to damn those who were fomenting disorder.<ref name=bbc/> By the time of the [[French Revolution]] some, such as the ''[[Enragés]]'', began to use the term positively,<ref>Sheehan, Sean. ''Anarchism'', London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. pg. 85</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=March 2008}} in opposition to [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] centralisation of power, seeing "revolutionary government" as [[oxymoron]]ic.<ref name=bbc/> From this climate [[William Godwin]] developed what many consider the first expression of [[anarchist schools of thought|modern anarchist thought]].<ref name="godwinsep"/> Godwin was, according to [[Peter Kropotkin]], "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work."<ref name="EB1910"/><ref>Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to [[Edmund Burke]]'s ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/Vindication/0339_Bk.html Vindication of Natural Society]''. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's ''Vindication of Natural Society''; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence…" – footnote, Ch. 2 ''[[Political Justice]]'' by William Godwin.</ref> Godwin, a [[philosophical anarchist]], opposed revolutionary action and saw a [[Limited government|minimal state]] as a present "necessary evil"<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Political Justice|Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Manners]] |last=Godwin |first=William |authorlink=William Godwin |year=1796 |publisher=G.G. and J. Robinson |oclc=2340417 |origyear=1793}}</ref> that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.<ref name="godwinsep">{{sep entry|godwin|William Godwin|Mark Philip|2006-05-20}}</ref> Godwin advocated extreme [[individualism]], proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated.<ref>''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia''. Retrieved [[December 7]] [[2006]], from [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9037183 Encyclopædia Britannica Online]</ref> Godwin felt discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable. |
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== Etymology, terminology, and definition == |
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The first to describe himself as anarchist was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]],<ref name=bbc>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20061207.shtml "Anarchism"], [[BBC Radio 4]] program, [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)|In Our Time]], Thursday [[December 7]] [[2006]]. Hosted by [[Melvyn Bragg]] of the BBC, with John Keane, Professor of Politics at [[University of Westminster]], [[Ruth Kinna]], Senior Lecturer in Politics at [[Loughborough University]], and [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]], philosopher and historian.</ref> which led some to call him the founder of modern anarchist theory.<ref>Daniel Guerin, ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970).</ref> Proudhon proposed [[spontaneous order]], whereby organization emerges without central authority, a "positive anarchy" where order arises when everybody does “what he wishes and only what he wishes"<ref> Proudhon, ''Solution to the Social Problem'', ed. H. Cohen (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927), p.45. </ref> and where "business transactions alone produce the social order."<ref>{{cite book | last = Proudhon | first = Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon | title = The Principle of Federation | publisher = University of Toronto Press | location = Toronto | year = 1979 | isbn = 0802054587 |quote=The notion of ''anarchy'' in politics is just as rational and positive as any other. It means that once industrial functions have taken over from political functions, then business transactions alone produce the social order.}}</ref> Like Godwin, Proudhon opposed violent revolutionary action. He saw anarchy as "a form of government or constitution in which public and private consciousness, formed through the development of science and law, is alone sufficient to maintain order and guarantee all liberties. In it, as a consequence, the institutions of the police, preventive and repressive methods, officialdom, taxation, etc., are reduced to a minimum. In it, more especially, the forms of monarchy and intensive centralization disappear, to be replaced by federal institutions and a pattern of life based on the commune"<ref>{{cite book | last = Proudhon | first = Pierre-Joseph |authorlink=Pierre-Joseph Proudhon | title = Selected Writings | publisher = Anchor Books | location = [[Garden City, New York]] | year = 1969 | oclc = 221546850 }}</ref> By "commune", Proudhon meant local [[self-government]] or according to literal translation, "municipality", rather than a communist arrangement.<ref>Bernstein, Samuel. 1984. ''French Political and Intellectual''. History. Transaction Publishers. p. 174</ref> |
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{{Main|Definition of anarchism and libertarianism}} |
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{{See also|Glossary of anarchism}} |
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[[File:WilhelmWeitling.jpg|thumb|[[Wilhelm Weitling]] is an example of a writer who added to anarchist theory without using the exact term.{{Sfn|Carlson|1972|pp=22–23}}]] |
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The etymological origin of ''anarchism'' is from the Ancient Greek ''anarkhia'' (ἀναρχία), meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix ''an-'' ("without") and the word ''arkhos'' ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix ''[[-ism]]'' denotes the ideological current that favours [[anarchy]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Bates|1y=2017|1p=128|2a1=Long|2y=2013|2p=217}} ''Anarchism'' appears in English from 1642 as ''anarchisme'' and ''anarchy'' from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder.{{Sfnm|1a1=Merriam-Webster|1y=2019|1loc="Anarchism"|2a1=''Oxford English Dictionary''|2y=2005|2loc="Anarchism"|3a1=Sylvan|3y=2007|3p=260}} Various factions within the [[French Revolution]] labelled their opponents as ''anarchists'', although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as [[William Godwin]] (1756–1836) and [[Wilhelm Weitling]] (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use ''anarchist'' or ''anarchism'' in describing themselves or their beliefs.{{Sfn|Joll|1964|pp=27–37}} |
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The first political philosopher to call himself an ''anarchist'' ({{Lang-fr|anarchiste}}) was [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France,{{Sfn|Nettlau|1996|p=162}} ''[[libertarianism]]'' has often been used as a synonym for anarchism{{Sfn|Guérin|1970|loc="The Basic Ideas of Anarchism"}} and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.{{Sfnm|1a1=Ward|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Goodway|2y=2006|2p=4|3a1=Skirda|3y=2002|3p=183|4a1=Fernández|4y=2009|4p=9}} Some usages of ''libertarianism'' refer to [[individualistic]] [[free-market]] philosophy only, and [[free-market anarchism]] in particular is termed ''libertarian anarchism''.{{Sfn|Morris|2002|p=61}} |
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==Schools of thought== |
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{{main|Anarchist schools of thought}} |
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While the term ''libertarian'' has been largely synonymous with anarchism,{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1992|1p=641|2a1=Cohn|2y=2009|2p=6}} its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups,{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p=641}} including both the [[New Left]] and [[libertarian Marxists]], who do not associate themselves with [[authoritarian socialists]] or a [[vanguard party]], and extreme [[cultural liberals]], who are primarily concerned with [[civil liberties]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p=641}} Additionally, some anarchists use ''[[libertarian socialist]]''{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1992|1p=641|2a1=Cohn|2y=2009|2p=6|3a1=Levy|3a2=Adams|3y=2018|3p=104}} to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with [[socialism]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p=641}} ''Anarchism'' is broadly used to describe the [[anti-authoritarian]] wing of the [[socialist movement]].{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p=104}}{{Refn|In ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' (1970),{{Sfn|Guérin|1970|p=12}} anarchist historian [[Daniel Guérin]] described it as a synonym for [[libertarian socialism]], and wrote that anarchism "is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State."{{Sfn|Arvidsson|2017}} In his many works on anarchism, historian [[Noam Chomsky]] describes anarchism, alongside [[libertarian Marxism]], as the [[libertarian]] wing of [[socialism]].{{Sfn|Otero|1994|p=617}}|group=nb}} Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above.{{Sfn|Osgood|1889|p=1}} Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials{{Sfn|Newman|2005|p=15}} and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two.{{Sfn|Morris|2015|p=64}} Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from [[liberalism]],{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p=641}} and being both liberal and socialist but more so.{{Sfn|Walter|2002|p=44}} Many scholars reject [[anarcho-capitalism]] as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles.{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1992|1pp=564–565|2a1=Jennings|2y=1993|2p=143|3a1=Gay|3a2=Gay|3y=1999|3p=15|4a1=Morris|4y=2008|4p=13|5a1=Johnson|5y=2008|5p=169|6a1=Franks|6y=2013|6pp=393–394}}{{Refn|[[Herbert L. Osgood]] claimed that anarchism is "the extreme antithesis" of [[authoritarian communism]] and [[state socialism]].{{Sfn|Osgood|1889|p=1}} [[Peter Marshall (author)|Peter Marshall]] states that "[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. ... Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine."{{Sfn|Marshall|1992|p=641}} According to [[Jeremy Jennings]], "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas", referring to [[anarcho-capitalism]], "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." Jennings adds that "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community."{{Sfn|Jennings|1999|p=147}} [[Nicolas Walter]] wrote that "anarchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. ... In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. ... We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so."{{Sfn|Walter|2002|p=44}} Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many [[socialist traditions]], especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and [[Mikhail Bakunin]].{{Sfn|Newman|2005|p=15}} [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morris]] argues that it is "conceptually and historically misleading" to "create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism."{{Sfn|Morris|2015|p=64}}|group=nb}} |
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[[Image:Proudhon.jpg|thumb|[[Mutualism (economic theory)|Mutualist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] (1809–1865) was the first self-described anarchist.]] |
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While [[Anti-statism|opposition to the state]] is central to anarchist thought, defining ''anarchism'' is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently.{{Sfn|Long|2013|p=217}}{{Refn|One common definition adopted by anarchists is that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing [[authority]] and [[hierarchical organisation]], including [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]], [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]], the [[State (polity)|state]], and all associated [[institution]]s, in the conduct of all [[human relations]] in favour of a society based on [[decentralisation]], [[freedom]], and [[voluntary association]]. Scholars highlight that this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on anti-authoritarianism (''[[a posteriori]]'' conclusion), anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that),{{Sfnm|1a1=McLaughlin|1y=2007|1p=166|2a1=Jun|2y=2009|2p=507|3a1=Franks|3y=2013|3pp=386–388}} and etymology (negation of rulers).{{Sfnm|1a1=McLaughlin|1y=2007|1pp=25–29|2a1=Long|2y=2013|2pp=217}}|group=nb}} Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.{{Sfn|McLaughlin|2007|pp=25–26}} |
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===Mutualism=== |
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{{main|Mutualism (economic theory)}} |
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Mutualism began in 18th century English and French labor movements before taking an anarchist form associated with [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in France and others in the United States.<ref>"A member of a community," ''The Mutualist''; this 1826 series criticized [[Robert Owen]]'s proposals, and has been attributed to a dissident Owenite, possibly from the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests of Valley Forge; Wilbur, Shawn, 2006, "More from the 1826 "Mutualist"?"</ref> Proudhon's ideas were introduced by [[Charles Anderson Dana|Charles A. Dana]],<ref>Dana, Charles A. ''[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/dana.html Proudhon and his "Bank of the People"]'' (1848).</ref> to [[individualist anarchists]] in the United States including [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[William Batchelder Greene]].<ref>Tucker, Benjamin R., "On Picket Duty", ''Liberty (Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order) (1881–1908)''; [[5 January]] [[1889]]; 6, 10; APS Online pg. 1</ref> |
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== History == |
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Mutualist anarchism is concerned with [[reciprocity]], free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. According to Greene, in the mutualist system each worker would receive "just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount."<ref>"Communism versus Mutualism", ''Socialistic, Communistic, Mutualistic and Financial Fragments''. (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1875) [[William Batchelder Greene]]: "Under the mutual system, each individual will receive the just and exact pay for his work; services equivalent in cost being exchangeable for services equivalent in cost, without profit or discount; and so much as the individual laborer will then get over and above what he has earned will come to him as his share in the general prosperity of the community of which he is an individual member."</ref> Mutualism has been retrospectively characterized as being ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America'', Princeton University Press 1996 ISBN 0–691–04494–5, p.6<br />''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing 1991 ISBN 0–631–17944–5, p.11</ref> Proudhon first characterized his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''What Is Property?'' Princeton, MA: Benjamin R. Tucker, 1876. p. 281.</ref> |
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{{Main|History of anarchism}} |
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=== Pre-modern era === |
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===Individualist anarchism=== |
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[[File:Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico (Napoli, 1969) - BEIC 6353768.jpg|thumb|upright=.7|[[Zeno of Citium]] ({{Circa|334|262 BC}}), whose ''[[Republic (Zeno)|Republic]]'' inspired [[Peter Kropotkin]]{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=70}}]] |
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{{main|Individualist anarchism}} |
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The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, [[philosophical anarchism]] (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosophers [[Zhuang Zhou]] and [[Laozi]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Coutinho|1y=2016|2a1=Marshall|2y=1993|2p=54}} Alongside [[Stoicism]], Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism.{{Sfn|Sylvan|2007|p=257}} |
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Individualist anarchism comprises several traditions<ref>Ward, Colin. ''Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2004, p. 2</ref> which hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective body or public authority."<ref>Heywood, Andrew, ''Key Concepts in Politics'', Palgrave, ISBN 0–312–23381–7, 2000, p. 46</ref> Individualist anarchism is supportive of property being held privately, unlike the social/socialist/collectivist/communitarian wing which advocates common ownership.<ref>Freeden, Michael. ''Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019829414X. pp. 314</ref> Individualist anarchism has been espoused by individuals such as [[William Godwin]],<ref name=woodcock20>Woodcock, George. 2004. ''Anarchism: A History Of Libertarian Ideas And Movements''. Broadview Press. p. 20</ref> [[Henry David Thoreau]],<ref>Johnson, Ellwood. ''The Goodly Word: The Puritan Influence in America Literature'', Clements Publishing, 2005, p. 138.<br />''Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences'', edited by Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman, Alvin Saunders Johnson, 1937, p. 12.</ref> [[Josiah Warren]], and [[Murray Rothbard]]. |
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Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]] used the myth of [[Antigone]] to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal [[autonomy]]. [[Socrates]] questioned [[Athens|Athenian]] authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynics]] dismissed human law (''[[Nomos (sociology)|nomos]]'') and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (''[[physis]]''). [[Stoics]] were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=4, 66–73}} |
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[[Image:Max stirner.jpg|thumb|[[19th century philosophy|19th century philosopher]] [[Max Stirner]], a prominent early [[individualist anarchist]] (sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]]).]] |
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One of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism was [[Max Stirner]],<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{sep entry|max-stirner|Max Stirner|[[David Leopold]]|2006-08-04}}</ref> who wrote ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'' (1844), a founding text of the philosophy.<ref name = "SEP-Stirner"/> [[Philosophy of Max Stirner|Stirner's philosophy]] was an "[[Egoism|egoist]]" form of individualist anarchism according to which the only limitation on the rights of the individual is his power to obtain what he desires<ref>The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176</ref>, taking no notice of God, state, or moral rules.<ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought''. Blackwell Publishing. p 11</ref> To Stirner, rights were ''[[reification|spooks]]'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality" — he supported property by force of might rather than moral right.<ref>"What my might reaches is my property; and let me claim as property everything I feel myself strong enough to attain, and let me extend my actual property as fas as ''I'' entitle, that is, empower myself to take…" In Ossar, Michael. 1980. ''Anarchism in the Dramas of Ernst Toller''. SUNY Press. p. 27</ref> Stirner preached self-assertion and foresaw "associations of egoists" where respect for ruthlessness drew people together.<ref name=woodcock20/> |
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In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to [[Anarchism and religion|religious anarchism]]. In the [[Sasanian Empire]], [[Mazdak]] called for an [[egalitarian]] society and the [[abolition of monarchy]], only to be soon executed by Emperor [[Kavad I]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=86}} |
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A less radical form of individualist anarchism was advocated by the "Boston anarchists,"<ref name=encarta7/> American individualists who supported private property exchangeable in a [[free market]].<ref>"Anarchism is a word without meaning, unless it includes the liberty of the individual to control his product or whatever his product has brought him through exchange in a free market – that is, private property. Whoever denies private property is of necessity an Archist." "Anarchism and Property", by Benjamin Tucker in ''The New Freewoman'', [[November 15]] [[1913]]</ref> They advocated the protection of liberty and property by private contractors,<ref>[[Benjamin Tucker]], "defense is a service like any other service; that it is labor both useful and desired, and therefore an economic commodity subject to the law of supply and demand; that in a free market this commodity would be furnished at the cost of production; that, competition prevailing, patronage would go to those who furnished the best article at the lowest price; that the production and sale of this commodity are now monopolized by the State; and that the State, like almost all monopolists, charges exorbitant prices" "Instead of a Book" (1893)<br /> |
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"Anarchism does not exclude prisons, officials, military, or other symbols of force. It merely demands that non-invasive men shall not be made the victims of such force. Anarchism is not the reign of love, but the reign of justice. It does not signify the abolition of force-symbols but the application of force to real invaders." Tucker, Benjamin. ''Liberty'' [[October 19]] [[1891]].</ref> and endorsed exchange of labor for wages,<ref>Tucker, Benjamin. "[http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker37.html Labor and Its Pay]", from ''Individual Liberty: Selections from the Writings of Benjamin T. Tucker''</ref>. They did not have a problem that "one man employ another" or that "he direct him," in his labor but demanded that "all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that monopolies arising from special privileges created by law be abolished."<ref>Madison, Charles A. "Anarchism in the United States". ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol 6, No 1, January 1945, p. 53.</ref> They believed [[state monopoly capitalism]] (defined as a state-sponsored monopoly<ref name=schwartzman>Schwartzman, Jack. "Ingalls, Hanson, and Tucker: Nineteenth-Century American Anarchists". ''American Journal of Economics and Sociology'', Vol. 62, No. 5 (November, 2003). p. 325</ref>) prevented labor from being fully rewarded. Even among the nineteenth century American individualists, there was not a monolithic doctrine, as they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including [[intellectual property]] rights and [[Possession (law)|possession]] versus [[property]] in land.<ref>Spooner, Lysander. [http://lysanderspooner.org/intellect/contents.htm ''The Law of Intellectual Property'']</ref><ref name=watner>[[Carl Watner|Watner, Carl]] (1977). {{PDFlink|[http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/1_4/1_4_4.pdf Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty]|868 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 889419 bytes -->}}. ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]'', Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 308</ref><ref>[[Carl Watner|Watner, Carl]]. "{{PDFlink|[http://www.mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_03.pdf Spooner Vs. Liberty]"|1.20 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 1262532 bytes -->}} in ''The Libertarian Forum''. March 1975. Volume VII, No 3. ISSN 0047–4517. pp. 5–6.</ref> A major cleft occurred later in the 19th century when Tucker and some others abandoned [[natural right]]s and converted to an "egoism" modeled upon [[Philosophy of Max Stirner|Stirner's philosophy]].<ref name=watner/> Some "Boston anarchists", like Tucker, identified themselves as "socialist" – a term which at the time denoted a broad concept – by which he meant a commitment to solving "the labor problem" by radical economic reform.<ref>Brooks, Frank H. 1994. ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty'' (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75.</ref>) By the turn of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed,<ref>[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]]. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 6</ref> although it was later revived with modifications by [[Murray Rothbard]] and the [[anarcho-capitalists]] in the mid-twentieth century, as a current of the broader [[libertarianism|libertarian]] movement.<ref name=encarta7>Levy, Carl. "[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770_1/Anarchism.html Anarchism]". Microsoft [[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia 2007.</ref><ref>Miller, David. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'' 1987. p. 11</ref> |
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In [[Basra]], religious sects preached against the state.{{Sfn|Crone|2000|pp=3, 21–25}} In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies.{{Sfn|Nettlau|1996|p=8}} Renewed interest in antiquity during the [[Renaissance]] and in private judgment during the [[Reformation]] restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=108}} [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the [[List of revolutions and rebellions|revolutions of the 1790s and 1848]] all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p=307}} |
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===Libertarian socialism=== |
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{{main|Libertarian socialism}} |
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Social anarchism or [[libertarian socialism]], is one of two different broad categories of anarchism, the other category being individualist anarchism. The schools within this category of anarchism emphasize cooperation, oppose private property,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/libsoc.html|title=Libertarian Socialism|accessdate=2008-06-30}}</ref> mutual aid, abolition of authoritarianism in voluntary organizations themselves,<ref>{{cite book|last=Dolgoff|first=Sam |title=Misconceptions Of Anarchism|publisher=Refract Publications|date=1986|series=Fragments: A Memoir|url=http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/miscon.html}}</ref> and usually community control of the means of production.<ref>Suissa, Judith(2001) "Anarchism, Utopias and Philosophy of Education", ''Journal of Philosophy of Education'' 35 (4), 627–646. doi:10.1111/1467-9752.00249 </ref> Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist include: many varieties of [[anarchist communism]], [[Collectivist anarchism|anarchist collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]]<ref>{{cite book |last= Sims |first= Franwa |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= The Anacostia Diaries As It Is |pages = p.160 |year= 2006 |publisher= Lulu Press |location= |isbn= }}</ref>, some forms of [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]],<ref name="A.4.">{{cite web|url=http://www.mutualist.org/id32.html|title=Are Mutualists Socialists?|last=Carson|first=Kevin|work=A Mutualist FAQ|publisher=Mutualist.org: Free Market Anti-Capitalism|accessdate=2008-06-30}}</ref> [[social ecology]],<ref>Bookchin, Murray. 'Post-Scarcity Anarchism' AK Press (2004) p.xl</ref> and [[council communism]]<ref>Chomsky, Noam. 'Chomsky on Democracy and Education' Routledge (2002) p.133</ref> (or even [[communism]] itself, as it is described by [[Karl Marx]] or [[Lenin]] in a further stage of development of [[democratic socialism|socialism]]). Some scholars use libertarian socialism synonymously with anarchism.<ref>Ross, Dr. Jeffery Ian. ‘Controlling State Crime’ Transaction Publishers (200) p.400</ref> |
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=== Modern era === |
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During the [[French Revolution]], partisan groups such as the [[Enragés]] and the {{Lang|fr|[[sans-culottes]]}} saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=4}} The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as [[William Godwin]] espoused [[philosophical anarchism]] in England, morally delegitimising the state, [[Max Stirner]]'s thinking paved the way to [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]'s theory of [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] found fertile soil in France.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=4–5}} By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented [[globalisation]] occurred from 1880 to 1914.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|pp=10–15}} This era of [[classical anarchism]] lasted until the end of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and is considered the golden age of anarchism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=4–5}} |
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{{main|Collectivist anarchism}} |
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Collectivist anarchism (a specific tendency not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called [[collectivist]] or [[communitarian]] anarchism<ref>Morris, Christopher W. 1998. ''An Essay on the Modern State''. Cambridge University Press. p 50. The collectivist ''category'' is also sometimes known as social, socialist, or communitarian anarchism category.</ref>) is a revolutionary<ref name = "Patasouras-p54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54</ref> form of anarchism commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and with [[Johann Most]].<ref>Avrich, Paul. 2006. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. [[AK Press]]. p. 5</ref> Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be initiated by small cohesive elite group through acts of violence, or "[[propaganda by the deed]]," which would inspire the workers as a whole to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.<ref name = "Patasouras-p54"/> However, collectivization was not to be extended to the distribution of income, as workers would be paid according to time worked, rather than receiving goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need.<ref> [[James Guillaume|Guillaume, James]], ''[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/ideas.htm Ideas on Social Organization]''(1876)</ref> Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with [[Marxism]] but opposed the Marxist [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.<ref>{{cite book | last = Bakunin | first = Mikhail | title = Statism and Anarchy | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1990 | isbn = 0521361826 |quote=They [the Marxists] maintain that only a dictatorship -- their dictatorship, of course -- can create the will of the people, while our answer to this is: No dictatorship can have any other aim but that of self-perpetuation, and it can beget only slavery in the people tolerating it; freedom can be created only by freedom, that is, by a universal rebellion on the part of the people and free organization of the toiling masses from the bottom up.}}</ref> |
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[[File:Bakunin.png|thumb|upright|Mikhail Bakunin opposed the Marxist aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.]] |
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[[Image:Kropotkin Nadar.jpg|thumb|left|Anarcho-communist [[Peter Kropotkin]] believed that in [[anarchy]], workers would spontaneously self-organize to produce goods in common for all society.]] |
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Drawing from mutualism, [[Mikhail Bakunin]] founded [[collectivist anarchism]] and entered the [[International Workingmen's Association]], a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with [[Karl Marx]] being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the [[Jura Federation]]) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed [[state socialism]], advocating political [[abstentionism]] and small property holdings.{{Sfnm|1a1=Dodson|1y=2002|1p=312|2a1=Thomas|2y=1985|2p=187|3a1=Chaliand|3a2=Blin|3y=2007|3p=116}} After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the [[Marxists]] at the [[1872 Hague Congress]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Graham|1y=2019|1pp=334–336|2a1=Marshall|2y=1993|2p=24}} Anarchists were treated similarly in the [[Second International]], being ultimately expelled in 1896.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|p=12}} Bakunin predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the [[St. Imier International]]. Under the influence of [[Peter Kropotkin]], a Russian philosopher and scientist, [[anarcho-communism]] overlapped with collectivism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=5}} Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 [[Paris Commune]], advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs.{{Sfn|Graham|2005|p=xii}} |
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By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world.{{Sfn|Moya|2015|p=327}} It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|p=16}} In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=519–521}} Tokyo was a hotspot for [[rebellion|rebellious]] youth from [[East Asia]]n countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study.{{Sfnm|1a1=Dirlik|1y=1991|1p=133|2a1=Ramnath|2y=2019|2pp=681–682}} In [[Latin America]], [[Anarchism in Argentina|Argentina]] was a stronghold for [[anarcho-syndicalism]], where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology.{{Sfnm|1a1=Levy|1y=2011|1p=23|2a1=Laursen|2y=2019|2p=157|3a1=Marshall|3y=1993|3pp=504–508}} During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary [[political violence]], known as [[propaganda of the deed]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=633–636}} The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many [[Communards]] to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts.{{Sfn|Anderson|2004}} Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including the [[Immigration Act of 1903]], also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act.{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1993|1pp=633–636|2a1=Lutz|2a2=Ulmschneider|2y=2019|2p=46}} [[Illegalism]] was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.{{Sfn|Bantman|2019|p=374}} |
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====Anarchist communism==== |
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{{main|Anarchist communism}} |
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Anarchist communists propose that a society composed of a number of [[self-governance|self-governing]] [[Commune (socialism)|communes]] with collective use of the [[means of production]] and [[direct democracy]] as the political organizational form, and related to other communes through [[federation]] would be the freest form of social organisation.<ref name="LibCom">[[Isaac Puente|Puente, Isaac]]. [http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/libcom.html "Libertarian Communism"]. ''The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review''. Issue 6 Orkney 1982 </ref> However, some anarchist communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and favor [[consensus democracy]].<ref>[[David Graeber|Graeber, David]] and Grubacic, Andrej. ''Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement Of The Twenty-first Century''</ref> In anarchist communism, individuals would not receive direct [[Remuneration|compensation]] for labour (through sharing of [[profit]]s or payment), but would instead have free access to the resources and surplus of the commune.<ref>Miller. ''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', Blackwell Publishing (1991) ISBN 0–631–17944–5, p. 12</ref> According to anarchist communist [[Peter Kropotkin]] and later [[Murray Bookchin]], the members of such a society would spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid.<ref> |
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* Kropotkin, Peter ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'', 1998 paperback, London: Freedom Press. ISBN 0–900384–36–0, also at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4341 Project Gutenburg] |
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* Kropotkin, Peter ''[[The Conquest of Bread]]'', first published 1892, also at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/kropotkin/conquest/toc.html Anarchy Archives] |
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* Kropotkin, Peter ''[[Fields, Factories and Workshops]]'', available at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/kropotkin/fields.html Anarchy Archives] |
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* Bookchin, Murray ''Post Scarcity Anarchism'' (1971 and 2004) ISBN 1–904859–06–2.</ref>{{page number}} Kropotkin believed that private [[property]] was one of the causes of oppression and exploitation and called for its abolition,<ref name=kropcon/><ref>[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], Peter. ''Words of a Rebel'', p99.</ref> advocating instead common ownership.<ref name=kropcon>{{cite book |title=The Conquest of Bread |last=Kropotkin |first=Peter |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1907 |publisher=Putnam |location=New York |isbn=7195197 |pages=p. 202 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Makhno group.jpg|thumb|right|Nestor Makhno seen with members of the anarchist [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine]]]] |
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The status of anarchist communism within anarchism is disputed, because it is seen by most individualist anarchists as incompatible with [[freedom (political)|freedom]].<ref>[[Victor Yarros|Yarros, Victor S.]] "A Princely Paradox", ''Liberty'', Vol 4. No. 19, Saturday, April 9, 1887, Whole Number 97; Tucker, Benjamin. "Labor and Its Pay"; Appleton, Henry. "Anarchism, True and False", ''Liberty'' 2.24, no. 50, 6 September 1884, p. 4; Swartz, Clarence Lee. ''What is Mutualism?''; Rothbard, Murray. "[http://www.mises.org/story/2197 The Death Wish of the Anarcho-Communists]"</ref> Some [[anarcho-syndicalism|anarcho-syndicalists]], such as the Spanish union [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. saw an anarcho-communist society as their objective. [[Platformism]] is an anarchist communist tendency in the tradition of [[Nestor Makhno]] who argued for the "vital need of an organization which, having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement, would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement."<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book | last = Dielo Trouda | authorlink = Dielo Truda | title = Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) | origyear = 1926 | url = http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 | accessdate = 2006-10-24 | year = 2006 | publisher = FdCA | location = Italy}}</ref> Some forms of [[anarchist communism]] are strongly [[Ethical egoism|Egoist]] in nature,<ref>Christopher Gray, ''Leaving the Twentieth Century'', p. 88.</ref> and are strongly influenced by radical individualist philosophy, believing that anarcho-communism does not require a communitarian nature at all; anarchist communist [[Emma Goldman]] was influenced by both Max Stirner and Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own.<ref>Emma Goldman, ''[[Anarchism and Other Essays]]'', p. 50.</ref> |
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Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the [[Russian Revolution]] in opposition to the [[White movement]], especially in the [[Makhnovshchina]]; however, they met harsh suppression after the [[Bolshevik government]] had stabilised, including during the [[Kronstadt rebellion]].{{Sfn|Avrich|2006|p=204}} Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too.{{Sfn|Avrich|2006|p=204}} With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely [[platformism]] and [[synthesis anarchism]]. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the [[Bolsheviks]] in the [[October Revolution]] and the resulting [[Russian Civil War]], many workers and activists turned to [[communist parties]] which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the [[General Confederation of Labour (France)|General Confederation of Labour]] and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] left their organisations and joined the [[Communist International]].{{Sfn|Nomad|1966|p=88}} |
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In the [[Spanish Civil War]] of 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists ([[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|FAI]]) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of [[Spanish anarchism]] led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the [[Spanish Revolution of 1936]]. In response to the army [[rebellion]], an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they [[collectivised]] the land.{{Sfn|Bolloten|1984|p=1107}} The [[Soviet Union]] provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as the [[May Days]], as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republican]] government, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=xi, 466}} |
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====Anarcho-syndicalism==== |
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{{main|Syndicalism|Anarcho-syndicalism}} |
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[[Image:Anarchist flag.svg|right|thumb|A common anarcho-syndicalist flag.]] |
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In the early twentieth century anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism.<ref>Berry, David, ''A History of the French Anarchist Movement'', 1917–1945 p.134</ref> With greater focus on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical [[trade union]]s as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically [[Workers' self-management|self-managed by the workers]]. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles of syndicalism include workers' solidarity, [[direct action]] (such as [[general strike]]s and workplace recuperations), and [[workers' self-management]]. Anarcho-syndicalism and other branches of anarchism are not mutually exclusive: anarcho-syndicalists often subscribe to [[anarchist communism|communist]] or [[collectivist anarchist]] economic systems.<ref name="faq-social">"[http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA3.html#seca32Are there different types of social anarchism?]", [[An Anarchist FAQ]]. Retrieved [[2007-12-13]].</ref> Its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a non-hierarchical anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. |
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==== Post-WWII ==== |
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[[Rudolf Rocker]] was a leading early anarcho-syndicalist thinker who outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labour in his 1938 pamphlet ''Anarchosyndicalism''.<ref name="faq-social"/><ref>[http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/rocker/sp001495/rocker_as1.html ''Anarchosyndicalism]'' by [[Rudolf Rocker]], retrieved [[7 September]] [[2006]]</ref> Although more frequently associated with labor struggles of the early twentieth century (particularly in [[Anarchism in France|France]] and [[Anarchism in Spain|Spain]]), many syndicalist organizations are active today, united across national borders by membership in the [[International Workers Association]], including the [[Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden|SAC]] in Sweden, the [[Unione Sindacale Italiana|USI]] in Italy, and the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] in Spain. |
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[[File:Rojava Sewing Cooperative.jpg|thumb|Rojava's support efforts for workers to form cooperatives is exemplified in this sewing cooperative.]] |
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By the end of [[World War II]], the anarchist movement had been severely weakened.{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=xi}} The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of [[Marxism–Leninism]] and tensions built by the [[Cold War]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=539}} During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the [[Anti-nuclear movement|anti-nuclear]], [[Environmental movement|environmental]], and [[peace movement]]s, the [[counterculture of the 1960s]], and the [[New Left]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=xi, 539}} It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative [[anti-capitalist reform]]ism.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|pp=5|p=}} Anarchism became associated with [[punk subculture]] as exemplified by bands such as [[Crass]] and the [[Sex Pistols]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=493–494}} The established [[feminist]] tendencies of [[anarcha-feminism]] returned with vigour during the [[second wave of feminism]].{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=556–557}} [[Black anarchism]] began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a [[Eurocentric]] demographic.{{Sfn|Williams|2015|p=680}} This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.{{Sfn|Harmon|2011|p=70}} |
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Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and [[anti-globalisation]] movements.{{Sfn|Rupert|2006|p=66}} Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[Group of Eight]] and the [[World Economic Forum]]. During the protests, ''ad hoc'' leaderless anonymous cadres known as [[black bloc]]s engaged in [[riot]]ing, [[property destruction]] and violent confrontations with the [[police]]. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include [[affinity group]]s, [[security culture]] and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the [[1999 Seattle WTO conference]].{{Sfn|Rupert|2006|p=66}} Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatistas]] in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as [[Rojava]], a ''de facto'' [[Permanent autonomous zone|autonomous region]] in northern Syria.{{Sfn|Ramnath|2019|p=691}} |
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===Recently-developed schools of thought=== |
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[[Image:Bey hakim.jpg|thumb|right|[[Temporary Autonomous Zone]] theorist [[Peter Lamborn Wilson|Hakim Bey]] is an influential figure in contemporary anarchist circles.]] |
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Anarchism continues to generate many eclectic and [[Syncretic politics|syncretic]] philosophies and movements; since the revival of anarchism in the [[U.S.A.|U.S.]] in the 1960s,<ref name="revival">{{cite journal |
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| last = Williams |
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| first = Leonard |
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| year = 2007 |
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| month = September |
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| title = Anarchism Revived |
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| journal = New Political Science |
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| volume = 29 |
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| issue = 3 |
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| pages = 297–312 |
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| doi = 10.1080/07393140701510160 |
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}} |
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</ref> a number of new movements and schools have emerged. [[Anarcho-capitalism]] developed out of radical anti-state [[libertarianism]] as a rejuvenated form of [[individualist anarchism]], while the burgeoning [[feminism|feminist]] and [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] movements also produced anarchist offshoots. |
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While having revolutionary aspirations, many forms of anarchism are not confrontational nowadays. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization, based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of [[Food not Bombs]] group of collectives, to highlight some features of how anarchist groups work: direct action, working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, they inform about the rising rates of world hunger suggest a policy to tackle hunger, ranging from de-funding the arms industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies and patents, helping farmers and commodification of food and housing.{{Sfn|Honeywell|2021|pp=34–44}} Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well.{{Sfn|Honeywell|2021|pp=1–2}} Honeywell argues that escalation of problems such as continuous wars and world poverty show that the current framework not only cannot solve those pressing problems for humanity, but are causal factors as well, resulting in the rejection of representative democracy and the state as a whole.{{Sfn|Honeywell|2021|pp=1–3}} |
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===Post-left anarchy=== |
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[[Post-left anarchy]] is a tendency which seeks to distance itself from the traditional "[[left-wing politics|left]]" and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary "leftist" movements and single issue causes and calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. [[Post-anarchism]] is a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought developed by [[Saul Newman]] and associated with thinkers such as [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. It draws from a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], post-left anarchy, [[situationism]], [[postcolonialism]] and Zapatismo. Another recent form of anarchism critical of formal anarchist movements is [[insurrectionary anarchism]] which advocates informal organization and active resistance to the state; its proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]]. |
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{{Anchor|Branches}} |
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[[Image:Murray Rothbard.jpg|thumb|left|[[Murray Rothbard]] (1926–1995), 20th century progenitor of anarcho-capitalism who asserted that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism."<ref>"[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard103.html Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard]" ''The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal''. [[25 February]], [[1972]].</ref>]] |
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====Anarcho-capitalism or free market anarchism==== |
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{{main|Anarcho-capitalism|Free market anarchism}} |
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[[Anarcho-capitalism]] or [[free market anarchism]]<ref>"This volume honors the foremost contemporary exponent of free-market anarchism. One contributor describes Murray Rothbard as 'the most ideologically committed zero-State academic economist on earth'." Review by Lawrence H. White of "Man, Economy, and Liberty: Essays in honor of Murray N. Rothbard", published in ''Journal of Economic Literature'', Vol XXVIII, June 1990, page 664</ref> is "based on a belief in the freedom to own private [[property]], a rejection of any form of governmental authority or intervention, and the upholding of the competitive free market as the main mechanism for social interaction."<ref>"Anarcho-capitalism." ''Oxford English Dictionary''. 2004. [[Oxford University Press]].</ref> Because of the historically [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] nature of most anarchist thought, the status of [[anarchism and anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalism within anarchism]] is disputed, particularly by [[anarchist communism|communist anarchists]].<ref>Jainendra, Jha. 2002. "Anarchism". ''Encyclopedia of Teaching of Civics and Political Science''. p. 52. Anmol Publications.</ref> Anarcho-capitalists distinguish between [[free market]] capitalism – peaceful voluntary exchange<ref>[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray N]]. "A Future of Peace and Capitalism". ''Modern Political Economy''. James H. Weaver (ed.). pp 419. Allyn and Bacon.</ref> – from "[[state capitalism]]" which [[Murray Rothbard]] defined as a collusive partnership between [[big business]] and government that uses [[coercion]] to subvert the free market.<ref>[[Murray Rothbard]], ''A Future of Peace and Capitalism''; Murray Rothbard, ''Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty''.</ref> Whether in its [[natural right]]s-based or [[utilitarian]] formulations, anarcho-capitalism has a theory of [[legitimacy]] that supports private property as long as it was obtained by labor, trade, or gift.<ref name=confiscation>Rothbard, Murray (1969) {{PDFlink|[http://mises.org/journals/lf/1969/1969_06_15.pdf ''Confiscation and the Homestead Principle'']|580 [[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 594473 bytes -->}} ''The Libertarian Forum'' Vol. I, No. VI ([[June 15]] [[1969]]) Retrieved [[5 August]] [[2006]]</ref> In an anarcho-capitalist society, its proponents hold, voluntary market processes would result in the provision of social institutions such as [[Police|law enforcement]], [[National security|defence]] and [[infrastructure]] by competing for-profit firms, [[Charity (practice)|charities]] or [[voluntaryism|voluntary associations]].<ref>[[Karl Hess|Hess, Karl]]. "[http://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html The Death of Politics]". ''Playboy Magazine'', March 1969</ref> rather than the [[state]]. In Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism, law (the non-aggression principle) is enforced by the market but not created by it, while according to [[David D. Friedman]]'s utilitarian version, the law itself is produced by the market. |
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== Schools of thought == |
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While the term "anarcho-capitalism" was coined by Rothbard and its origin is attributed to 1960's [[United States|America]], some historians, including Rothbard himself, trace the school as far back as the mid-19th century to free-market theorists such as [[Gustave de Molinari]].<ref>Raico, Ralph (2004) [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, [http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee], Unité associée au CNRS</ref> <ref>Rothbard, Murray. Preface. The Production of Security. By Gustave Molinari. 1849, 1977. [http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm]</ref> Anarcho-capitalism has drawn influence from pro-market theorists such as [[Gustave de Molinari]], [[Frédéric Bastiat]], and [[Robert Nozick]], as well as American individualist thinkers such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Lysander Spooner]].<ref>DeLeon, David. The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978, p. 127</ref><ref>''Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought'', 1987, ISBN 0–631–17944–5, p. 290: "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist [[Ludwig von Mises]], Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the nineteenth century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker. (Rothbard himself is on the anarchist wing of the movement.)"</ref> Considered a form of [[individualist anarchism]],<ref>Adams, Ian. 2002. ''Political Ideology Today''. p. 135. Manchester University Press; Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 2003. "Anarchism". ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought''. W. Outwaite ed. Blackwell Publishing. p. 14.</ref> it differs from the individualism of the "Boston anarchists" of the 19th century in its rejection of the [[labor theory of value]] (and its [[Norm (philosophy)|normative]] implications) in favor of the [[Neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] or [[Austrian School]] [[Marginalism|marginalist]] view. Anarcho-capitalist ideas have in turn contributed to the development of [[agorism]],<ref name="newlibman">{{cite book | last = Konkin | first = Samuel Edward | title = New Libertarian Manifesto | publisher = KoPubCo year = 2006 | isbn = 9780977764921 |url=http://agorism.info/NewLibertarianManifesto.pdf }}</ref> [[autarchism]], and [[crypto-anarchism]].<ref>[[Vernor Vinge]], James Frankel. ''[[True Names|True Names: And the Opening of the Cyberspace Frontier]]'' (2001), Tor Books, p.44</ref> |
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Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, [[social anarchism]] and [[individualist anarchism]], owing to their different origins, values and evolution.{{Sfnm|1a1=McLean|1a2=McMillan|1y=2003|1loc="Anarchism"|2a1=Ostergaard|2y=2003|2p=14|2loc="Anarchism"}} The individualist current emphasises [[negative liberty]] in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises [[positive liberty]] in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and [[social ownership]].{{Sfn|Harrison|Boyd|2003|p=251}} In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents ([[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]], and [[post-anarchism]]) developed thereafter.{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p=9}} |
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Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it.{{Sfn|Egoumenides|2014|p=2}} A component especially of individualist anarchism,{{Sfnm|1a1=Ostergaard|1y=2003|1p=12|2a1=Gabardi|2y=1986|2pp=300–302}} philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a [[minimal state]] but claims that citizens have no [[moral obligation]] to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy.{{Sfn|Klosko|2005|p=4}} Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since [[ethics]] have a central role in anarchist philosophy.{{Sfn|Franks|2019|p=549}} Anarchism's emphasis on [[anti-capitalism]], [[egalitarianism]], and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of [[economic libertarian]]ism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1992|1pp=564–565|2a1=Jennings|2y=1993|2p=143|3a1=Gay|3a2=Gay|3y=1999|3p=15|4a1=Morris|4y=2008|4p=13|5a1=Johnson|5y=2008|5p=169|6a1=Franks|6y=2013|6pp=393–394}} |
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====Anarcha-feminism==== |
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{{main|Anarcha-feminism}} |
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[[Image:Anfem.svg|thumb|A purple and black flag is often used to represent [[Anarcha-feminism]].]] |
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Anarcha-feminism is a synthesis of [[radical feminism]] and anarchism that views [[patriarchy]] (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of involuntary [[hierarchy]] – to which anarchists are opposed. Anarcha-feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as [[Lucy Parsons]], [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]]. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and [[gender role]]s. Many [[Anarcha-feminists]] are especially critical of marriage. For instance, the feminist anarchist Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement and that "... [woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life."<ref>Goldman, "Marriage and Love", ''Red Emma Speaks'', p. 205</ref>. Anarcha-feminists by contrast view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the [[state]] and [[capitalism]]. [[L. Susan Brown]] expressed the sentiment that "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".<ref>[[L. Susan Brown|Brown, Susan]]. "Beyond Feminism: Anarchism and Human Freedom" ''Anarchist Papers 3'' Black Rose Books (1990) p. 208</ref> There have been several male anarcha-feminists as well such as the [[Anarcho communism|Anarcho-communist]] [[Joseph Déjacque]] who opposed [[Pierre Joseph Proudhon|Proudhons]] [[Antifeminism|anti-feminist]] views."<ref>''Anarchist-Communism'' by Alain Pengam</ref> |
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Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum.{{Sfnm|1a1=Brooks|1y=1994|1p=xi|2a1=Kahn|2y=2000|3a1=Moynihan|3y=2007}} Much of its [[Anarchist economics|economics]] and [[Anarchist law|legal philosophy]] reflect [[anti-authoritarian]], [[anti-statist]], [[libertarian]], and [[Radical politics|radical]] interpretations of [[left-wing]] and [[socialist]] politics{{Sfn|Guérin|1970|p=12}} such as [[Collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], [[anarchist communism|communism]], [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalism]], among other [[libertarian socialist]] economic theories.{{Sfn|Guérin|1970|p=35|loc="Critique of authoritarian socialism"}} As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview,{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|pp=14–17}} many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely.{{Sfn|Sylvan|2007|p=262}} One reaction against [[sectarianism]] within the anarchist milieu was [[anarchism without adjectives]], a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time.{{Sfn|Avrich|1996|p=6}} Belief in political [[nihilism]] has been espoused by anarchists.{{Sfn|Walter|2002|p=52}} Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of shared principles such as autonomy, mutual aid, anti-authoritarianism and decentralisation.{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1993|1pp=1–6|2a1=Angelbeck|2a2=Grier|2y=2012|2p=551}} |
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====Green anarchism==== |
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{{main|Green anarchism}} |
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[[Image:Darker green and Black flag.svg|right|thumb|Green and black flag of Green Anarchism.]] |
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Green anarchism is an anarchist school of thought which puts an emphasis on the environment. [[Anarcho-primitivism]] is a form of green anarchism that believes [[civilization]] and [[technology]] inevitably lead to inequality and are incompatible with anarchism and in effect must be abolished. Anarcho-primitivists often criticize traditional anarchism for supporting civilization and technology which they believe are inherently based on domination and exploitation and instead advocate the process of [[rewilding]] or reconnecting with the natural environment. Not all green anarchists are primitivists. There is a strong critique of technology among some green anarchists, though not all reject it entirely. Sometimes green anarchism is said to be techno-positive or techno-negative to differentiate between those who advocate use of advanced green technology to create and maintain an anarchist society and those who mainly see civilization and modern technology as something negative. Non-primitivist green anarchists, such as anthropologist [[Brian Morris (anthropologist)|Brian Morris]], often draw influence from the [[social ecology]] of [[Murray Bookchin]]. |
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=== Classical === |
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[[File:Portrait of Pierre Joseph Proudhon 1865.jpg|thumb|upright|Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is the primary proponent of mutualism and influenced many future individualist anarchist and social anarchist thinkers.{{Sfn|Wilbur|2019|pp=216–218}}]] |
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{{main|Anarchism without adjectives}} |
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Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]] and [[Individualist anarchism|individualism]]. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism ([[Collectivist anarchism|collectivist]], [[anarchist communism|communist]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalist]]). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.{{Sfn|Levy|Adams|2018|p=2}} |
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"Anarchism without adjectives", in the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, "referred to an [[hyphen|unhyphenated]] form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as [[Anarchist communism|communist]], [[collectivism|collectivist]], [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualist]], or [[individualist anarchism|individualist]]. For others,…[it] was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools".<ref>Esenwein, George Richard "Anarchist Ideology and the Working Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898" [p. 135] </ref> "Anarchism without adjectives" emphasizes harmony among various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs. |
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The position was first adopted in 1889 by [[Fernando Tarrida del Mármol]] as a call for [[toleration]], after being troubled by the "bitter debates" among the different anarchist movements.<ref>Avrich, Paul. ''Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America''. Princeton University Press, 1996, p. 6</ref> [[Voltairine de Cleyre]],<ref>Voltairine De Cleyre, "Why I Am an Anarchist"</ref> [[Errico Malatesta]],<ref>[[Max Nettlau|Nettlau, Max]]. ''A Short History of Anarchism'' [p. 198–9]</ref> and [[Fred Woodworth]] are noteworthy exponents of the view.<ref>''[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]]'', [[Paul Avrich]] (2006). p. 475</ref> |
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Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include "abolishing the state",<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York |pages=20–21}}</ref> [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], [[Free association (Marxism and anarchism)|free association]], voluntary contract, [[federation]] and [[monetary reform]] of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people.{{Sfn|Wilbur|2019|pp=213–218}} Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Avrich|1y=1996|1p=6|2a1=Miller|2y=1991|2p=11}} In ''[[What Is Property?]]'' (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."{{Sfn|Pierson|2013|p=187}} Collectivist anarchism is a [[revolutionary socialist]] form of anarchism{{Sfn|Morris|1993|p=76}} commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]].{{Sfn|Shannon|2019|p=101}} Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution{{Sfn|Avrich|1996|pp=3–4}} and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist [[stateless society]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Heywood|1y=2017|1pp=146–147|2a1=Bakunin|2y=1990}} |
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==Anarchism as a social movement== |
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{{Citations missing|section|date=November 2007}} |
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Anarchism as a [[social movement]] has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Its classical period, which scholars demarcate as from 1860 to 1939, is associated with the working-class movements of the nineteenth century and the [[Spanish Civil War]]-era struggles against [[fascism]].<ref>Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen, "Introduction: Why Anarchism Still Matters", in Jonathan Purkis and James Bowen (eds), ''Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age'' (Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]], 2004), p.3.</ref> |
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===The First International=== |
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[[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|right|Collectivist anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]] opposed the [[Marxist]] aim of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] in favour of universal rebellion, and allied himself with the anti-authoritarians in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.<ref name=bbc/>]] |
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In Europe, harsh reaction followed the [[revolutions of 1848]],{{context needed}} but in 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]] (sometimes called the "First International") united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], [[Blanquism|Blanquists]], [[Philadelphes]], English trade unionists, [[socialists]] and [[social democrats]].{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Due to its links to active workers' movements, the International became a significant organization. [[Karl Marx]] became a leading figure in the International and a member of its General Council. Proudhon's followers, the [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], opposed Marx's [[state socialism]], advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} In 1868, following their unsuccessful participation in the [[League of Peace and Freedom]] (LPF), [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his associates joined the First International – which had decided not to get involved with the LPF. They allied themselves with the anti-authoritarian socialist sections of the International, who advocated the revolutionary overthrow of the state and the collectivization of property. At first, the [[collectivist anarchism|collectivists]] worked with the Marxists to push the First International in a more revolutionary socialist direction. Subsequently, the International became polarized into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads.{{Fact|date=December 2007}} Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] and predicted that, if a Marxist party came to power, its leaders would simply take the place of the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.<ref name="bakuninmarx"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Bakunin|first=Mikhail|authorlink=Mikhail Bakunin|origyear=1873|year = 1991|title =Statism and Anarchy | publisher = Cambridge University Press| id = ISBN 0–521–36973–8}}</ref> In 1872, the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]], where Bakunin and [[James Guillaume]] were expelled from the International and its headquarters were transferred to New York. In response, the anti-authoritarian{{POV-statement|date=April 2008}} sections formed their own International at the [[Anarchist St. Imier International|St. Imier Congress]], adopting a revolutionary anarchist program.<ref name=Graham-05>Graham, Robert '[http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm 'Anarchism''] (Montreal: Black Rose Books 2005) ISBN 1–55164–251–4</ref> |
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Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a [[communist society]] with [[common ownership]] of the means of production,{{Sfn|Mayne|1999|p=131}} held by a [[federalism|federal]] network of [[voluntary association]]s,{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=327}} with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "[[From each according to his ability, to each according to his need]]."{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1993|1p=327|2a1=Turcato|2y=2019|2pp=237–238}} Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the [[French Revolution]]{{Sfn|Graham|2005}} but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the [[First International]].{{Sfn|Pernicone|2009|pp=111–113}} It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of [[Peter Kropotkin]],{{Sfn|Turcato|2019|pp=239–244}} whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century.{{Sfn|Levy|2011|p=6}} Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views [[labour syndicate]]s as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are [[direct action]], workers' [[solidarity]] and [[workers' self-management]].{{Sfn|Van der Walt|2019|p=249}} |
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===Anarchism and organized labor=== |
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{{main|Anarcho-syndicalism|Anarchism in Spain}} |
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[[Image:Woman with cntfai flag.jpg|thumb|left|Spanish anarcho-syndicalists successfully organized [[List of anarchist communities#Spanish revolution .281936 to 1939.29|autonomous communities]] during the [[Spanish Revolution]] (1936–1939).]] |
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The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."<ref> Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p.100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm]</ref> In [[1886]], the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set [[May 1]], [[1886]], as the date by which the [[Eight-hour day|eight-hour work day]] would become standard.<ref name='How May Day Became a Workers Holiday-resolution'>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A627662 |title=How May Day Became a Workers' Holiday |accessdate=2008-01-19 |date=[[4 October]] [[2001]] |work=The Guide to Life, The Universe and Everything |publisher=[[bbc.co.uk]] |quote=(It is) Resolved ... that eight hours shall constitute a legal day's labor from and after [[May 1]], [[1886]], and that we recommend to labor organizations throughout this district that they so direct their laws so as to conform to this resolution by the time named. }}</ref> In response, unions across America prepared a general strike in support of the event.<ref name='How May Day Became a Workers Holiday-strike'>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A627662 |title=How May Day Became a Workers' Holiday |accessdate=2008-01-19 |date=[[4 October]] [[2001]] |work=The Guide to Life, The Universe and Everything |publisher=[[bbc.co.uk]] }}</ref> Upon [[May 3]], in Chicago, a fight broke out when replacement workers attempted to cross the picket line. Police intervention led to the deaths of four men, enraging the workers of the city. The next day, [[May 4]], anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |pages=p. 193 }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.odmp.org/officer/3972-patrolman-mathias-j.-degan |title=Patrolman Mathias J. Degan |accessdate=2008-01-19 |publisher=The Officer Down Memorial Page, Inc }}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowed and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', [[June 27]], [[1886]], quoted in {{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |pages=p. 209 }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name='the bomb'>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |accessdate=2008-01-19 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society }}</ref> Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organizers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labor movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the [[Haymarket affair]], and was a setback for the labor movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In [[1890]] a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organize for the eight hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |title=May Day |pages=p. 42 }}</ref> The celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on [[May Day]] became an annual event the following year. |
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Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the [[individual]] and their [[Will (philosophy)|will]] over any kinds of external determinants.{{Sfn|Ryley|2019|p=225}} Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include [[William Godwin]], [[Max Stirner]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]]. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals{{Sfn|Marshall|1993|p=440}} as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as [[illegalism]] and [[individual reclamation]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Imrie|1y=1994|2a1=Parry|2y=1987|2p=15}} |
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In 1907, the [[International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam]] gathered delegates from 14 different countries, among which important figures of the anarchist movement, including [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Pierre Monatte]], [[Luigi Fabbri]], [[Benoît Broutchoux]], [[Emma Goldman]], [[Rudolf Rocker]], [[Christiaan Cornelissen]], etc. Various themes were treated during the Congress, in particular concerning the organisation of the anarchist movement, [[popular education]] issues, the [[general strike]] or [[antimilitarism]]. A central debate concerned the relation between anarchism and [[syndicalism]] (or [[trade union]]ism). Malatesta and Monatte in particular opposed themselves on this issue, as the latter thought that syndicalism was revolutionary and would create the conditions of a social [[revolution]], while Malatesta did not consider syndicalism by itself sufficient.<ref>[http://www.fondation-besnard.org/article.php3?id_article=225 Extract of Malatesta's declaration] {{fr icon}}</ref> Malatesta thought that trade-unions were [[reformism|reformist]], and could even be, at times, [[Conservatism|conservative]]. Along with Cornelissen, he cited as example [[Labor unions in the United States|US trade-unions]], where trade-unions composed of qualified workers sometimes opposed themselves to non-qualified workers in order to defend their relatively privileged position. |
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=== Post-classical and contemporary === |
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The Spanish Workers Federation in 1881 was the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement; anarchist trade union federations were of special importance in Spain. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Before the 1940s, the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics and played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. The CNT was affiliated with the International Workers Association, a federation of anarcho-syndicalist trade unions founded in 1922, with delegates representing two million workers from 15 countries in Europe and Latin America. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] (CGT) and the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]. CGT membership was estimated to be around 100,000 for the year 2003.<ref>Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International:SPIRE Associates 2004)</ref> Other active syndicalist movements include the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]], claiming 2,000 paying members, and the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the First International, also remain active. |
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{{Main|Contemporary anarchism}} |
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[[File:Jarach and Zerzan.JPG|thumb|Lawrence Jarach (left) and [[John Zerzan]] (right) are two prominent contemporary anarchist authors, with Zerzan being a prominent voice within [[anarcho-primitivism]] and Jarach a notable advocate of [[post-left anarchy]].]] |
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Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement,{{Sfn|Evren|2011|p=1}} whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation.{{Sfn|Evren|2011|p=2}} As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest.{{Sfn|Evren|2011|p=2}} Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and [[syncretic|combining disparate concepts]] to create new philosophical approaches.{{Sfn|Williams|2007|p=303}} The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=4}} |
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Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes [[black bloc]] demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory.{{Sfnm|1a1=Williams|1y=2010|1p=110|2a1=Evren|2y=2011|2p=1|3a1=Angelbeck|3a2=Grier|3y=2012|3p=549}} Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement.{{Sfn|Franks|2013|pp=385–386}} While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple ''anarchisms'', rather than a singular ''anarchism'', in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.{{Sfn|Franks|2013|p=386}} |
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===The Russian Revolution=== |
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{{main|Russian Revolution (1917)}} |
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[[Image:Goldmanberkman.jpeg|thumb|right|Anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] opposed [[Bolshevik]] consolidation of power following the [[Russian Revolution (1917)]].]] |
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Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolshevik]]s in both [[February Revolution|February]] and [[October Revolution|October revolutions]], many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However, the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict that culminated in the 1921 [[Kronstadt rebellion]]. Anarchists in central Russia were either imprisoned, driven underground or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In the [[Free Territory (Ukraine)|Ukraine]], anarchists fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against Whites and then the Bolsheviks as part of the [[Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine]] led by [[Nestor Makhno]], who attempted to establish an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. |
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Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, [[white supremacy]], and imperialism."{{Sfn|Jun|2009|pp=507–508}} Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed.{{Sfn|Jun|2009|p=507}} The principle of [[equal liberty]] is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.{{Sfn|Egoumenides|2014|p=91}} |
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Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising, before they left Russia. Both wrote accounts of their experiences in Russia, criticizing the amount of control the Bolsheviks exercised. For them, [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin's]] predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule that the rulers of the new "socialist” Marxist state would become a new elite<ref name="bakuninmarx">"[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bakunin/works/1872/karl-marx.htm On the International Workingmen's Association and Karl Marx]" in ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', translated and edited by Sam Dolgoff, 1971</ref> had proved all too true. |
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== Tactics == |
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The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; [[Communist party|Communist parties]] grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US, for example, certain members of the major syndicalist movements of the [[Confédération générale du travail|CGT]] and [[Industrial Workers of the World|IWW]] left the organizations and joined the [[Comintern|Communist International]]. |
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Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose [[the Establishment]] and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp=107–108}} A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|pp=4–5}} Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|p=125}} |
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Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p=112}} |
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In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles, which included [[Nestor Makhno]], concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, called the [[Platformism|Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)]],<ref name=Platformtext>{{cite book | last = Dielo Trouda group | authorlink = Dielo Trouda | title = Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft) | origyear = 1926 | url = http://www.anarkism.net/newswire.php?story_id=1000 | accessdate = 2006-10-24 | year = 2006 | publisher = FdCA | location = Italy}}</ref> was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others.{{Who|date=April 2008}} Platformist groups today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland and the [[NEFAC|North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] of North America. |
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=== |
=== Classical era === |
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[[File:McKinleyAssassination.jpg|thumb|right|The relationship between [[anarchism and violence]] is a controversial subject among anarchists as shown by anarchist [[Leon Czolgosz]] [[Assassination of William McKinley|assassinating]] [[William McKinley]].]] |
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{{main|Anti-fascism}}{{See also|Anarchism in Italy|Anarchism in France|Anarchism in Spain}} |
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During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as [[propaganda of the deed]]. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in [[revolution]]s.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp=112–113}} Many anarchists, especially the [[Galleanists]], believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state.{{Sfn|Norris|2020|pp=7–8}} Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s.{{Sfnm|1a1=Levy|1y=2011|1p=13|2a1=Nesser|2y=2012|2p=62}} Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions.{{Sfn|Harmon|2011|p=55}} |
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[[Image:Members of the Maquis in La Tresorerie.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-fascist [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]], who resisted [[Nazism|Nazi]] and [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] rule in Europe.]] |
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In the 1920s and 1930s, the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe transformed anarchism's conflict with the state. Italy saw the first struggles between anarchists and fascists. [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchists]] played a key role in the anti-fascist organisation ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', which was strongest in areas with anarchist traditions and marked up numerous successful victories, including repelling [[Blackshirts]] in the anarchist stronghold of Parma in August 1922.<ref>Holbrow, Marnie, [http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=8205 "Daring but Divided"] (''Socialist Review'' November 2002)</ref> In France, where the [[far right leagues]] came close to insurrection in the [[6 February 1934 crisis|February 1934 riots]], anarchists divided over a [[united front]] policy.<ref>Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution". ''Le Libertaire''. August 1936)</ref> |
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Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial.{{Sfn|Carter|1978|p=320}} Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends.{{Sfn|Fiala|2017|loc=section 3.1}} Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of [[sabotage]] or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a [[tyrant]] and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=116–117}} [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a [[necessary evil]].{{Sfn|Carter|1978|pp=320–325}} |
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In Spain, the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939) was underway. In response to the army rebellion, an [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[Collective farming|collectivized]] the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinism|Stalinists]], who controlled the distribution of military aid to the Republican cause from the [[Soviet Union]]. According to [[George Orwell]] and other foreign observers, Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification|dissident Marxists]] and anarchists. |
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Anarchists took an active role in [[strike action]]s, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal [[syndicalism]], seeing it as [[reformist]]. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p=113}} Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced [[naturism]] and [[nudism]]. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p=114}} |
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==Internal issues and debates== |
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{{main|Issues in anarchism}} |
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[[Image:Uroligheder3.jpg|thumb|right|The efficacy and legitimacy of using [[violence]] to political ends [[Anarchism and violence|have been controversial issues amongst anarchists]].]] |
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Anarchism is a philosophy which embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies and schools of thought; as such, disagreement over questions of values, ideology and tactics is common. The compatibility of [[anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]]), [[anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]] and [[anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed. Similarly, anarchism enjoys a complex relationship with ideologies such as [[Anarchism and Marxism|Marxism]], [[Issues in anarchism#Communism|communism]] and [[Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[Christian anarchism|divine authority]], [[ethical egoism|enlightened self-interest]] or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. |
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=== Revolutionary === |
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Phenomena such as [[civilization]], [[technology]] (e.g. within [[Anarcho-primitivism]] and [[insurrectionary anarchism]]), and [[Issues in anarchism#Participation in statist democracy|the democratic process]] may be sharply criticized within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. Anarchist attitudes towards [[Issues in anarchism#Race|race]], [[Issues in anarchism#Gender|gender]] and [[Issues in anarchism#The environment|the environment]] have changed significantly since the modern origin of the philosophy in the eighteenth century. |
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[[File:Black bloc at RNC running.jpg|thumb|Black bloc protesters parading anarcho-communism imagery such as the motto "[[No War but the Class War]]"]] |
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In the current era, Italian anarchist [[Alfredo Bonanno]], a proponent of [[insurrectionary anarchism]], has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group [[The Invisible Committee]] advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=134–135}} |
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Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, [[Anarchism in Greece|Greece]], and [[Anarchism in Mexico|Mexico]]. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police;{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p=115}} however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking [[anti-fascist]] action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p=117}} |
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On a tactical level, while [[propaganda of the deed]] was a tactic used by anarchists in the 19th century (e.g. the [[Nihilist movement]]), contemporary anarchists espouse alternative methods such as [[nonviolence]], [[counter-economics]] and [[Crypto-anarchism|anti-state cryptography]] to bring about an anarchist society. The diversity in anarchism has led to widely different use of identical terms among different anarchist traditions, which has led to many [[Issues in anarchism#Definitional concerns|definitional concerns in anarchist theory]]. |
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=== Evolutionary === |
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==Citations== |
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Anarchists commonly employ [[direct action]]. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives.{{Sfn|Williams|2018|pp=4–5}} Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as [[horizontalidad|horizontalism]].{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp=109–117}} Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various [[grassroots]] movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the ''big-A anarchism'' of the classical era, the newly coined term ''small-a anarchism'' signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=145–149}} |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp=109, 119}} Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially [[Wildcat strike action|wildcat strikes]] as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp=119–121}} |
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==See also== |
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{{Anarchism portal}} |
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* [[Anarchist symbolism]] |
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* [[List of basic anarchism topics]] |
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As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the [[World Wide Web]] to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp=118–119}} Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|pp=120–121}} |
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==Further reading== |
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{{main|List of anarchist books}} |
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* ''Anarchism. A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas.'' [[Robert Graham (historian)|Robert Graham]], editor. |
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** ''Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal and London 2005. ISBN 1–55164–250–6. |
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** ''Volume Two: The Anarchist Current (1939–2006)'' Black Rose Books, Montréal 2007. ISBN 9781551643113. |
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* ''Anarchism'', [[George Woodcock]] (Penguin Books, 1962) |
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* ''Anarchy: A Graphic Guide'', [[Clifford Harper]] (Camden Press, 1987) (An overview, updating Woodcock's classic, and illustrated throughout by Harper's woodcut-style artwork) |
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* ''The Anarchist Reader'', George Woodcock (Ed.) (Fontana/Collins 1977) (An anthology of writings from anarchist thinkers and activists including [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], [[Murray Bookchin|Bookchin]], [[Emma Goldman|Goldman]], and many others.) |
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* ''[[The Dispossessed]]'', [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] (a 1974 [[science fiction]] novel that takes place on a planet with an anarchist society; winner of both the [[Hugo Award|Hugo]] and [[Nebula Award]]s for best novel.) |
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Anarchists organize themselves to [[Squatting|squat]] and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called [[Temporary Autonomous Zone]]s (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and [[surrealism]] are blended to display the anarchist ideal.{{Sfnm|1a1=Kinna|1y=2019|1p=139|2a1=Mattern|2y=2019|2p=596|3a1=Williams|3y=2018|3pp=5–6}} As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action.{{Sfnm|1a1=Kinna|1y=2012|1p=250|2a1=Williams|2y=2019|2p=119}} Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds.{{Sfn|Williams|2019|p=122}} Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a [[carnivalesque]] atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.{{Sfn|Morland|2004|pp=37–38}} |
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==External links== |
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{{wiktionary}} |
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{{Wikisource category}} |
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{{wikiquote}} |
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===General resources=== |
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* [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/1931/ "An Anarchist FAQ Webpage"] – [[An Anarchist FAQ]] |
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* [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm Anarchist Theory FAQ] by [[Bryan Caplan]] |
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* [http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] – Anarchist news, information, and online library. |
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* [http://www.anarchism.net Anarchism.net] – a pluralist resource on anarchism |
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== Key issues == |
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===Biographical and bibliographical=== |
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* [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]–1,700+ entries, with short bios, links & dedicated pages. |
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* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives] – [[Anarchy Archives]], information relating to famous anarchists including their writings. |
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* [http://www.theyliewedie.org/ressources/biblio/index-en.php Anarchist virtual library] 768 books, booklets and texts about anarchism. |
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* [http://www.spunk.org/ Spunk.org] – [[Spunk Library]], extensive archive of anarchist documents |
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* [http://zinelibrary.net "Zinelibrary.net"] anarchist zines to download, print and distribute |
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<!-- In the interest of restricting article length, these overview summaries are meant to be brief. Thank you. --> |
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===News=== |
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As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of [[definitional concerns in anarchist theory]]. The compatibility of [[Anarchism and capitalism|capitalism]],{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1993|1p=565|2a1=Honderich|2y=1995|2p=31|3a1=Meltzer|3y=2000|3p=50|4a1=Goodway|4y=2006|4p=4|5a1=Newman|5y=2010|5p=53}} [[Anarchism and nationalism|nationalism]], and [[Anarchism and religion|religion]] with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, [[Collectivist anarchism|collectivism]], Marxism, and [[trade unionism]]. Anarchists may be motivated by [[humanism]], [[God|divine authority]], [[enlightened self-interest]], [[Veganarchism|veganism]], or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as [[civilisation]], technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the [[Anarchism and statist democracy|democratic process]] may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.{{Sfn|De George|2005|pp=31–32}} |
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* [http://www.ainfos.ca/ A-infos] "a multi-lingual news service by, for, and about anarchists" |
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* [http://anarchistnews.org/ Anarchist News] – news reports from an anarchist perspective |
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* [http://www.anarkismo.net/index.php Anarkismo] - A multi-lingual, international news and theory site |
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<!-- Attention! The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size. Please only list an outside link if it applies to anarchism in general and is somewhat noteworthy. Links to lesser known sites or submovements will be routinely moved to the list page to keep this article free of clutter --> |
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{{Ideologies}} |
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=== The state === |
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[[Category:Anarchism]] |
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<!-- Important! Strive to explain how anarchists perceive authority and oppression and why they reject them. Jun (2019), p. 41. -->[[File:Fight_the_state,_not_wars.jpg|thumb|Anarchist protesters in [[Boston]] opposing state-waged war]] |
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[[Category:Political ideologies]] |
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Objection to the [[State (polity)|state]] and its institutions is a ''[[sine qua non]]'' of anarchism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Carter|1y=1971|1p=14|2a1=Jun|2y=2019|2pp=29–30}} Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is [[Open government|open]] or [[Transparency (behavior)|transparent]], as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the [[ruling class]] is distinct from the rest of society.{{Sfn|Jun|2019|pp=32–38}} |
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[[Category:Social philosophy]] |
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Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. [[Robert Paul Wolff]] believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." [[A. John Simmons]] and [[Leslie Green (philosopher)|Leslie Green]], who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely.{{Sfnm|1a1=Wendt|1y=2020|1p=2|2a1=Ashwood|2y=2018|2p=727}} Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.{{Sfn|Ashwood|2018|p=735}} |
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{{Link FA|eo}} |
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{{Link FA|id}} |
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=== Gender, sexuality, and free love === |
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{{Link FA|ar}} |
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{{Main|Anarchism and issues related to love and sex}} |
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[[ar:لاسلطوية]] |
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As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|p=603}} |
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[[an:Anarquismo]] |
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[[ast:Anarquismu]] |
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[[File:AnarchaFeminism.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Collection of [[anarcha-feminist]] protests, symbols, and flags]] |
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[[zh-min-nan:Hui-thóng-tī-chú-gī]] |
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Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing.{{Sfn|Lucy|2020|p=162}} Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]], who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men.{{Sfn|Lucy|2020|p=178}} A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was [[free love]]. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support [[polyamory]], [[relationship anarchy]], and [[queer anarchism]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Nicholas|1y=2019|1p=611|2a1=Jeppesen|2a2=Nazar|2y=2012|2pp=175–176}} Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure.{{Sfn|Jeppesen|Nazar|2012|pp=175–176}} Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together.{{Sfn|Jeppesen|Nazar|2012|p=177}} Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love.{{Sfn|Jeppesen|Nazar|2012|pp=175–177}} Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=166–167}} |
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[[bg:Анархизъм]] |
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[[ca:Anarquisme]] |
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During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the [[second wave of feminism]], radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|pp=609–611}} With the [[third wave of feminism]], sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a [[post-structuralist]] critique of sexual normality.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|pp=610–611}} Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.{{Sfn|Nicholas|2019|pp=616–617}} |
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[[cs:Anarchismus]] |
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[[da:Anarkisme]] |
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=== Education === |
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[[pdc:Anarchism]] |
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{{Main|Anarchism and education}} |
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[[de:Anarchismus]] |
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{|class="wikitable" style="border: none; background: none; float: right;" |
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[[et:Anarhism]] |
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|+ Anarchist vs. statist perspectives on education<br/>{{Small|Ruth Kinna (2019){{Sfn|Kinna|2019|p=97}}}} |
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[[el:Αναρχισμός]] |
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|- |
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[[es:Anarquismo]] |
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!scope="col"| |
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[[eo:Anarkiismo]] |
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!scope="col"|Anarchist education |
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[[eu:Anarkismo]] |
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!scope="col"|State education |
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[[fa:دولتزدائی]] |
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|- |
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[[fo:Anarkisma]] |
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|Concept || Education as self-mastery || Education as service |
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[[fr:Anarchisme]] |
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|- |
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[[gd:Ain-Riaghailteachd]] |
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|Management || Community based || State run |
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[[gl:Anarquismo]] |
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|- |
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[[ko:아나키즘]] |
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|Methods || Practice-based learning || Vocational training |
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[[hr:Anarhizam]] |
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|- |
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[[id:Anarkisme]] |
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|Aims || Being a critical member of society || Being a productive member of society |
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[[is:Stjórnleysisstefna]] |
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|} |
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[[it:Anarchismo]] |
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The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of [[Mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]].{{Sfnm|1a1=Kinna|1y=2019|1pp=83–85|2a2=Suissa|2y=2019|2pp=514–515, 520}} Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (''[[Political Justice]]'') and Max Stirner ("[[The False Principle of Our Education]]") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.{{Sfnm|1a1=Suissa|1y=2019|1pp=514, 521|2a1=Kinna|2y=2019|2pp=83–86|3a1=Marshall|3y=1993|3p=222}} |
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[[he:אנרכיזם]] |
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[[jv:Anarkisme]] |
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In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker [[Francisco Ferrer]] established the [[Escuela Moderna]] in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp=511–512}} Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster [[class consciousness]] among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of [[Modern School (United States)|modern schools]] around the world.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp=511–514}} [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay ''Education and Culture'', also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free."{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp=517–518}} In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp=518–519}} |
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[[ka:ანარქიზმი]] |
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[[sw:Utawala huria]] |
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Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.{{Sfnm|1a1=Avrich|1y=1980|1pp=3–33|2a1=Suissa|2y=2019|2pp=519–522}} |
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[[la:Anarchismus]] |
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[[lt:Anarchizmas]] |
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Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers ([[Paul Goodman]], [[Herbert Read]], and [[Colin Ward]]) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in [[consumerism]] as part of a consumer society.{{Sfn|Kinna|2019|pp=89–96}} Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.{{Sfn|Ward|1973|pp=39–48}} |
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[[hu:Anarchizmus]] |
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[[mk:Анархизам]] |
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While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.{{Sfn|Suissa|2019|pp=523–526}} |
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[[ms:Anarkisme]] |
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[[nl:Anarchisme]] |
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=== The arts === |
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[[ja:アナキズム]] |
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{{Main|Anarchism and the arts}} |
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[[no:Anarkisme]] |
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[[File:Apple Harvest by Camille Pissarro.jpg|thumb|340px|''Les chataigniers a Osny'' (1888) by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro is a notable example of blending anarchism and the arts.{{Sfn|Antliff|1998|p=99}}]] |
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[[nn:Anarkisme]] |
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The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|p=592}} In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the [[New Apocalyptics]] and the [[neo-romanticism]] movement.{{Sfn|Gifford|2019|p=577}} In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk.{{Sfnm|1a1=Marshall|1y=1993|1pp=493–494|2a1=Dunn|2y=2012|3a1=Evren|3a2=Kinna|3a3=Rouselle|3y=2013|p=138}} Anarchists such as [[Leo Tolstoy]] and [[Herbert Read]] stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|pp=592–593}} |
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[[oc:Anarquisme]] |
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[[pl:Anarchizm]] |
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Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|p=593}} In his book ''Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas'', Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism."{{Sfn|Robé|2017|p=44}} Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, [[Emma Goldman]], [[Gustav Landauer]] and [[Camillo Berneri]]) and publications such as ''[[Anarchy (magazine)|Anarchy]]'' wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.{{Sfn|Miller|Dirlik|Rosemont|Augustyn|2019|p=1}} |
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[[pt:Anarquismo]] |
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[[ro:Anarhism]] |
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Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect.{{Sfn|Mattern|2019|pp=593–596}} The 19th-century [[neo-impressionist]] movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism.{{Sfn|Antliff|1998|p=78}} In ''Les chataigniers a Osny'' by anarchist painter [[Camille Pissarro]], the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.{{Sfn|Antliff|1998|p=99}} |
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[[ru:Анархизм]] |
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[[sco:Anarchism]] |
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== Criticism == |
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[[simple:Anarchism]] |
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The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot [[Self-governance|self-govern]] and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government."{{Sfn|Krimerman|Perry|1966|p=494}} Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.{{Sfn|Ward|2004|p=78}} |
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[[sk:Anarchizmus]] |
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[[sl:Anarhizem]] |
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Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. [[Thomas Hobbes]] and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order. Philosopher [[Robert Nozick]] argued that a "[[night-watchman state]]", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an [[invisible hand]], in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a [[state of nature]] would not just be in a state of war. [[Anarcho-primitivism|Anarcho-primitivists]] in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.<ref>{{Citation |last=Fiala |first=Andrew |title=Anarchism |date=2021 |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/anarchism |access-date=2023-06-17 |edition=Winter 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> |
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[[sr:Анархизам]] |
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[[sh:Anarhizam]] |
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Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.{{Sfn|Fiala|2017|loc="4. Objections and Replies"}} |
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[[fi:Anarkismi]] |
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[[sv:Anarkism]] |
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Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' ''Moral Principles and Political Obligations''.{{Sfn|Klosko|1999|p=536}} Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.{{Sfnm|1a1=Klosko|1y=1999|1p=536|2a1=Kristjánsson|2y=2000|2p=896}} In ''The Problem of Political Authority'', [[Michael Huemer]] defends philosophical anarchism,{{Sfn|Dagger|2018|p=35}} claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."{{Sfn|Rogers|2020|p=}} |
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[[th:ลัทธิอนาธิปไตย]] |
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[[tr:Anarşizm]] |
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One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority.{{Sfn|Ferguson|1886}} [[Joseph Raz]] states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success.{{Sfn|Gans|1992|p=37}} Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction.{{Sfn|Gans|1992|p=38}} Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment.{{Sfn|Gans|1992|pp=34, 38}} Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively.{{Sfn|Brinn|2020|p=206}} Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.{{Sfn|Lucy|2020|p=162}} |
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[[uk:Анархізм]] |
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[[yi:אנארכיזם]] |
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[[Friedrich Engels]], considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian.{{Sfn|Tucker|1978}} Academic [[John Molyneux (academic)|John Molyneux]] writes in his book ''Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism'' that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas.{{Sfn|Dodds|2011}} The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.{{Sfn|Baár|Falina|Janowski|Kopeček|2016|p=488}} |
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[[zh-yue:無政府主義]] |
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[[diq:Anarşizm]] |
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== See also == |
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[[zh:无政府主义]] |
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{{Portal|Anarchism|Libertarianism}} |
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* [[:Category:Anarchism by country|Anarchism by country]] |
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* [[List of anarchist political ideologies]] |
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* [[List of books about anarchism]] |
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* [[List of films dealing with anarchism]] |
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'''Anarchist communities''' |
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* [[List of stateless societies]] |
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* [[List of intentional communities]] |
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* [[List of self-managed social centers]] |
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== References == |
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=== Explanatory notes === |
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{{Reflist|group=nb}} |
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=== Citations === |
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{{Reflist|25em}} |
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=== General and cited sources === |
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==== Primary sources ==== |
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{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Bakunin |first=Mikhail |author-link=Mikhail Bakunin |title=Statism and Anarchy |title-link=Statism and Anarchy |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-5213-6182-8 |editor-last=Shatz |editor-first=Marshall |series=Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought |location=Cambridge, England |translator-last=Shatz |translator-first=Marshall |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139168083 |lccn=89077393 |oclc=20826465 |orig-date=1873}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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==== Secondary sources ==== |
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{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last1=Angelbeck |first1=Bill |last2=Grier |first2=Colin |date=2012 |title=Anarchism and the Archaeology of Anarchic Societies: Resistance to Centralization in the Coast Salish Region of the Pacific Northwest Coast |url=https://arcabc.ca/islandora/object/dc%3A312/datastream/PDF/view |url-status=live |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=547–587 |doi=10.1086/667621 |s2cid=142786065 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721142558/https://arcabc.ca/islandora/object/dc%3A312/datastream/PDF/view |archive-date=21 July 2018 |access-date=24 June 2021 |s2cid-access=free |issn = 0011-3204 }} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Antliff |first=Mark |date=1998 |title=Cubism, Futurism, Anarchism: The 'Aestheticism' of the "Action d'art" Group, 1906–1920 |journal=Oxford Art Journal |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=101–120 |doi=10.1093/oxartj/21.2.99 |jstor=1360616}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Anderson |first=Benedict |author-link=Benedict Anderson |date=2004 |title=In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel |url=http://newleftreview.org/II/28/benedict-anderson-in-the-world-shadow-of-bismarck-and-nobel |journal=[[New Left Review]] |volume=2 |issue=28 |pages=85–129 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219130121/http://newleftreview.org/II/28/benedict-anderson-in-the-world-shadow-of-bismarck-and-nobel |archive-date=19 December 2015 |access-date=7 January 2016}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Avrich |url=https://archive.org/details/anarchistvoiceso0000avri |title=Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America |date=1995 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-6910-3412-6 |location=Princeton |language=English |oclc=68772773}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Arvidsson |first=Stefan |author-link=Stefan Arvidsson |title=The Style and Mythology of Socialism: Socialist Idealism, 1871–1914 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-3673-4880-9 |edition=1st |location=London}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Ashwood |first=Loka |date=2018 |title=Rural Conservatism or Anarchism? The Pro-state, Stateless, and Anti-state Positions |journal=[[Rural Sociology]] |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=717–748 |doi=10.1111/ruso.12226 |s2cid=158802675}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Avrich |title=[[Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-6910-4494-1}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Avrich |title=The Russian Anarchists |title-link=The Russian Anarchists |publisher=[[AK Press]] |date=2006 |isbn=978-1-9048-5948-2 |location=Stirling |author-mask=2}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Avrich |title=[[The Modern School Movement: Anarchism and Education in the United States]] |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=1980 |isbn=978-1-4008-5318-2 |pages=3–33 |oclc=489692159 |author-mask=2}} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=Baár |first1=Monika |title=A History of Modern Political Thought in East Central Europe: Negotiating Modernity in the 'Long Nineteenth Century' |last2=Falina |first2=Maria |last3=Janowski |first3=Maciej |last4=Kopeček |first4=Michal |last5=Trencsényi |first5=Balázs Trencsényi |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-1910-5695-6 |volume=I |location=Oxford}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Bantman |first=Constance |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=371–388 |chapter=The Era of Propaganda by the Deed |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m7BhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA372}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Bates |first=David |title=Political Ideologies |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-1987-2785-9 |editor-last=Wetherly |editor-first=Paul |chapter=Anarchism |access-date=2019-02-28 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uXfJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218111304/https://books.google.com/books?id=uXfJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |archive-date=2021-02-18 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Bolloten |first=Burnett |author-link=Burnett Bolloten |title=The Spanish Civil War: Revolution and Counterrevolution |publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]] |date=1984 |isbn=978-0-8078-1906-7}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Brinn |first=Gearóid |date=2020 |title=Smashing the State Gently: Radical Realism and Realist Anarchism |journal=[[European Journal of Political Theory]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=206–227 |doi=10.1177/1474885119865975 |s2cid=202278143}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Brooks |first=Frank H. |title=The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908) |publisher=Transaction Publishers |date=1994 |isbn=978-1-5600-0132-4}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Carlson |first=Andrew R. |title=Anarchism in Germany; Vol. 1: The Early Movement |title-link=Anarchism in Germany (book) |publisher=Scarecrow Press |date=1972 |isbn=978-0-8108-0484-5 |location=Metuchen, New Jersey}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Carter |first=April |author-link=April Carter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mlWPgAACAAJ |title=The Political Theory of Anarchism |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=1971 |isbn=978-0-4155-5593-7 |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115214125/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mlWPgAACAAJ |archive-date=15 January 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=April |date=1978 |title=Anarchism and violence |journal=Nomos |publisher=American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy |volume=19 |pages=320–340 |jstor=24219053}} |
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* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofterrori00grar |title=The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al-Quaeda |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-5202-4709-3 |editor-last=Chaliand |editor-first=Gerard |location=Berkeley; Los Angeles; London |oclc=634891265 |editor-last2=Blin |editor-first2=Arnaud |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |date=2009 |title=Anarchism |encyclopedia=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=Oxford |last=Cohn |first=Jesse |editor-last=Ness |editor-first=Immanuel |editor-link=Immanuel Ness |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0039 |isbn=978-1-4051-9807-3}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Crone |first=Patricia |author-link=Patricia Crone |date=2000 |title=Ninth-Century Muslim Anarchists |url=https://www.hs.ias.edu/files/Crone_Articles/Crone_Ninth_Century_Muslim_Anarchists.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |issue=167 |pages=3–28 |doi=10.1093/past/167.1.3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828210845/https://www.hs.ias.edu/files/Crone_Articles/Crone_Ninth_Century_Muslim_Anarchists.pdf |archive-date=28 August 2020 |access-date=3 January 2022}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Dagger |first=Tristan J. |title=Playing Fair: Political Obligation and the Problems of Punishment |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-1993-8883-7 |location=Oxford}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Dirlik |first=Arif |title=Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-5200-7297-8 |location=Berkeley}} |
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* {{Cite magazine |last=Dodds |first=Jonathan |date=October 2011 |title=Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism |url=http://socialistreview.org.uk/362/anarchism-marxist-criticism |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218111328/http://socialistreview.org.uk/362/anarchism-marxist-criticism |archive-date=2021-02-18 |access-date=2020-07-31 |magazine=Socialist Review}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Dodson |first=Edward |title=The Discovery of First Principles |publisher=Authorhouse |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-5952-4912-1 |volume=2}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Dunn |first=Kevin |date=August 2012 |title=Anarcho-Punk and Resistance in Everyday Life |journal=Punk & Post-Punk |publisher=Intellect |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=201–218 |doi=10.1386/punk.1.2.201_1}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Egoumenides |first=Magda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4qEMBAAAQBAJ |title=Philosophical Anarchism and Political Obligation |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4411-2445-6 |location=New York |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218111334/https://books.google.com/books?id=4qEMBAAAQBAJ |archive-date=18 February 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Esenwein |first=George |title=Anarchist Ideology and the Working-Class Movement in Spain, 1868–1898 |publisher=University of California Press |date=1989 |isbn=978-0-5200-6398-3 |location=Berkeley}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Evren |first=Süreyyya |author-link=Süreyyya Evren |title=Post-Anarchism: A Reader |publisher=[[Pluto Press]] |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-7453-3086-0 |editor-last=Rousselle |editor-first=Duane |editor-link=Duane Rousselle |pages=1–19 |chapter=How New Anarchism Changed the World (of Opposition) after Seattle and Gave Birth to Post-Anarchism |editor-last2=Evren |editor-first2=Süreyyya |editor-link2=Süreyyya Evren}} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=Evren |first1=Süreyyya |author-link=Süreyyya Evren |title=Blasting the Canon |last2=Kinna |first2=Ruth |author-link2=Ruth Kinna |last3=Rouselle |first3=Duane |author-link3=Duane Rousselle |publisher=[[Punctum Books]] |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-6158-3862-5 |location=Santa Barbara, California}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Ferguson |first=Francis L. |date=August 1886 |title=The Mistakes of Anarchism |journal=The North American Review |publisher=[[University of Northern Iowa]] |volume=143 |issue=357 |pages=204–206 |issn=0029-2397 |jstor=25101094}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Fernández |first=Frank |title=Cuban Anarchism: The History of A Movement |publisher=Sharp Press |date=2009 |orig-date=2001}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Franks |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Franks (philosopher) |title=The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies |date=August 2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |editor-last=Freeden |editor-first=Michael |pages=385–404 |chapter=Anarchism |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001 |editor-last2=Stears |editor-first2=Marc}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Franks |first=Benjamin |author-link=Benjamin Franks (philosopher) |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=549–570 |chapter=Anarchism and Ethics |author-mask=2 |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Gabardi |first=Wayne |date=1986 |title=Anarchism. By David Miller. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1984. pp. 216 [book review]) |journal=[[American Political Science Review]] |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=300–302 |doi=10.2307/1957102 |jstor=446800 |s2cid=151950709}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Gans |first=Chaim |title=Philosophical Anarchism and Political Disobedience |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-5214-1450-0 |edition=reprint |location=Cambridge}} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=Gay |first1=Kathlyn |title=Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy |last2=Gay |first2=Martin |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-8743-6982-3}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Gifford |first=James |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |chapter=Literature and Anarchism |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Goodway |first=David |author-link=David Goodway |title=[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]] |publisher=Liverpool Press |date=2006 |isbn=978-1-8463-1025-6}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Graham |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Graham (historian) |title=Anarchism: a Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas: from Anarchy to Anarchism |publisher=[[Black Rose Books]] |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-5516-4250-5 |location=Montréal}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Graham |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Graham (historian) |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=325–342 |chapter=Anarchism and the First International |author-mask=2 |access-date=17 May 2020 |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date=26 July 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Guérin |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Guérin |url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice |title=Anarchism: From Theory to Practice |publisher=Monthly Review Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-8534-5128-0 |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200714125723/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/daniel-guerin-anarchism-from-theory-to-practice |archive-date=14 July 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5qrJCgAAQBAJ |title=Understanding Political Ideas and Movements |last2=Boyd |first2=Tony |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-7190-6151-6 |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308074910/https://books.google.com/books?id=5qrJCgAAQBAJ |archive-date=8 March 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Harmon |first=Christopher C. |date=2011 |title=How Terrorist Groups End: Studies of the Twentieth Century |journal=Connections |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=51–104 |jstor=26310649}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Heywood |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Heywood |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy8hDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 |title=Political Ideologies: An Introduction |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-1376-0604-4 |edition=6th |access-date=13 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218111410/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy8hDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 |archive-date=18 February 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Honderich |first=Ted |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hond |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-1986-6132-0 |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Honeywell |first=C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qzKOzQEACAAJ |title=Anarchism |publisher=Wiley |date=2021 |isbn=978-1-5095-2390-0 |series=Key Concepts in Political Theory |access-date=2022-08-13}} |
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* {{Cite news |last=Imrie |first=Doug |date=1994 |title=The Illegalists |url=http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908072801/http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm |archive-date=2015-09-08 |access-date=2010-12-09 |work=Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed |language=en}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Jennings |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Jennings |title=Contemporary Political Ideologies |publisher=Pinter |date=1993 |isbn=978-0-8618-7096-7 |editor-last=Eatwell |editor-first=Roger |editor-link=Roger Eatwell |location=London |pages=127–146 |chapter=Anarchism |editor-last2=Wright |editor-first2=Anthony}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Jennings |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Jennings |title=Contemporary Political Ideologies |publisher=A & C Black |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-8264-5173-6 |editor-last=Eatwell |editor-first=Roger |editor-link=Roger Eatwell |edition=reprinted, 2nd |location=London |chapter=Anarchism |editor-last2=Wright |editor-first2=Anthony}} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=Jeppesen |first1=Sandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNuoAwAAQBAJ |title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Anarchism |last2=Nazar |first2=Holly |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-4411-4270-2 |editor-last=Kinna |editor-first=Ruth |editor-link=Ruth Kinna |chapter=Genders and Sexualities in Anarchist Movements |access-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115214158/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNuoAwAAQBAJ |archive-date=15 January 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Charles |title=Anarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country? |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-7546-6066-8 |editor-last=Long |editor-first=Roderick T. |pages=155–188 |chapter=Liberty, Equality, Solidarity Toward a Dialectical Anarchism |editor-last2=Machan |editor-first2=Tibor R. |editor-link2=Tibor Machan}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Joll |first=James |author-link=James Joll |title=[[The Anarchists (book)|The Anarchists]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=1964 |isbn=978-0-6740-3642-0}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Jun |first=Nathan |date=September 2009 |title=Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary |url=https://philarchive.org/rec/JUNAPA-2 |journal=[[WorkingUSA]] |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=505–519 |doi=10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x |issn=1089-7011}}<!-- to revisit, p. 508+ --> |
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* {{Cite book |last=Jun |first=Nathan |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=27–47 |chapter=The State |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite news |last=Kahn |first=Joseph |date=2000 |title=Anarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |work=[[The New York Times]] |issue=5 August}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Kinna |first=Ruth |author-link=Ruth Kinna |title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Anarchism |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-6289-2430-5}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Kinna |first=Ruth |author-link=Ruth Kinna |title=[[The Government of No One: The Theory and Practice of Anarchism]] |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-2413-9655-1}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Klosko |first=George |date=1999 |title=More than Obligation – William A. Edmundson: Three Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority |journal=The Review of Politics |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=536–538 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500028989 |issn=1748-6858 |s2cid=144417469}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Klosko |first=George |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToHmfIj8d_gC |title=Political Obligations |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-1995-5104-0 |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124033632/https://books.google.com/books?id=ToHmfIj8d_gC |archive-date=24 November 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/patternsofanarch00krim |title=Patterns of Anarchy: A Collection of Writings on the Anarchist Tradition |date=1966 |publisher=Anchor Books |editor-last=Krimerman |editor-first=Leonard I. |location=Garden City, New York |language=en |editor-last2=Perry |editor-first2=Lewis}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Kristjánsson |first=Kristján |date=2000 |title=Three Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority by William A. Edmundson |journal=[[Mind (journal)|Mind]] |volume=109 |issue=436 |pages=896–900 |jstor=2660038}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Laursen |first=Ole Birk |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=149–168 |chapter=Anti-Imperialism |access-date=17 May 2020 |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date=26 July 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Levy |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |date=8 May 2011 |title=Social Histories of Anarchism |journal=Journal for the Study of Radicalism |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1353/jsr.2010.0003 |issn=1930-1197 |s2cid=144317650}} |
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* {{Cite book |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |date=2018 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-3-3197-5619-6 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Long |first=Roderick T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7MzEHaJgKAC |title=The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-4158-7456-4 |editor-last=Gaud |editor-first=Gerald F. |access-date=2019-02-28 |editor-last2=D'Agostino |editor-first2=Fred |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809085833/https://books.google.com/books?id=z7MzEHaJgKAC |archive-date=2020-08-09 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Lucy |first=Nicholas |title=The SAGE Handbook of Global Sexualities |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |date=2020 |isbn=978-1-5297-2194-2 |pages=160–183 |chapter=Anarchism and Sexuality |access-date=21 February 2022 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-t7KDwAAQBAJ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115214344/https://books.google.com/books?id=-t7KDwAAQBAJ |archive-date=15 January 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last1=Lutz |first1=James M. |last2=Ulmschneider |first2=Georgia Wralstad |date=2019 |title=Civil Liberties, National Security and U.S. Courts in Times of Terrorism |journal=Perspectives on Terrorism |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=43–57 |jstor=26853740}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Marshall (author) |title=[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]] |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-0021-7855-6 |location=London}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Marshall (author) |title=Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism |publisher=PM Press |date=1993 |isbn=978-1-6048-6064-1 |location=Oakland, California |author-mask=2}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Mattern |first=Mark |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=589–602 |chapter=Anarchism and Art |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Mayne |first=Alan James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&q=Communist+anarchism+believes+in+collective+ownership&pg=PA131 |title=From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-2759-6151-0 |access-date=20 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418013303/https://books.google.com/books?id=6MkTz6Rq7wUC&q=Communist+anarchism+believes+in+collective+ownership&pg=PA131 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=McLaughlin |first=Paul |title=Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]] |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-7546-6196-2 |location=Aldershot}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Morland |first=Dave |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etb2UFzCBv4C |title=Changing Anarchism: Anarchist Theory and Practice in a Global Age |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-7190-6694-8 |editor-last=Purkis |editor-first=Jonathan |pages=23–38 |chapter=Anti-capitalism and poststructuralist anarchism |access-date=24 January 2020 |editor-last2=Bowen |editor-first2=James |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218111517/https://books.google.com/books?id=etb2UFzCBv4C |archive-date=18 February 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Meltzer |first=Albert |author-link=Albert Meltzer |url=https://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe |title=Anarchism: Arguments For and Against |publisher=[[AK Press]] |date=2000 |isbn=978-1-8731-7657-3 |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Morris |first=Brian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GJXy5eCpPawC |title=Bakunin: The Philosophy of Freedom |publisher=[[Black Rose Books]] |date=1993 |isbn=978-1-8954-3166-7 |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225175003/https://books.google.com/books?id=GJXy5eCpPawC |archive-date=25 February 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Morris |first=Brian |title=Anthropology, Ecology, and Anarchism: A Brian Morris Reader |publisher=[[PM Press]] |others=Marshall, Peter |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-6048-6093-1 |edition=illustrated |location=Oakland |author-mask=2}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Morris |first=Christopher W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uuyJ9Bw8w7QC |title=An Essay on the Modern State |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-5215-2407-0 |access-date=15 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115214335/https://books.google.com/books?id=uuyJ9Bw8w7QC |archive-date=15 January 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite news |last=Moynihan |first=Colin |date=2007-04-16 |title=Book Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/16/nyregion/16anarchists.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914000000/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/16/nyregion/16anarchists.html |archive-date=2021-09-14 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Moya |first=Jose C. |title=In Defiance of Boundaries: Anarchism in Latin American History |publisher=[[University Press of Florida]] |others=Kirwin R. Shaffer |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-8130-5138-3 |editor-last=Laforcade |editor-first=Geoffroy de |chapter=Transference, culture, and critique The Circulation of Anarchist Ideas and Practices |access-date=6 March 2019 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ikt6AQAACAAJ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809085903/https://books.google.com/books?id=ikt6AQAACAAJ |archive-date=9 August 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Nesser |first=Petter |date=2012 |title=Research Note: Single Actor Terrorism: Scope, Characteristics and Explanations |journal=Perspectives on Terrorism |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=61–73 |jstor=26296894}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Nettlau |first=Max |author-link=Max Nettlau |title=[[A Short History of Anarchism]] |publisher=Freedom Press |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-9003-8489-9}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Newman |first=Michael |title=Socialism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-1928-0431-0 |location=Oxford}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Newman |first=Saul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43 |title=The Politics of Postanarchism |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-7486-3495-8 |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103005542/https://books.google.com/books?id=SiqBiViUsOkC&pg=PA43 |archive-date=3 January 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Nicholas |first=Lucy |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |chapter=Gender and Sexuality |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Norris |first=Jesse J. |date=2020 |title=Idiosyncratic Terrorism: Disaggregating an Undertheorized Concept |journal=Perspectives on Terrorism |volume=14 |issue=3 |issn=2334-3745 |jstor=26918296s}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Nomad |first=Max |title=Revolutionary Internationals 1864–1943 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |date=1966 |isbn=978-0-8047-0293-5 |editor-last=Drachkovitch |editor-first=Milorad M. |page=88 |chapter=The Anarchist Tradition}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Osgood |first=Herbert L. |date=March 1889 |title=Scientific Anarchism |journal=[[Political Science Quarterly]] |publisher=The Academy of Political Science |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–36 |doi=10.2307/2139424 |jstor=2139424}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Otero |first=Carlos Peregrín |title=Noam Chomsky: Critical Assessments |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=1994 |isbn=978-0-4150-1005-4 |volume=2–3 |location=London}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Parry |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/bonnotgang0000parr |title=The Bonnot Gang |publisher=Rebel Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0-9460-6104-4 |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Pernicone |first=Nunzio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ttgjwEACAAJ |title=Italian Anarchism, 1864–1892 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-6916-3268-1 |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819161516/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ttgjwEACAAJ |archive-date=19 August 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Pierson |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jvKDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |title=Just Property: Enlightenment, Revolution, and History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-1996-7329-2 |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316125550/https://books.google.com/books?id=7jvKDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |archive-date=16 March 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Ramnath |first=Maia |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |chapter=Non-Western Anarchisms and Postcolonialism |access-date=17 May 2020 |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date=26 July 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Robé |first=Chris |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336710855 |title=Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas |publisher=[[PM Press]] |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-6296-3233-9 |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221022844/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336710855_Breaking_the_Spell_A_History_of_Anarchist_Filmmakers_Videotape_Guerrillas_and_Digital_Ninjas |archive-date=21 February 2022 |url-status=live |via=ResearchGate}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Tristan J. |title=The Authority of Virtue: Institutions and Character in the Good Society |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2020 |isbn=978-1-0002-2264-7 |location=London}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Rupert |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationint00rupe |title=Globalization and International Political Economy |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield Publishers]] |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-7425-2943-4 |location=Lanham}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Ryley |first=Peter |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=225–236 |chapter=Individualism |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Shannon |first=Deric |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=91–106 |chapter=Anti-Capitalism and Libertarian Political Economy |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Skirda |first=Alexandre |title=Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization From Proudhon to May 1968 |publisher=[[AK Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=978-1-9025-9319-7}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Sylvan |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Sylvan |title=A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy |date=2007 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4051-3653-2 |editor-last=Goodin |editor-first=Robert E. |editor-link=Robert E. Goodin |edition=2nd |series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy |volume=5 |chapter=Anarchism |editor-last2=Pettit |editor-first2=Philip |editor-link2=Philip Pettit |editor-last3=Pogge |editor-first3=Thomas |editor-link3=Thomas Pogge}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Suissa |first=Judith |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |chapter=Anarchist Education |access-date=17 May 2020 |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726001923/https://books.google.com/books?id=SRyQswEACAAJ |archive-date=26 July 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Paul |title=Karl Marx and the Anarchists |publisher=[[Routledge]] & Kegan Paul |date=1985 |isbn=978-0-7102-0685-5 |location=London}} |
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* {{Cite book |title=The Marx-Engels Reader |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |date=1978 |isbn=0-3930-5684-8 |editor-last=Tucker |editor-first=Robert C. |edition=2nd |location=New York |oclc=3415145}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Turcato |first=Davide |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |chapter=Anarchist Communism |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Van der Walt |first=Lucien |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |pages=249–264 |chapter=Syndicalism |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Ward |date=1973 |title=The Role of the State |journal=Education Without Schools |pages=39–48}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkgSDAAAQBAJ |title=Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-1928-0477-8 |location=Oxford |author-mask=2 |access-date=12 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304153805/https://books.google.com/books?id=nkgSDAAAQBAJ |archive-date=4 March 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Walter |first=Nicholas |title=About Anarchism |publisher=Freedom Press |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-9003-8490-5 |location=London}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Wendt |first=Fabian |date=2020 |title=Against Philosophical Anarchism |journal=Law and Philosophy |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=527–544 |doi=10.1007/s10982-020-09377-4 |s2cid=213742949}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Wilbur |first=Shawn |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |chapter=Mutualism |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Dana M. |date=2015 |title=Black Panther Radical Factionalization and the Development of Black Anarchism |journal=[[Journal of Black Studies]] |location=Thousand Oaks |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |volume=46 |issue=7 |pages=678–703 |doi=10.1177/0021934715593053 |jstor=24572914 |s2cid=145663405}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Dana M. |author-mask=2 |date=2018 |title=Contemporary Anarchist and Anarchistic Movements |journal=Sociology Compass |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=e12582 |doi=10.1111/soc4.12582 |issn=1751-9020}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Dana M. |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |editor-last=Levy |editor-first=Carl |editor-link=Carl Levy (political scientist) |chapter=Tactics: Conceptions of Social Change, Revolution, and Anarchist Organisation |author-mask=2 |editor-last2=Adams |editor-first2=Matthew S.}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |date=September 2007 |title=Anarchism Revived |journal=[[New Political Science]] |language=en |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=297–312 |doi=10.1080/07393140701510160 |issn=0739-3148 |s2cid=220354272}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Leonard |author-mask=2 |date=2010 |title=Hakim Bey and Ontological Anarchism |journal=Journal for the Study of Radicalism |location=East Lansing |publisher=[[Michigan State University Press]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=109–137 |doi=10.1353/jsr.2010.0009 |jstor=41887660 |s2cid=143304524}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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==== Tertiary sources ==== |
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{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} |
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* {{Cite web |last=Coutinho |first=Steve |date=2016-03-03 |title=Zhuangzi |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175106/http://www.iep.utm.edu/zhuangzi |archive-date=2016-03-03 |access-date=2019-03-05 |publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |language=en}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=De George |first=Richard T. |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-1992-6479-7 |editor-last=Honderich |editor-first=Ted |editor-link=Ted Honderich}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |date=2017 |title=Anarchism |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, [[Stanford University]] |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism |access-date=12 March 2019 |last=Fiala |first=Andrew |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200828210847/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism |archive-date=28 August 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |date=2019 |title=Anarchism In The Arts |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism/Anarchism-in-the-arts#info-article-contributors |access-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128002441/https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarchism/Anarchism-in-the-arts#info-article-contributors |archive-date=28 November 2020 |last2=Dirlik |first2=Arif |last3=Rosemont |first3=Franklin |last4=Augustyn |first4=Adam |last5=Duignan |first5=Brian |last6=Lotha |first6=Gloria |last1=Miller |first1=Martin A. |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |date=2008 |title=Anarcho-capitalism |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisher=SAGE; [[Cato Institute]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT51 |access-date=2 September 2020 |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-first=Ronald |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |pages=13–14 |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n8 |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=191924853 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218111721/https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC&pg=PT51 |archive-date=18 February 2021 |last1=Morris |first1=Andrew |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=McLean |first1=Iain |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordconcisedic00iain |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics |last2=McMillan |first2=Alistair |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-1928-0276-7 |url-access=registration}} |
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* {{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Definition of Anarchism |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218111728/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anarchism |archive-date=2021-02-18 |access-date=2019-02-28 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en |ref={{Sfnref|Merriam-Webster|2019}}}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NIZfQTd3nSMC |title=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-6311-7944-3 |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818145221/https://books.google.com/books?id=NIZfQTd3nSMC |archive-date=18 August 2020 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite encyclopedia |date=2003 |title=Anarchism |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Malden, Massachusetts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JJmdpqJwkwwC&pg=PA12 |access-date=15 August 2020 |last=Ostergaard |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Ostergaard |editor-last=Outhwaite |editor-first=William |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-6312-2164-7 |oclc=49704935 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418004719/https://books.google.com/books?id=JJmdpqJwkwwC&pg=PA12 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |url-status=live}} |
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* {{Cite book |title=Oxford English Dictionary |date=September 2005 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |edition=3rd |chapter=Anarchy |ref={{Harvid|Oxford English Dictionary|2005}}}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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== Further reading == |
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* {{Cite book |last=Barclay |first=Harold B. |author-link=Harold Barclay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MrFHQgAACAAJ |title=People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy |publisher=Kahn & Averill |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-9393-0609-1}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Baker |first=Zoe |title=Means and Ends: The Revolutionary Practice of Anarchism in Europe and the United States |date=2023 |publisher=[[AK Press]] |isbn=978-1-8493-5498-1 |oclc=1345217229 |df=mdy-all}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Chomsky |first=Noam |author-link=Noam Chomsky |title=Chomsky on Anarchism |publisher=[[AK Press]] |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-9048-5926-0 |editor-last=Pateman |editor-first=Barry |location=Oakland}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Edmundson |first=William A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q_gClKUbJyYC |title=Three Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority |date=2007 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-5210-3751-8}} Criticism of philosophical anarchism. |
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* {{Cite book |last=Harper |first=Clifford |author-link=Clifford Harper |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W63aAAAAMAAJ |title=Anarchy: A Graphic Guide |publisher=Camden Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0-9484-9122-1}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Huemer |first=Michael |title=The Problem of Political Authority: An Examination of the Right to Coerce and the Duty to Obey |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-1372-8164-7 |location=London |page=137}} A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims." |
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* {{Cite book |last=Kinna |first=Ruth |author-link=Ruth Kinna |title=Anarchism: A Beginners Guide |publisher=Oneworld |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-8516-8370-3}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Le Guin |first=Ursula K. |author-link=Ursula K. Le Guin |title=The Dispossessed |title-link=The Dispossessed |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |date=2009}} Anarchistic popular fiction novel.<!-- Gifford 2019, p 580. --> |
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* {{Cite book |last=Sartwell |first=Crispin |author-link=Crispin Sartwell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bk-aaMVGKO0C |title=Against the State: An Introduction to Anarchist Political Theory |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-7914-7447-1}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Scott |first=James C. |author-link=James C. Scott |title=Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play |title-link=Two Cheers for Anarchism |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-6911-5529-6 |location=Princeton, New Jersey}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Suissa |first=Judith |date=1 July 2019b |title=Education and Non-domination: Reflections from the Radical Tradition |journal=Studies in Philosophy and Education |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=359–375 |doi=10.1007/s11217-019-09662-3 |s2cid=151210357 |doi-access=free}} |
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* {{Cite book |last=Wolff |first=Robert Paul |author-link=Robert Paul Wolff |title=In Defense of Anarchism |title-link=In Defense of Anarchism |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-5202-1573-3}} An argument for philosophical anarchism. |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Woodcock |first=George |author-link=George Woodcock |date=January 1962 |title=Anarchism in Spain |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/anarchism-spain |journal=[[History Today]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=22–32 |access-date=14 October 2020}} |
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* {{Cite book |last1=Levy |first1=Carl |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2 |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |last2=Adams |first2=Matthew S. |date=2019 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-3-3197-5620-2 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2 |s2cid=149333615}} |
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== External links == |
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* {{Curlie|Society/Politics/Anarchism|Anarchism}} |
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* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu Anarchy Archives] – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism. |
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Latest revision as of 16:03, 17 August 2024
Part of a series on |
Anarchism |
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Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that is against all forms of authority and seeks to abolish the institutions it claims maintain unnecessary coercion and hierarchy, typically including the state and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations. As a historically left-wing movement, this reading of anarchism is placed on the farthest left of the political spectrum, usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement (libertarian socialism).
Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements.
Anarchists employ diverse approaches, which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and praxis.
Etymology, terminology, and definition
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/WilhelmWeitling.jpg/220px-WilhelmWeitling.jpg)
The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia (ἀναρχία), meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy.[2] Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder.[3] Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756–1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs.[4]
The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist (French: anarchiste) was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France,[5] libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism[6] and its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States.[7] Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism.[8]
While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism,[9] its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups,[10] including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cultural liberals, who are primarily concerned with civil liberties.[10] Additionally, some anarchists use libertarian socialist[11] to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism.[10] Anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement.[12][nb 1] Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above.[16] Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials[17] and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two.[18] Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism,[10] and being both liberal and socialist but more so.[19] Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles.[20][nb 2]
While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently.[22][nb 3] Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy.[25]
History
Pre-modern era
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg/150px-Paolo_Monti_-_Servizio_fotografico_%28Napoli%2C_1969%29_-_BEIC_6353768.jpg)
The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi.[27] Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism.[28]
Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state.[29]
In medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I.[30]
In Basra, religious sects preached against the state.[31] In Europe, various sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies.[32] Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism, particularly in France.[33] Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism.[34]
Modern era
During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enragés and the sans-culottes saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments.[35] The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimising the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France.[36] By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914.[37] This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism.[36]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Bakunin.png/170px-Bakunin.png)
Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings.[38] After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress.[39] Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896.[40] Bakunin predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism.[41] Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs.[42]
By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world.[43] It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement.[44] In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism.[45] Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study.[46] In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology.[47] During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, known as propaganda of the deed.[48] The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts.[49] Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including the Immigration Act of 1903, also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act.[50] Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period.[51]
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Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina; however, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion.[52] Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too.[52] With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War, many workers and activists turned to communist parties which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and the Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International.[53]
In the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land.[54] The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as the May Days, as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of the Republican government, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists.[55]
Post-WWII
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By the end of World War II, the anarchist movement had been severely weakened.[56] The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War.[57] During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left.[58] It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism.[59] Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols.[60] The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism.[61] Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic.[62] This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America.[63]
Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements.[64] Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference.[64] Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria.[65]
While having revolutionary aspirations, many forms of anarchism are not confrontational nowadays. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization, based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of Food not Bombs group of collectives, to highlight some features of how anarchist groups work: direct action, working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, they inform about the rising rates of world hunger suggest a policy to tackle hunger, ranging from de-funding the arms industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies and patents, helping farmers and commodification of food and housing.[66] Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well.[67] Honeywell argues that escalation of problems such as continuous wars and world poverty show that the current framework not only cannot solve those pressing problems for humanity, but are causal factors as well, resulting in the rejection of representative democracy and the state as a whole.[68]
Schools of thought
Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution.[69] The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and social ownership.[70] In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter.[71]
Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it.[72] A component especially of individualist anarchism,[73] philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy.[74] Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy.[75] Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism.[20]
Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum.[76] Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics[13] such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories.[77] As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview,[78] many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely.[79] One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time.[80] Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists.[81] Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of shared principles such as autonomy, mutual aid, anti-authoritarianism and decentralisation.[82]
Classical
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Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society.[84]
Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include "abolishing the state",[85] reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people.[86] Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism.[87] In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property."[88] Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism[89] commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin.[90] Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution[91] and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society.[92]
Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production,[93] held by a federal network of voluntary associations,[94] with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."[95] Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution[96] but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International.[97] It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin,[98] whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century.[99] Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management.[100]
Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants.[101] Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals[102] as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation.[103]
Post-classical and contemporary
Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement,[104] whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation.[105] As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest.[105] Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches.[106] The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents.[107]
Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory.[108] Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement.[109] While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists.[110]
Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism."[111] Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed.[112] The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy.[113]
Tactics
Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends.[114] A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other.[115] Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence, reject violence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two.[116]
Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches.[117]
Classical era
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During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions.[118] Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state.[119] Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s.[120] Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and targeting and cataloging by state institutions.[121]
Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial.[122] Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends.[123] Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible.[124] Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil.[125]
Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism.[126] Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media.[127]
Revolutionary
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In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression utilizing sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included.[128]
Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police;[129] however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists and racists, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening.[130]
Evolutionary
Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives.[115] Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism.[131] Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the big-A anarchism of the classical era, the newly coined term small-a anarchism signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience which they will later theorize.[132]
The decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role.[133] Anarchists have employed various methods in order to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate.[134]
As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online in the World Wide Web to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals.[135] Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance.[136]
Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal.[137] As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action.[138] Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds.[139] Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity.[140]
Key issues
As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory. The compatibility of capitalism,[141] nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.[142]
The state
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Fight_the_state%2C_not_wars.jpg/220px-Fight_the_state%2C_not_wars.jpg)
Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism.[143] Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society.[144]
Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely.[145] Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.[146]
Gender, sexuality, and free love
As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.[147]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/AnarchaFeminism.png/260px-AnarchaFeminism.png)
Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing.[148] Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men.[149] A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism.[150] Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure.[151] Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together.[152] Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love.[153] Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.[154]
During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents.[155] With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality.[156] Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.[157]
Education
Anarchist education | State education | |
---|---|---|
Concept | Education as self-mastery | Education as service |
Management | Community based | State run |
Methods | Practice-based learning | Vocational training |
Aims | Being a critical member of society | Being a productive member of society |
The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid.[159] Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max Stirner ("The False Principle of Our Education") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.[160]
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church.[161] Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world.[162] Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free."[163] In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.[164]
Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.[165]
Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society.[166] Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.[167]
While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.[168]
The arts
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The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others.[170] In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement.[171] In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk.[172] Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.[173]
Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends.[174] In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism."[175] Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.[176]
Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect.[177] The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism.[178] In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.[169]
Criticism
The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government."[179] Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.[180]
Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a "night-watchman state", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war. Anarcho-primitivists in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.[181]
Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.[182]
Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations.[183] Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.[184] In The Problem of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism,[185] claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."[186]
One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority.[187] Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success.[188] Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction.[189] Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment.[190] Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively.[191] Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.[148]
Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian.[192] Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas.[193] The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.[194]
See also
- Anarchism by country
- List of anarchist political ideologies
- List of books about anarchism
- List of films dealing with anarchism
Anarchist communities
References
Explanatory notes
- ^ In Anarchism: From Theory to Practice (1970),[13] anarchist historian Daniel Guérin described it as a synonym for libertarian socialism, and wrote that anarchism "is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State."[14] In his many works on anarchism, historian Noam Chomsky describes anarchism, alongside libertarian Marxism, as the libertarian wing of socialism.[15]
- ^ Herbert L. Osgood claimed that anarchism is "the extreme antithesis" of authoritarian communism and state socialism.[16] Peter Marshall states that "[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. ... Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine."[10] According to Jeremy Jennings, "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas", referring to anarcho-capitalism, "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." Jennings adds that "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community."[21] Nicolas Walter wrote that "anarchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. ... In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. ... We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so."[19] Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many socialist traditions, especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin.[17] Brian Morris argues that it is "conceptually and historically misleading" to "create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism."[18]
- ^ One common definition adopted by anarchists is that anarchism is a cluster of political philosophies opposing authority and hierarchical organisation, including capitalism, nationalism, the state, and all associated institutions, in the conduct of all human relations in favour of a society based on decentralisation, freedom, and voluntary association. Scholars highlight that this definition has the same shortcomings as the definition based on anti-authoritarianism (a posteriori conclusion), anti-statism (anarchism is much more than that),[23] and etymology (negation of rulers).[24]
Citations
- ^ Carlson 1972, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Bates 2017, p. 128; Long 2013, p. 217.
- ^ Merriam-Webster 2019, "Anarchism"; Oxford English Dictionary 2005, "Anarchism"; Sylvan 2007, p. 260.
- ^ Joll 1964, pp. 27–37.
- ^ Nettlau 1996, p. 162.
- ^ Guérin 1970, "The Basic Ideas of Anarchism".
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 62; Goodway 2006, p. 4; Skirda 2002, p. 183; Fernández 2009, p. 9.
- ^ Morris 2002, p. 61.
- ^ Marshall 1992, p. 641; Cohn 2009, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d e Marshall 1992, p. 641.
- ^ Marshall 1992, p. 641; Cohn 2009, p. 6; Levy & Adams 2018, p. 104.
- ^ Levy & Adams 2018, p. 104.
- ^ a b Guérin 1970, p. 12.
- ^ Arvidsson 2017.
- ^ Otero 1994, p. 617.
- ^ a b Osgood 1889, p. 1.
- ^ a b Newman 2005, p. 15.
- ^ a b Morris 2015, p. 64.
- ^ a b Walter 2002, p. 44.
- ^ a b Marshall 1992, pp. 564–565; Jennings 1993, p. 143; Gay & Gay 1999, p. 15; Morris 2008, p. 13; Johnson 2008, p. 169; Franks 2013, pp. 393–394.
- ^ Jennings 1999, p. 147.
- ^ Long 2013, p. 217.
- ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 166; Jun 2009, p. 507; Franks 2013, pp. 386–388.
- ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 25–29; Long 2013, pp. 217.
- ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 25–26.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 70.
- ^ Coutinho 2016; Marshall 1993, p. 54.
- ^ Sylvan 2007, p. 257.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 4, 66–73.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 86.
- ^ Crone 2000, pp. 3, 21–25.
- ^ Nettlau 1996, p. 8.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 108.
- ^ Levy & Adams 2018, p. 307.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 4.
- ^ a b Marshall 1993, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Levy 2011, pp. 10–15.
- ^ Dodson 2002, p. 312; Thomas 1985, p. 187; Chaliand & Blin 2007, p. 116.
- ^ Graham 2019, pp. 334–336; Marshall 1993, p. 24.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 12.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 5.
- ^ Graham 2005, p. xii.
- ^ Moya 2015, p. 327.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 16.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 519–521.
- ^ Dirlik 1991, p. 133; Ramnath 2019, pp. 681–682.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 23; Laursen 2019, p. 157; Marshall 1993, pp. 504–508.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 633–636.
- ^ Anderson 2004.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 633–636; Lutz & Ulmschneider 2019, p. 46.
- ^ Bantman 2019, p. 374.
- ^ a b Avrich 2006, p. 204.
- ^ Nomad 1966, p. 88.
- ^ Bolloten 1984, p. 1107.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. xi, 466.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. xi.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 539.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. xi, 539.
- ^ Levy 2011, pp. 5.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 493–494.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 556–557.
- ^ Williams 2015, p. 680.
- ^ Harmon 2011, p. 70.
- ^ a b Rupert 2006, p. 66.
- ^ Ramnath 2019, p. 691.
- ^ Honeywell 2021, pp. 34–44.
- ^ Honeywell 2021, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Honeywell 2021, pp. 1–3.
- ^ McLean & McMillan 2003, "Anarchism"; Ostergaard 2003, p. 14, "Anarchism".
- ^ Harrison & Boyd 2003, p. 251.
- ^ Levy & Adams 2018, p. 9.
- ^ Egoumenides 2014, p. 2.
- ^ Ostergaard 2003, p. 12; Gabardi 1986, pp. 300–302.
- ^ Klosko 2005, p. 4.
- ^ Franks 2019, p. 549.
- ^ Brooks 1994, p. xi; Kahn 2000; Moynihan 2007.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 14–17.
- ^ Sylvan 2007, p. 262.
- ^ Avrich 1996, p. 6.
- ^ Walter 2002, p. 52.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 1–6; Angelbeck & Grier 2012, p. 551.
- ^ Wilbur 2019, pp. 216–218.
- ^ Levy & Adams 2018, p. 2.
- ^ Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). The Desk Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-7394-7809-7.
- ^ Wilbur 2019, pp. 213–218.
- ^ Avrich 1996, p. 6; Miller 1991, p. 11.
- ^ Pierson 2013, p. 187.
- ^ Morris 1993, p. 76.
- ^ Shannon 2019, p. 101.
- ^ Avrich 1996, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Heywood 2017, pp. 146–147; Bakunin 1990.
- ^ Mayne 1999, p. 131.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 327.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 327; Turcato 2019, pp. 237–238.
- ^ Graham 2005.
- ^ Pernicone 2009, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Turcato 2019, pp. 239–244.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 6.
- ^ Van der Walt 2019, p. 249.
- ^ Ryley 2019, p. 225.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 440.
- ^ Imrie 1994; Parry 1987, p. 15.
- ^ Evren 2011, p. 1.
- ^ a b Evren 2011, p. 2.
- ^ Williams 2007, p. 303.
- ^ Williams 2018, p. 4.
- ^ Williams 2010, p. 110; Evren 2011, p. 1; Angelbeck & Grier 2012, p. 549.
- ^ Franks 2013, pp. 385–386.
- ^ Franks 2013, p. 386.
- ^ Jun 2009, pp. 507–508.
- ^ Jun 2009, p. 507.
- ^ Egoumenides 2014, p. 91.
- ^ Williams 2019, pp. 107–108.
- ^ a b Williams 2018, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Kinna 2019, p. 125.
- ^ Williams 2019, p. 112.
- ^ Williams 2019, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Norris 2020, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Levy 2011, p. 13; Nesser 2012, p. 62.
- ^ Harmon 2011, p. 55.
- ^ Carter 1978, p. 320.
- ^ Fiala 2017, section 3.1.
- ^ Kinna 2019, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Carter 1978, pp. 320–325.
- ^ Williams 2019, p. 113.
- ^ Williams 2019, p. 114.
- ^ Kinna 2019, pp. 134–135.
- ^ Williams 2019, p. 115.
- ^ Williams 2019, p. 117.
- ^ Williams 2019, pp. 109–117.
- ^ Kinna 2019, pp. 145–149.
- ^ Williams 2019, pp. 109, 119.
- ^ Williams 2019, pp. 119–121.
- ^ Williams 2019, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Williams 2019, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Kinna 2019, p. 139; Mattern 2019, p. 596; Williams 2018, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Kinna 2012, p. 250; Williams 2019, p. 119.
- ^ Williams 2019, p. 122.
- ^ Morland 2004, pp. 37–38.
- ^ Marshall 1993, p. 565; Honderich 1995, p. 31; Meltzer 2000, p. 50; Goodway 2006, p. 4; Newman 2010, p. 53.
- ^ De George 2005, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Carter 1971, p. 14; Jun 2019, pp. 29–30.
- ^ Jun 2019, pp. 32–38.
- ^ Wendt 2020, p. 2; Ashwood 2018, p. 727.
- ^ Ashwood 2018, p. 735.
- ^ Nicholas 2019, p. 603.
- ^ a b Lucy 2020, p. 162.
- ^ Lucy 2020, p. 178.
- ^ Nicholas 2019, p. 611; Jeppesen & Nazar 2012, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Jeppesen & Nazar 2012, pp. 175–176.
- ^ Jeppesen & Nazar 2012, p. 177.
- ^ Jeppesen & Nazar 2012, pp. 175–177.
- ^ Kinna 2019, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Nicholas 2019, pp. 609–611.
- ^ Nicholas 2019, pp. 610–611.
- ^ Nicholas 2019, pp. 616–617.
- ^ Kinna 2019, p. 97.
- ^ Kinna 2019, pp. 83–85.
- ^ Suissa 2019, pp. 514, 521; Kinna 2019, pp. 83–86; Marshall 1993, p. 222.
- ^ Suissa 2019, pp. 511–512.
- ^ Suissa 2019, pp. 511–514.
- ^ Suissa 2019, pp. 517–518.
- ^ Suissa 2019, pp. 518–519.
- ^ Avrich 1980, pp. 3–33; Suissa 2019, pp. 519–522.
- ^ Kinna 2019, pp. 89–96.
- ^ Ward 1973, pp. 39–48.
- ^ Suissa 2019, pp. 523–526.
- ^ a b Antliff 1998, p. 99.
- ^ Mattern 2019, p. 592.
- ^ Gifford 2019, p. 577.
- ^ Marshall 1993, pp. 493–494; Dunn 2012; Evren, Kinna & Rouselle 2013.
- ^ Mattern 2019, pp. 592–593.
- ^ Mattern 2019, p. 593.
- ^ Robé 2017, p. 44.
- ^ Miller et al. 2019, p. 1.
- ^ Mattern 2019, pp. 593–596.
- ^ Antliff 1998, p. 78.
- ^ Krimerman & Perry 1966, p. 494.
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 78.
- ^ Fiala, Andrew (2021), "Anarchism", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 17 June 2023
- ^ Fiala 2017, "4. Objections and Replies".
- ^ Klosko 1999, p. 536.
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- ^ Dagger 2018, p. 35.
- ^ Rogers 2020.
- ^ Ferguson 1886.
- ^ Gans 1992, p. 37.
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- ^ Gans 1992, pp. 34, 38.
- ^ Brinn 2020, p. 206.
- ^ Tucker 1978.
- ^ Dodds 2011.
- ^ Baár et al. 2016, p. 488.
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Further reading
- Barclay, Harold B. (1990). People Without Government: An Anthropology of Anarchy. Kahn & Averill. ISBN 978-0-9393-0609-1.
- Baker, Zoe (2023). Means and Ends: The Revolutionary Practice of Anarchism in Europe and the United States. AK Press. ISBN 978-1-8493-5498-1. OCLC 1345217229.
- Chomsky, Noam (2005). Pateman, Barry (ed.). Chomsky on Anarchism. Oakland: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-9048-5926-0.
- Edmundson, William A. (2007). Three Anarchical Fallacies: An Essay on Political Authority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5210-3751-8. Criticism of philosophical anarchism.
- Harper, Clifford (1987). Anarchy: A Graphic Guide. Camden Press. ISBN 978-0-9484-9122-1.
- Huemer, Michael (2012). The Problem of Political Authority: An Examination of the Right to Coerce and the Duty to Obey. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-1372-8164-7. A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims."
- Kinna, Ruth (2005). Anarchism: A Beginners Guide. Oneworld. ISBN 978-1-8516-8370-3.
- Le Guin, Ursula K. (2009). The Dispossessed. HarperCollins. Anarchistic popular fiction novel.
- Sartwell, Crispin (2008). Against the State: An Introduction to Anarchist Political Theory. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7447-1.
- Scott, James C. (2012). Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-6911-5529-6.
- Suissa, Judith (1 July 2019b). "Education and Non-domination: Reflections from the Radical Tradition". Studies in Philosophy and Education. 38 (4): 359–375. doi:10.1007/s11217-019-09662-3. S2CID 151210357.
- Wolff, Robert Paul (1998). In Defense of Anarchism. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-5202-1573-3. An argument for philosophical anarchism.
- Woodcock, George (January 1962). "Anarchism in Spain". History Today. 12 (1): 22–32. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- Levy, Carl; Adams, Matthew S. (2019). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2. ISBN 978-3-3197-5620-2. S2CID 149333615.
External links
- Anarchism at Curlie
- Anarchy Archives – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.