Caribbean

Coordinates: 14°31′32″N 75°49′06″W / 14.52556°N 75.81833°W / 14.52556; -75.81833
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This article is about the group of islands. For the indigenous inhabitants of Caribbean a group of people of Caribbean descent, see Caribbean people. For the body of water surrounding them, see Caribbean Sea. For other uses, see Caribbean (disambiguation).
Caribbean
Area2,754,000 km2 (1,063,000 sq mi)
Population44,182,048[1][2]
Population density151.5/km2 (392/sq mi)
Ethnic groupsAfrican, European, Indian, Latino or Hispanic (Spanish, Portuguese, Mestizo, Mulatto, Pardo, and Zambo), Chinese, Jewish, Arab, Amerindian, Javanese,[3] Hmong, Multiracial
ReligionsChristianity, Hinduism, Islam, Afro-American religions, Traditional African religions, Rastafarianism, Native American religion, Judaism, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion (incl. Taoism and Confucianism), Bahá’í, Kebatinan, Sikhism, Irreligion, others
DemonymCaribbean, West Indian
Countries13 sovereign states
Dependencies17 dependent territories
LanguagesSpanish, English, French, Dutch, French Creoles, English Creoles, Dutch Creoles, Papiamento, Caribbean Hindustani, Chinese, among others
Time zonesUTC−5 to UTC−4
Internet TLDMultiple
Calling codeMultiple
Largest citiesList of metropolitan areas in the Caribbean
Santo Domingo
Havana
Port-au-Prince
San Juan
Kingston
Santiago de Cuba
Santiago de los Caballeros
Nassau
Camagüey
Cap-Haïtien
Spanish Town
Chaguanas
Georgetown
Paramaribo
UN M49 code029 – Caribbean
419 – Latin America
019 – Americas
001 – World

The Caribbean (/ˌkærɪˈbiːən, kəˈrɪbiən/, locally /ˈkærɪbiæn/)[4] (Spanish: El Caribe; French: la Caraïbe; Haitian Creole: Karayib; Dutch: De Caraïben; Caribbean Hindustani: कैरेबियन / کیریبین; Chinese: 加勒比) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea[5] and some bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean)[6] and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, and north of South America.

Situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region has more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays (see the list of Caribbean islands). Island arcs delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea:[7] The Greater Antilles and the Lucayan Archipelago on the north and the Lesser Antilles and the on the south and east (which includes the Leeward Antilles). The Lucayan Archipelago (the Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands), do not border the Caribbean Sea, but are still within the boundaries of the Caribbean region. On the mainland, Belize, Nicaragua, the Caribbean region of Colombia, Cozumel, the Yucatán Peninsula, Margarita Island, and the Guyanas (Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Guayana Region in Venezuela, and Amapá in Brazil) are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region.[8]

Geopolitically, the islands of the Caribbean (the West Indies) are often regarded as a region of North America, though sometimes they are included in Central America or left as a region of their own.[9][10] and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15, 1954, to October 10, 2010, there was a country known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states, all of which were Dutch dependencies.[11] From January 3, 1958, to May 31, 1962, there was also a short-lived political union called the West Indies Federation composed of ten English-speaking Caribbean territories, all of which were then British dependencies. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations.

Etymology and pronunciation

The region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest of the Americas.[12]

The two most prevalent pronunciations of "Caribbean" outside the Caribbean are /ˌkærɪˈbiːən/ (KARR-ə-BEE-ən), with the primary stress on the third syllable, and /kəˈrɪbiən/ (kə-RIB-ee-ən), with the stress on the second. Most authorities of the last century preferred the stress on the third syllable.[13] This is the older of the two pronunciations, but the stressed-second-syllable variant has been established for over 75 years.[14] It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer /ˌkærɪˈbiːən/ (KARR-ə-BEE-ən) while North American speakers more typically use /kəˈrɪbiən/ (kə-RIB-ee-ən),[15] but major American dictionaries and other sources list the stress on the third syllable as more common in American English too.[16][17][18][19] According to the American version of Oxford Online Dictionaries, the stress on the second syllable is becoming more common in UK English and is increasingly considered "by some" to be more up to date and more "correct".[20]

The Oxford Online Dictionaries claim that the stress on the second syllable is the most common pronunciation in the Caribbean itself, but according to the Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage, the most common pronunciation in Caribbean English stresses the first syllable instead, /ˈkærɪbiæn/ (KARR-ih-bee-an).[4][20]

Definition

Map of the Caribbean

The word "Caribbean" has multiple uses. Its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to Africa, slavery, European colonisation and the plantation system.

Geography and geology

  The Caribbean Plate

The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies: Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin. These islands include Aruba (possessing only minor volcanic features), Curaçao, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua. Others possess rugged towering mountain-ranges like the islands of Saint Martin, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Dominica, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint Thomas, Saint John, Tortola, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Trinidad and Tobago.

Definitions of the terms Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles often vary. The Virgin Islands as part of the Puerto Rican bank are sometimes included with the Greater Antilles. The term Lesser Antilles is often used to define an island arc that includes Grenada but excludes Trinidad and Tobago and the Leeward Antilles.

The waters of the Caribbean Sea host large, migratory schools of fish, turtles, and coral reef formations. The Puerto Rico Trench, located on the fringe of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea just to the north of the island of Puerto Rico, is the deepest point in all of the Atlantic Ocean.[22]

The region sits in the line of several major shipping routes with the Panama Canal connecting the western Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean.

Climate

Tropical monsoon climate in San Andrés island, Caribbean, Colombia.
Köppen climate map of the islands of the Caribbean.

The climate of the area is tropical, varying from tropical rainforest in some areas to tropical monsoon and tropical savanna in others. There are also some locations that are arid climates with considerable drought in some years, and the peaks of mountains tend to have cooler temperate climates.

Rainfall varies with elevation, size and water currents, such as the cool upwellings that keep the ABC islands arid. Warm, moist trade winds blow consistently from the east, creating both rain forest and semi arid climates across the region. The tropical rainforest climates include lowland areas near the Caribbean Sea from Costa Rica north to Belize, as well as the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico, while the more seasonal dry tropical savanna climates are found in Cuba, northern Colombia and Venezuela, and southern Yucatán, Mexico. Arid climates are found along the extreme northern coast of Venezuela out to the islands including Aruba and Curacao, as well as the northwestern tip of Yucatán.

While the region generally is sunny much of the year, the wet season from May through November sees more frequent cloud cover (both broken and overcast), while the dry season from December through April is more often clear to mostly sunny. Seasonal rainfall is divided into 'dry' and 'wet' seasons, with the latter six months of the year being wetter than the first half. The air temperature is hot much of the year, varying from 25 to 33 C (77 F to 90 F) between the wet and dry seasons. Seasonally, monthly mean temperatures vary from only about 5 C (7 F) in the northern most regions, to less than 3 C in the southernmost areas of the Caribbean.

Hurricane season is from June to November, but they occur more frequently in August and September and more common in the northern islands of the Caribbean. Hurricanes that sometimes batter the region usually strike northwards of Grenada and to the west of Barbados. The principal hurricane belt arcs to northwest of the island of Barbados in the Eastern Caribbean. A great example being recent events of Hurricane Irma devastating the island of Saint Martin during the 2017 hurricane season.

Sea surface temperatures change little annually, normally running from 30 °C (87 °F) in the warmest months to 26 °C (76 °F) in the coolest months. The air temperature is warm year round, in the 70s, 80s and 90s, and only varies from winter to summer about 2–5 degrees on the southern islands and about a 10–20 degrees difference on the northern islands of the Caribbean. The northern islands, like the Bahamas, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, may be influenced by continental masses during winter months, such as cold fronts.

Aruba: Latitude 12°N

Climate data for Oranjestad, Aruba (1981–2010, extremes 1951–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 32.5
(90.5) 		33.0
(91.4) 		33.9
(93.0) 		34.4
(93.9) 		34.9
(94.8) 		35.2
(95.4) 		35.3
(95.5) 		36.1
(97.0) 		36.5
(97.7) 		35.4
(95.7) 		35.0
(95.0) 		34.8
(94.6) 		36.5
(97.7)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 30.0
(86.0) 		30.4
(86.7) 		30.9
(87.6) 		31.5
(88.7) 		32.0
(89.6) 		32.2
(90.0) 		32.0
(89.6) 		32.6
(90.7) 		32.7
(90.9) 		32.1
(89.8) 		31.3
(88.3) 		30.4
(86.7) 		31.5
(88.7)
Daily mean °C (°F) 26.7
(80.1) 		26.8
(80.2) 		27.2
(81.0) 		27.9
(82.2) 		28.5
(83.3) 		28.7
(83.7) 		28.6
(83.5) 		29.1
(84.4) 		29.2
(84.6) 		28.7
(83.7) 		28.1
(82.6) 		27.2
(81.0) 		28.1
(82.6)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 24.5
(76.1) 		24.7
(76.5) 		25.0
(77.0) 		25.8
(78.4) 		26.5
(79.7) 		26.7
(80.1) 		26.4
(79.5) 		26.8
(80.2) 		26.9
(80.4) 		26.4
(79.5) 		25.8
(78.4) 		25.0
(77.0) 		25.9
(78.6)
Record low °C (°F) 21.3
(70.3) 		20.6
(69.1) 		21.4
(70.5) 		21.5
(70.7) 		21.8
(71.2) 		22.7
(72.9) 		21.2
(70.2) 		21.3
(70.3) 		22.1
(71.8) 		21.9
(71.4) 		22.0
(71.6) 		20.5
(68.9) 		20.5
(68.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 39.3
(1.55) 		20.6
(0.81) 		8.7
(0.34) 		11.6
(0.46) 		16.3
(0.64) 		18.7
(0.74) 		31.7
(1.25) 		25.8
(1.02) 		45.5
(1.79) 		77.8
(3.06) 		94.0
(3.70) 		81.8
(3.22) 		471.8
(18.58)
Source: DEPARTAMENTO METEOROLOGICO ARUBA,[23] (extremes)[24]

Puerto Rico: Latitude 18°N

Climate data for San Juan, Puerto Rico
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 33
(92) 		36
(96) 		36
(96) 		36
(97) 		36
(96) 		36
(97) 		35
(95) 		35
(95) 		36
(97) 		36
(97) 		37
(98) 		36
(96) 		34
(94)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 28
(83) 		29
(84) 		29
(85) 		30
(86) 		31
(87) 		32
(89) 		31
(88) 		31
(88) 		32
(89) 		31
(88) 		30
(86) 		29
(84) 		30
(86)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 22
(72) 		22
(72) 		23
(73) 		23
(74) 		24
(76) 		26
(78) 		26
(78) 		26
(78) 		26
(78) 		25
(77) 		24
(75) 		23
(73) 		24
(75)
Record low °C (°F) 16
(61) 		17
(62) 		16
(60) 		18
(64) 		18
(64) 		19
(66) 		21
(69) 		20
(68) 		21
(69) 		19
(67) 		18
(65) 		17
(62) 		16
(61)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 95
(3.7) 		60
(2.4) 		49
(1.9) 		118
(4.6) 		150
(5.9) 		112
(4.4) 		128
(5.0) 		138
(5.4) 		146
(5.7) 		142
(5.6) 		161
(6.3) 		126
(5.0) 		1,431
(56.3)
Source: The National Weather Service [25]

Cuba: at Latitude 22°N

Climate data for Havana
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 32.5
(90.5) 		33.0
(91.4) 		35.9
(96.6) 		36.4
(97.5) 		36.9
(98.4) 		37.2
(99.0) 		38.0
(100.4) 		36.1
(97.0) 		37.5
(99.5) 		35.4
(95.7) 		35.0
(95.0) 		34.8
(94.6) 		38.0
(100.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 25.8
(78.4) 		26.1
(79.0) 		27.6
(81.7) 		28.6
(83.5) 		29.8
(85.6) 		30.5
(86.9) 		31.3
(88.3) 		31.6
(88.9) 		31.0
(87.8) 		29.2
(84.6) 		27.7
(81.9) 		26.5
(79.7) 		28.8
(83.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) 22.2
(72.0) 		22.4
(72.3) 		23.7
(74.7) 		24.8
(76.6) 		26.1
(79.0) 		27.0
(80.6) 		27.6
(81.7) 		27.9
(82.2) 		27.4
(81.3) 		26.1
(79.0) 		24.5
(76.1) 		23.0
(73.4) 		25.2
(77.4)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 18.6
(65.5) 		18.6
(65.5) 		19.7
(67.5) 		20.9
(69.6) 		22.4
(72.3) 		23.4
(74.1) 		23.8
(74.8) 		24.1
(75.4) 		23.8
(74.8) 		23.0
(73.4) 		21.3
(70.3) 		19.5
(67.1) 		21.6
(70.9)
Record low °C (°F) 5.1
(41.2) 		5.6
(42.1) 		5.4
(41.7) 		11.5
(52.7) 		16.8
(62.2) 		19.7
(67.5) 		18.2
(64.8) 		19.3
(66.7) 		19.1
(66.4) 		11.9
(53.4) 		10.0
(50.0) 		7.5
(45.5) 		5.1
(41.2)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 64.4
(2.54) 		68.6
(2.70) 		46.2
(1.82) 		53.7
(2.11) 		98.0
(3.86) 		182.3
(7.18) 		105.6
(4.16) 		99.6
(3.92) 		144.4
(5.69) 		180.5
(7.11) 		88.3
(3.48) 		57.6
(2.27) 		1,189.2
(46.84)
Source: World Meteorological Organisation (UN),[26] Climate-Charts.com[27]
A field in Pinar del Rio planted with Cuban tobacco
Puerto Rico's south shore, from the mountains of Jayuya
Grand Anse beach, St. George's, Grenada
A church cemetery perched in the mountains of Guadeloupe
A view of Nevis island from the southeastern peninsula of Saint Kitts

Island groups

Lucayan Archipelago[a]

Greater Antilles

Lesser Antilles

Historical groupings

Main article: History of the Caribbean
Spanish Caribbean Islands in the American Viceroyalties 1600
Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean from 1700 to present
The mostly Spanish-controlled Caribbean in the 16th century

All islands at some point were, and a few still are, colonies of European nations; a few are overseas or dependent territories:

The British West Indies were united by the United Kingdom into a West Indies Federation between 1958 and 1962. The independent countries formerly part of the B.W.I. still have a joint cricket team that competes in Test matches, One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The West Indian cricket team includes the South American nation of Guyana, the only former British colony on the mainland of that continent.

In addition, these countries share the University of the West Indies as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago, a smaller campus in the Bahamas and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories such as Trinidad.

Countries and territories of the Caribbean today

Islands in and near the Caribbean
Maritime boundaries between the Caribbean (island) nations
Main article: List of Caribbean islands
See also: Caribbean South America and West Indies
Flag Country or territory[28][29][30] Sovereignty Status Area
(km2)[31] 		Population
(2021 est.)[1][2] 		Density
(people per km2) 		Capital
Anguilla Anguilla United Kingdom British overseas territory 91 15,753 164.8 The Valley
Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda Independent Constitutional monarchy 442 93,219 199.1 St. John's
Aruba Aruba Kingdom of the Netherlands Constituent kingdom 180 106,537 594.4 Oranjestad
The Bahamas The Bahamas[32] Independent Constitutional monarchy 13,943 407,906 24.5 Nassau
Barbados Barbados Independent Constitutional monarchy 430 281,200 595.3 Bridgetown
Bonaire Bonaire Kingdom of the Netherlands Special Municipality 294 12,093[33] 41.1 Kralendijk
British Virgin Islands British Virgin Islands United Kingdom British overseas territory 151 31,122 152.3 Road Town
Cayman Islands Cayman Islands United Kingdom British overseas territory 264 68,136 212.1 George Town
Cuba Cuba Independent Republic 109,886 11,256,372 102.0 Havana
Curaçao Curaçao Kingdom of the Netherlands Constituent kingdom 444 190,338 317.1 Willemstad
Dominica Dominica Independent Republic 751 72,412 89.2 Roseau
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic Independent Republic 48,671 11,117,873 207.3 Santo Domingo
Federal Dependencies of Venezuela Federal Dependencies of Venezuela Venezuela Territories 342 2,155 6.3 Gran Roque
Grenada Grenada Independent Constitutional monarchy 344 124,610 302.3 St. George's
Guadeloupe Guadeloupe France Overseas department 1,628 396,051 246.7 Basse-Terre
Haiti Haiti Independent Republic 27,750 11,447,569 361.5 Port-au-Prince
Jamaica Jamaica Independent Constitutional monarchy 10,991 2,827,695 247.4 Kingston
Martinique Martinique France Overseas department 1,128 368,796 352.6 Fort-de-France
Montserrat Montserrat United Kingdom British overseas territory 102 4,417 58.8 Plymouth (Brades)[34]
United States Navassa Island United States Territory (uninhabited) 5 0 0.0
Nueva Esparta Nueva Esparta Venezuela State 1,151 491,610 La Asunción
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico United States Commonwealth 8,870 3,256,028 448.9 San Juan
Saba (island) Saba Kingdom of the Netherlands Special municipality 13 1,537[33] 118.2 The Bottom
Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina San Andrés and Providencia Colombia Department 52.5 75,167 1431 San Andrés
Saint Barthélemy Saint Barthélemy France Overseas collectivity 21 7,448 354.7 Gustavia
Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis Independent Constitutional monarchy 261 47,606 199.2 Basseterre
Saint Lucia Saint Lucia Independent Constitutional monarchy 539 179,651 319.1 Castries
Collectivity of Saint Martin Saint Martin France Overseas collectivity 54 29,820 552.2 Marigot
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Independent Constitutional monarchy 389 104,332 280.2 Kingstown
Sint Eustatius Sint Eustatius Kingdom of the Netherlands Special municipality 21 2,739[33] 130.4 Oranjestad
Sint Maarten Sint Maarten Kingdom of the Netherlands Constituent kingdom 34 44,042 1176.7 Philipsburg
Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago Independent Republic 5,130 1,525,663 261.0 Port of Spain
Turks and Caicos Islands Turks and Caicos Islands[35] United Kingdom British overseas territory 948 45,114 34.8 Cockburn Town
United States Virgin Islands United States Virgin Islands United States Territory 347 100,091 317.0 Charlotte Amalie
Total 235,667 44,199,389 187.6

Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands

Cayo de Agua, Los Roques Archipelago, Venezuela
Palancar Beach in Cozumel Island, Mexico
Guanaja Island, Bay Islands, Honduras

Biodiversity

The Caribbean islands have one of the most diverse eco systems in the world. The animals, fungi and plants, and have been classified as one of Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots because of their exceptionally diverse terrestrial and marine ecosystems, ranging from montane cloud forests, to tropical rainforest, to cactus scrublands. The region also contains about 8% (by surface area) of the world's coral reefs[36] along with extensive seagrass meadows,[37] both of which are frequently found in the shallow marine waters bordering the island and continental coasts of the region.

For the fungi, there is a modern checklist based on nearly 90,000 records derived from specimens in reference collections, published accounts and field observations.[38] That checklist includes more than 11,250 species of fungi recorded from the region. As its authors note, the work is far from exhaustive, and it is likely that the true total number of fungal species already known from the Caribbean is higher. The true total number of fungal species occurring in the Caribbean, including species not yet recorded, is likely far higher given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have been discovered.[39] Though the amount of available information is still small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to some Caribbean islands. For Cuba, 2200 species of fungi have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the island;[40] for Puerto Rico, the number is 789 species;[41] for the Dominican Republic, the number is 699 species;[42] for Trinidad and Tobago, the number is 407 species.[43]

Many of the ecosystems of the Caribbean islands have been devastated by deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment. The arrival of the first humans is correlated with extinction of giant owls and dwarf ground sloths.[44] The hotspot contains dozens of highly threatened animals (ranging from birds, to mammals and reptiles), fungi and plants. Examples of threatened animals include the Puerto Rican amazon, two species of solenodon (giant shrews) in Cuba and the Hispaniola island, and the Cuban crocodile.

Saona Island, Dominican Republic

The region's coral reefs, which contain about 70 species of hard corals and between 500–700 species of reef-associated fishes[45] have undergone rapid decline in ecosystem integrity in recent years, and are considered particularly vulnerable to global warming and ocean acidification.[46] According to a UNEP report, the Caribbean coral reefs might get extinct in next 20 years due to population explosion along the coast lines, overfishing, the pollution of coastal areas and global warming.[47]

Some Caribbean islands have terrain that Europeans found suitable for cultivation for agriculture. Tobacco was an important early crop during the colonial era, but was eventually overtaken by sugarcane production as the region's staple crop. Sugar was produced from sugarcane for export to Europe. Cuba and Barbados were historically the largest producers of sugar. The tropical plantation system thus came to dominate Caribbean settlement. Other islands were found to have terrain unsuited for agriculture, for example Dominica, which remains heavily forested. The islands in the southern Lesser Antilles, Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao, are extremely arid, making them unsuitable for agriculture. However, they have salt pans that were exploited by the Dutch. Sea water was pumped into shallow ponds, producing coarse salt when the water evaporated.[48]

The natural environmental diversity of the Caribbean islands has led to recent growth in eco-tourism. This type of tourism is growing on islands lacking sandy beaches and dense human populations.[49]

Plants and animals

See also: List of invasive marine fish in the Caribbean

Demographics

Indigenous groups

Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean
A linen market in Dominica in the 1770s
Agostino Brunias. Free Women of Color with Their Children and Servants in a Landscape Brooklyn Museum
Asian Indians in the late nineteenth century singing and dancing in Trinidad and Tobago
Street scene, Matanzas, Cuba

At the time of European contact, the dominant ethnic groups in the Caribbean included the Taíno of the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles, the Island Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles, and smaller distinct groups such as the Guanajatabey of western Cuba and the Ciguayo of eastern Hispaniola. The population of the Caribbean is estimated to have been around 750,000 immediately before European contact, although lower and higher figures are given. After contact, social disruption and epidemic diseases such as smallpox and measles (to which they had no natural immunity)[50] led to a decline in the Amerindian population.[51] From 1500 to 1800 the population rose as slaves arrived from West Africa[52] such as the Kongo, Igbo, Akan, Fon and Yoruba as well as military prisoners from Ireland, who were deported during the Cromwellian reign in England.[citation needed] Immigrants from Britain, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and Denmark also arrived, although the mortality rate was high for both groups.[53]

The population is estimated to have reached 2.2 million by 1800.[54] Immigrants from India, China, Indonesia, and other countries arrived in the mid-19th century as indentured servants.[55] After the ending of the Atlantic slave trade, the population increased naturally.[56] The total regional population was estimated at 37.5 million by 2000.[57]

In Haiti and most of the French, Anglophone and Dutch Caribbean, the population is predominantly of African origin; on many islands there are also significant populations of mixed racial origin (including Mulatto-Creole, Dougla, Mestizo, Quadroon, Cholo, Castizo, Criollo, Zambo, Pardo, Asian Latin Americans, Chindian, Cocoa panyols, and Eurasian), as well as populations of European ancestry: Dutch, English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish ancestry. Asians, especially those of Chinese, Indian descent, and Javanese Indonesians, form a significant minority in parts of the region. Indians form a plurality of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Most of their ancestors arrived in the 19th century as indentured laborers.

The Spanish-speaking Caribbean populations are primarily of European, African, or racially mixed origins. Puerto Rico has a European majority with a mixture of European-African-Native American (tri-racial), and a large Mulatto (European-West African) and West African minority. Cuba also has a European majority, along with a significant population of African ancestry. The Dominican Republic has the largest mixed-race population, primarily descended from Europeans, West Africans, and Amerindians.

Carnival in Trinidad and Tobago

Jamaica has a large African majority, in addition to a significant population of mixed racial background, and has minorities of Chinese, Europeans, Indians, Latinos, Jews, and Arabs. This is a result of years of importation of slaves and indentured laborers, and migration. Most multi-racial Jamaicans refer to themselves as either mixed race or brown. Similar populations can be found in the Caricom states of Belize, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago. Trinidad and Tobago has a multi-racial cosmopolitan society due to the arrivals of Africans, Indians, Chinese, Arabs, Jews, Latinos, and Europeans along with the native indigenous Amerindians population. This multi-racial mix of the Caribbean has created sub-ethnicities that often straddle the boundaries of major ethnicities and include Mulatto-Creole, Mestizo, Pardo, Zambo, Dougla, Chindian, Afro-Asians, Eurasian, Cocoa panyols, and Asian Latinos.

Language

Main article: Languages of the Caribbean

Spanish (64%), French (25%), English (14%), Dutch, Haitian Creole, and Papiamento are the predominant official languages of various countries in the region, although a handful of unique creole languages or dialects can also be found in virtually every Caribbean country. Other languages such as Caribbean Hindustani, Chinese, Javanese, Arabic, Hmong, Amerindian languages, other African languages, other European languages, and other Indian languages can also be found.

Religion

See also: Religion in the Caribbean
Havana Cathedral (Catholic) in Cuba completed in 1777
Holy Trinity Cathedral, an Anglican Christian cathedral in Trinidad and Tobago
Temple in the Sea, a Hindu mandir in Trinidad and Tobago
Muhammad Ali Jinnah Memorial Masjid, a Muslim masjid in Trinidad and Tobago
A Jewish synagogue in Suriname
A Haitian Vodou alter

Christianity is the predominant religion in the Caribbean (84.7%).[58] Other religions in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Rastafarianism, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion (incl. Taoism and Confucianism), Bahá'í, Jainism, Sikhism, Kebatinan, Traditional African religions, Yoruba (incl. Trinidad Orisha), Afro-American religions, (incl. Santería, Palo, Umbanda, Brujería, Hoodoo, Candomblé, Quimbanda, Orisha, Xangô de Recife, Xangô do Nordeste, Comfa, Espiritismo, Santo Daime, Obeah, Candomblé, Abakuá, Kumina, Winti, Sanse, Cuban Vodú, Dominican Vudú, Louisiana Voodoo, Haitian Vodou, and Vodun).

Politics

Regionalism

Flag of the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM)

Caribbean societies are very different from other Western societies in terms of size, culture, and degree of mobility of their citizens.[59] The current economic and political problems the states face individually are common to all Caribbean states. Regional development has contributed to attempts to subdue current problems and avoid projected problems. From a political and economic perspective, regionalism serves to make Caribbean states active participants in current international affairs through collective coalitions. In 1973, the first political regionalism in the Caribbean Basin was created by advances of the English-speaking Caribbean nations through the institution known as the Caribbean Common Market and Community (CARICOM)[60] which is located in Guyana.

Certain scholars have argued both for and against generalizing the political structures of the Caribbean. On the one hand the Caribbean states are politically diverse, ranging from communist systems such as Cuba toward more capitalist Westminster-style parliamentary systems as in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Other scholars argue that these differences are superficial, and that they tend to undermine commonalities in the various Caribbean states. Contemporary Caribbean systems seem to reflect a "blending of traditional and modern patterns, yielding hybrid systems that exhibit significant structural variations and divergent constitutional traditions yet ultimately appear to function in similar ways."[61] The political systems of the Caribbean states share similar practices.

The influence of regionalism in the Caribbean is often marginalized. Some scholars believe that regionalism cannot exist in the Caribbean because each small state is unique. On the other hand, scholars also suggest that there are commonalities amongst the Caribbean nations that suggest regionalism exists. "Proximity as well as historical ties among the Caribbean nations has led to cooperation as well as a desire for collective action."[62] These attempts at regionalization reflect the nations' desires to compete in the international economic system.[62]

Furthermore, a lack of interest from other major states promoted regionalism in the region. In recent years the Caribbean has suffered from a lack of U.S. interest. "With the end of the Cold War, U.S. security and economic interests have been focused on other areas. As a result there has been a significant reduction in U.S. aid and investment to the Caribbean."[63] The lack of international support for these small, relatively poor states, helped regionalism prosper.

Following the Cold War another issue of importance in the Caribbean has been the reduced economic growth of some Caribbean States due to the United States and European Union's allegations of special treatment toward the region by each other. [clarification needed]

United States-EU trade dispute

The United States under President Bill Clinton launched a challenge in the World Trade Organization against the EU over Europe's preferential program, known as the Lomé Convention, which allowed banana exports from the former colonies of the Group of African, Caribbean and Pacific states (ACP) to enter Europe cheaply.[64] The World Trade Organization sided in the United States' favour and the beneficial elements of the convention to African, Caribbean and Pacific states has been partially dismantled and replaced by the Cotonou Agreement.[65]

During the US/EU dispute, the United States imposed large tariffs on European Union goods (up to 100%) to pressure Europe to change the agreement with the Caribbean nations in favour of the Cotonou Agreement.[66]

Farmers in the Caribbean have complained of falling profits and rising costs as the Lomé Convention weakens. Some farmers have faced increased pressure to turn towards the cultivation of illegal drugs, which has a higher profit margin and fills the sizable demand for these illegal drugs in North America and Europe.[67][68]

Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and Association of Caribbean States

Caribbean nations have also started to more closely cooperate in the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force and other instruments to add oversight of the offshore industry. One of the most important associations that deal with regionalism amongst the nations of the Caribbean Basin has been the Association of Caribbean States (ACS). Proposed by CARICOM in 1992, the ACS soon won the support of the other countries of the region. It was founded in July 1994. The ACS maintains regionalism within the Caribbean on issues unique to the Caribbean Basin. Through coalition building, like the ACS and CARICOM, regionalism has become an undeniable part of the politics and economics of the Caribbean. The successes of region-building initiatives are still debated by scholars, yet regionalism remains prevalent throughout the Caribbean.

Bolivarian Alliance

The President of Venezuela, Hugo Chavez launched an economic group called the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA), which several eastern Caribbean islands joined. In 2012, the nation of Haiti, with 9 million people, became the largest CARICOM nation that sought to join the union.[69]

Regional institutions

Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration:

Cuisine

Main article: Caribbean cuisine

Favourite or national dishes

Doubles, one of the national dishes of Trinidad and Tobago
Arroz con gandules, one of the national dishes of Puerto Rico

See also

Geography:

Notes

  1. ^ The Lucayan Archipelago is excluded from some definitions of "Caribbean" and instead classified as Atlantic; this is primarily a geological rather than cultural or environmental distinction.

References

  1. ^ a b "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
  2. ^ a b "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
  3. ^ McWhorter, John H. (2005). Defining Creole. Oxford University Press US. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-19-516670-5.
  4. ^ a b Allsopp, Richard; Allsopp, Jeannette (2003). Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. University of the West Indies Press. p. 136–. ISBN 978-976-640-145-0.
  5. ^ Engerman, Stanley L. (2000). "A Population History of the Caribbean". In Haines, Michael R.; Steckel, Richard Hall (eds.). A Population History of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 483–528. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7. OCLC 41118518. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  6. ^ Hillman, Richard S.; D'Agostino, Thomas J., eds. (2003). Understanding the contemporary Caribbean. London, UK: Lynne Rienner. ISBN 978-1588266637. OCLC 300280211. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  7. ^ Asann, Ridvan (2007). A Brief History of the Caribbean (Revised ed.). New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8160-3811-4.
  8. ^ Higman, B. W. (2011). A ConciseHistory of the Caribbean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-0521043489.
  9. ^ "North America". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia; "... associated with the continent is Greenland, the largest island in the world, and such offshore groups as the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Queen Charlotte Islands, and the Aleutian Islands," but also "North America is bounded ... on the south by the Caribbean Sea," and "according to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the narrows of Tehuantepec."
  10. ^ The World: Geographic Overview, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency; "North America is commonly understood to include the island of Greenland, the isles of the Caribbean, and to extend south all the way to the Isthmus of Panama."
  11. ^ The Netherlands Antilles: The joy of six, The Economist Magazine, April 29, 2010
  12. ^ "Carib". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30. Retrieved 2008-02-20. inhabited the Lesser Antilles and parts of the neighbouring South American coast at the time of the Spanish conquest.
  13. ^ Elster, Charles Harrington. "Caribbean", from The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations. p.78. (2d ed. 2005)
  14. ^ In the early 20th century, only the pronunciation with the primary stress on the third syllable was considered correct, according to Frank Horace Vizetelly, A Desk-Book of Twenty-five Thousand Words Frequently Mispronounced (Funk and Wagnalls, 1917), p. 233.
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  17. ^ American Heritage Dictionary
  18. ^ Merriam Webster
  19. ^ See, e.g., Elster, supra.
  20. ^ a b Oxford Online Dictionaries
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  25. ^ "Average Weather for Mayaguez, PR - Temperature and Precipitation". Weather.com. Retrieved 2012-06-07.
  26. ^ "World Weather Information Service – Havana". Cuban Institute of Meteorology. June 2011. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
  27. ^ "Casa Blanca, Habana, Cuba: Climate, Global Warming, and Daylight Charts and Data". Archived from the original on 2011-06-23. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
  28. ^ "SPP Background". CommerceConnect.gov. Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
  29. ^ "Ecoregions of North America". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
  30. ^ "What's the difference between North, Latin, Central, Middle, South, Spanish and Anglo America?". About.com.
  31. ^ Unless otherwise noted, land area figures are taken from "Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density" (PDF). United Nations Statistics Division. 2008. Retrieved 14 October 2010. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  32. ^ Since the Lucayan Archipelago is located in the Atlantic Ocean rather than Caribbean Sea, the Bahamas are part of the West Indies but are not technically part of the Caribbean, although the United Nations groups them with the Caribbean.
  33. ^ a b c Population estimates are taken from the Central Bureau of Statistics Netherlands Antilles. "Statistical information: Population". Government of the Netherlands Antilles. Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  34. ^ Because of ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning in July 1995, much of Plymouth was destroyed and government offices were relocated to Brades. Plymouth remains the de jure capital.
  35. ^ Since the Lucayan Archipelago is located in the Atlantic Ocean rather than Caribbean Sea, the Turks and Caicos Islands are part of the West Indies but are not technically part of the Caribbean, although the United Nations groups them with the Caribbean.
  36. ^ Mark Spalding; Corinna Ravilious; Edmund Peter Green (10 September 2001). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23255-6. Retrieved 25 June 2012.
  37. ^ Littler, D. and Littler, M. (2000) Caribbean Reef Plants. OffShore Graphics, Inc., ISBN 0967890101.
  38. ^ Minter, D.W., Rodríguez Hernández, M. and Mena Portales, J. (2001) Fungi of the Caribbean. An annotated checklist. PDMS Publishing, ISBN 0-9540169-0-4.
  39. ^ Kirk, P. M.; Ainsworth, Geoffrey Clough (2008). Ainsworth & Bisby's Dictionary of the Fungi. CABI. ISBN 978-0-85199-826-8.
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  41. ^ "Fungi of Puerto Rico – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  42. ^ "Fungi of the Dominican Republic – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  43. ^ "Fungi of Trinidad & Tobago – potential endemics". cybertruffle.org.uk. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
  44. ^ "North American Extinctions v. World". Thegreatstory.org. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  45. ^ "Caribbean Coral Reefs". coral-reef-info.com.
  46. ^ Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Mumby, P. J.; Hooten, A. J.; Steneck, R. S.; Greenfield, P.; Gomez, E.; Harvell, C. D.; Sale, P. F.; et al. (2007). "Coral Reefs Under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification". Science. 318 (5857): 1737–42. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.702.1733. doi:10.1126/science.1152509. PMID 18079392.
  47. ^ "Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report". IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 3 July 2014.
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  52. ^ The Sugar Revolutions and Slavery, U.S. Library of Congress
  53. ^ Engerman, pp. 488–492
  54. ^ Engerman, Figure 11.1
  55. ^ Engerman, pp. 501–502
  56. ^ Engerman, pp. 504, 511
  57. ^ Table A.2, Database documentation, Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) Population Database, version 3, International Center for Tropical Agriculture, 2005. Accessed on line February 20, 2008.
  58. ^ Christianity in its Global Context Archived 2013-08-15 at the Wayback Machine
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  60. ^ Hillman, p. 150
  61. ^ Hillman, p. 165
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  63. ^ Hillman, p. 123
  64. ^ "The U.S.-EU Banana Agreement". Archived from the original on 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2008-11-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) See also: "Dominica: Poverty and Potential". BBC. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
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  67. ^ "World: Americas St Vincent hit by banana war". BBC News. 1999-03-13. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  68. ^ "Concern for Caribbean farmers". Bbc.co.uk. 2005-01-07. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
  69. ^ Edmonds, Kevin (2012-03-06). "ALBA Expands its Allies in the Caribbean". Venezuela Analysis. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
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  71. ^ "Caribbean Educators Network". CEN. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
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  77. ^ "University of the West Indies". Uwi.edu. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
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Bibliography

  • Engerman, Stanley L. "A Population History of the Caribbean", pp. 483–528 in A Population History of North America Michael R. Haines and Richard Hall Steckel (Eds.), Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-49666-7.
  • Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J. D'agostino, eds. Understanding the Contemporary Caribbean, London: Lynne Rienner, 2003 ISBN 1-58826-663-X.

Further reading

  • Develtere, Patrick R. 1994. "Co-operation and development: With special reference to the experience of the Commonwealth Caribbean" ACCO, ISBN 90-334-3181-5
  • Gowricharn, Ruben. Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2006.
  • Henke, Holger, and Fred Reno, eds. Modern Political Culture in the Caribbean. Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2003.
  • Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean: Brief Histories. London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2006.
  • de Kadt, Emanuel, (editor). Patterns of foreign influence in the Caribbean, Oxford University Press, 1972.
  • Knight, Franklin W. The Modern Caribbean (University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
  • Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN 0-201-52396-5
  • Langley, Lester D. The United States and the Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. London: University of Georgia Press, 1989.
  • Maingot, Anthony P. The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview Press, 1994.
  • Palmie, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples (University of Chicago Press; 2011); 660 pp.; writings on the region since the pre-Columbia era.
  • Ramnarine, Tina K. Beautiful Cosmos: Performance and Belonging in the Caribbean Diaspora. London, Pluto Press, 2007.
  • Rowntree, Lester/Martin Lewis/Marie Price/William Wyckoff. Diversity Amid Globalization: World Regions, Environment, Development, 4th edition, 2008.

External links

  • Media related to Caribbean at Wikimedia Commons

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