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Foreign policy of China

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Politics of China
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The People's Republic of China is a Communist state that came to power in 1949 after a civil war. It became a great power in the 1960s and today has the world's largest population, second largest GDP (after the U.S.) and the largest economy in the world by PPP. China is now considered an emerging global superpower.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The main institutions of foreign policy are the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the International Liaison Department of the Chinese Communist Party, and the United Front Work Department.[7]

In 1950-1953 it fought an undeclared war in Korea against the United States. Until the late 1950s it was allied with the Soviet Union but by 1960 they began a bitter contest for control over the local Communist movement in many countries. It reached detente with the United States in 1972. After Chairman Mao Zedong died in 1976, Deng Xiaoping led a massive process of industrialization and emphasized trade relations with the world, while maintaining a low key, less ideological foreign policy, widely described by the phrase taoguang yanghui, or "hide one's talent and bide one's time".[8] The Chinese economy grew very rapidly giving it steadily increasing power and ambition.

Since Xi Jinping assumed to General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012, China has expanded its foreign policy ambitions on the global scale, with special emphasis on the East China Sea. China is investing heavily in global infrastructure, citing a desire for economic integration. It is also investing in strategic locations to secure its trade and security interests. It calls these programs "One Belt, One Road" and the "Maritime Silk Road", which it sees as part of its goal of self-sufficiency.[9] In the 2019, the Pew Research Center made a survey on attitude to Xi Jinping among six-country medians based on Australia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Philippines and South Korea. The survey indicated that a median 29% have confidence in Xi Jinping to do the right thing regarding world affairs, meanwhile a median of 45% have no confidence. These number are almost same with those of North Korean leader Kim Jong Un (23% confidence, 53% no confidence).[10]

Since 2017 it has engaged in a large-scale trade war with the United States. It is also challenging U.S. dominance in the Pacific and Indian Ocean, expanding its military naval and diplomatic efforts.[11] Part of this is the String of Pearls strategy securing strategic locations in the Indian Ocean and Strait of Malacca region.[12]

Long-term goals

Political scientist Dmitry Shlapentokh argues that Xi Jinping and his top leadership are developing plans for global predominance based on rapidly growing economic power. The ideological framework is a specialized blend of Marxist-Leninism, coupled with China's pre-1800 historic claims to world dominance. China's trade policy and drive for access to essential natural resources, such as gas, are articulated in terms of these ideological approaches. Beijing balances both purely economic goals with geopolitical strategies regarding the United States, Russia and other powers. Balancing those two powers gives China a clear advantage, for its totalitarian government could plan for generations and could change course regardless of the wishes of the electorate or clearly defined interest groups, as is the case with the modern capitalist West.[13]

Lowell Dittmer argues that in dealing with the goal of dominance over East Asia, Beijing has to juggle its relations with the United States, which has more military and economic power in the region because of close U.S. ties with Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, Australia and other countries.[14]

Regarding the Middle East, where the United States has staked out a major position, China is tentatively moving in a much smaller scale. Analysts argue that Beijing is not yet ready to become a major force in shaping regional politics.[15][16][17]

China has shown a moderate interest in the Caribbean region in recent years, but not nearly on the same scale as its interest in Asia and Africa. It has been developing ties with Cuba, the Bahamas, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic and Haiti, as well as Colombia. These small countries have not by 2019 noticeably changed their foreign or domestic policies because of their new economic linkages with China. Nevertheless the governments pay more attention to Beijing's views. On the other hand, China's push into the Caribbean is increasingly resented by the United States and further escalation between the two major powers is a possibility in the region.[18][19]

Status of Taiwan

Further information: One-China policy, Political status of Taiwan, and Cross-Strait relations
See also: Chinese unification and Foreign relations of Taiwan

China considers Taiwan area administered by Republic of China, part of its inviolable sovereign territory. In China's view, Taiwan is a separatist, breakaway province that must be reunified, by force if necessary. China exerts efforts for countries recognizing the ROC to switch their recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC).[20][21][22][23] This has forced Taiwan to go to great lengths to maintain its extant diplomatic relations, particularly with countries that recognize the Republic of China as the one "China".[24]

It has passed the controversial Anti-Secession Law authorizing the use of military force in the event of unilateral separatist activity by the Government of Taiwan,[25] as outlined in § PRC's condition on military intervention.

South China Sea

Further information: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea and Great Wall of Sand

China has staked its territorial claims in the disputed South China Sea with the Nine-Dash Line. Its claims are disputed by other countries.[26][27] The contested area in the South China Sea includes the Paracel Islands,[note 1] the Spratly Islands,[note 2][28] and various other areas including Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks, the Macclesfield Bank and the Scarborough Shoal. The claim encompasses the area of Chinese land reclamation known as the "Great Wall of Sand".[29][30][31]

The United States Navy has conducted freedom of navigation operations asserting its position that some waters claimed by China are international waters.[32]

On July 12, 2016, an arbitral tribunal constituted under Annex VII to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ruled that China has no legal basis to claim "historic rights" within its nine-dash line in a case brought by the Philippines. The tribunal judged that there was no evidence that China had historically exercised exclusive control over the waters or resources within the Nine-Dash Line.

The ruling was rejected by both Taiwan and China.[33][34] The People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) stated that they did not recognize the tribunal and insisted that the matter should be resolved through bilateral negotiations with other claimants.[35] However, the tribunal did not rule on the ownership of the islands or delimit maritime boundaries.[36][37]

Scholars have been probing the Chinese motivations and long-term expectations. One approach is to compare trends in multilateral Code of Conduct negotiations between 1992 and 2016. In general, the sovereignty issue regarding contested waters is no longer a central major concern For three reasons: the inconsistency of China's official claims over time, China's increased bargaining power, and the importance of the shelved sovereignty axiom since the era of Deng Xiaoping.[38][39]

Economics

Beijing has encouraged and helped finance Chinese firms to develop enormous overseas interests since 2000. More established American and European corporations have strong locks on major markets, so the Chinese companies focus on areas with high political risks, such as Myanmar. The communist government in Beijing has increasingly intervened to secure these overseas business interests. The Chinese businessmen are encouraged to cultivate social institutions in key markets. In the case of Myanmar, China is confronting a much better established position of India.[40][41][42]

List of allied countries

The following countries that are allied with China:[43][44]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Paracel Islands are occupied by the PRC, but are also claimed by Vietnam and the ROC.
  2. ^ The Spratly Islands are disputed by the Philippines, PRC, ROC, Brunei, Malaysia, and Vietnam, who each claim either part or all the islands, which are believed (hoped) to sit on vast mineral resources, including oil and gas.
  3. ^ As a member of BRICS.
  4. ^ As a member of BRICS.
  5. ^ Via Hezbollah's influence.
  6. ^ Maintains full relations with the Republic of China despite indirect PRC influence
  7. ^ See China–North Korea relations
  8. ^ See China–Pakistan relations
  9. ^ See Sino–Russian relations since 1991
  10. ^ Maintains full relations with the Republic of China despite indirect PRC influence

References

  1. ^ "Should We Compete With China? Can We?". The Unz Review. Retrieved May 6, 2020.
  2. ^ Asia, Current Affairs Correspondent East (August 4, 2019). "Is China a Superpower Now? - Belt & Road News". Retrieved May 6, 2020. {{cite web}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  3. ^ "Does China Outspend US on Defense?". The Unz Review. Retrieved May 6, 2020.
  4. ^ John, Emmanuel (June 13, 2019). "China: Emerging superpower". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. ^ "China will overtake US in tech race". OMFIF. October 22, 2019. Retrieved September 23, 2020.
  6. ^ "CHINA". Lowy Institute Asia Power Index. Retrieved July 18, 2020.
  7. ^ Fiddler, Connor (February 3, 2021). "The 3 Pillars of Chinese Foreign Policy: The State, the Party, the People". The Diplomat. Retrieved February 6, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  8. ^ In a 1990 speech, Deng Xiaoping succinctly stated his foreign policy as "Observe affairs calmly, maintain our position, respond with deliberation, hide our talent and bide our time, disguise our weakness, never seek leadership, and act with intention." (Original Chinese: “冷静观察、稳住阵脚、沉着应付、韬光养晦、善于藏拙、决不当头、有所作为。”)
  9. ^ For a detailed history see John W. Garver, China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic (2nd ed. 2018).
  10. ^ Silver, Laura; Devlin, Kat; Huang, Christine (December 5, 2019). "China's Economic Growth Mostly Welcomed in Emerging Markets, but Neighbors Wary of Its Influence". Pew Research Center. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
  11. ^ "Money and Muscle Pave China's Way to Global Power". The New York Times. November 25, 2018. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 25, 2018.
  12. ^ Beech, Hannah (August 20, 2018). "'We Cannot Afford This': Malaysia Pushes Back Against China's Vision". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 27, 2018.
  13. ^ Dmitry Shlapentokh, "China's Quest for Global Predominance." Perspectives on Political Science (2019): 1-15.
  14. ^ Lowell Dittmer, China's Asia: Triangular Dynamics Since the Cold War (2018) Excerpt
  15. ^ Martina Ponížilová, "Foreign Policy Activities of China in the Middle East: Establishing Energy Security or Being a Responsible Emerging Power?." Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 21.6 (2019): 643-662.
  16. ^ Imad Mansour,"Treading with Caution: China's Multidimensional Interventions in the Gulf Region." The China Quarterly 239 (2019): 656-678.
  17. ^ Yitzhak Shichor, "China and the Middle East since Tiananmen." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 519.1 (1992): 86-100. online
  18. ^ Scott MacDonald, "Sino-Caribbean Relations in a Changing Geopolitical Sea." Journal of Chinese Political Science 24.4 (2019): 665-684.
  19. ^ Eduardo Velosa, "A Tale of Should Be but Is Not: the Political and Economic Drivers of Limited Chinese Investments in Colombia." Journal of Chinese Political Science 24.4 (2019): 643-663. excerpt
  20. ^ "Senegal picks China over Taiwan". BBC. October 26, 2005.
  21. ^ Wu, Debby (January 14, 2008). "Malawi Drops Ties With Taiwan for China". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on April 7, 2012. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
  22. ^ "Taiwan loses second ally in a month amid China pressure". Channel NewsAsia. Retrieved December 28, 2018.
  23. ^ Editor (September 19, 2018). "Taiwan's break of relations with El Salvador". Taiwan Insight. Retrieved December 28, 2018. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  24. ^ "Taiwan's critical battle to keep its diplomatic allies from switching sides". South China Morning Post. June 18, 2018. Retrieved December 28, 2018.
  25. ^ Office of the Secretary of Defense (May 6, 2011). Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China, 2011 (PDF). Annual Report to Congress (Report). Retrieved February 16, 2012.
  26. ^ Martin Riegl; Jakub Landovský; Irina Valko, eds. (November 26, 2014). Strategic Regions in 21st Century Power Politics. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 66–68. ISBN 9781443871341.
  27. ^ Michaela del Callar (July 26, 2013). "China's new '10-dash line map' eats into Philippine territory". GMA News. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  28. ^ Jamandre, Tessa (April 14, 2011). "PH protests China's '9-dash line' Spratlys claim". Malaya. Archived from the original on April 19, 2011. Retrieved June 2, 2011.
  29. ^ "China building 'great wall of sand' in South China Sea". BBC. April 1, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  30. ^ "US Navy: Beijing creating a 'great wall of sand' in South China Sea". The Guardian. March 31, 2015. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  31. ^ Marcus, Jonathan (May 29, 2015). "US-China tensions rise over Beijing's 'Great Wall of Sand'". BBC. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  32. ^ Michael Green, Bonnie Glaser & Gregory Poling, The U.S. Asserts Freedom of Navigation in the South China Sea, Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative/Center for Strategic and International Studies (October 27, 2015).
  33. ^ "South China Sea: Tribunal backs case against China brought by Philippines". BBC News. July 12, 2016. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  34. ^ "Taiwan-controlled Taiping Island is a rock, says international court in South China Sea ruling". South China Morning Post. July 12, 2016. Retrieved January 11, 2019. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
  35. ^ David Tweed; Ting Shi (July 12, 2016). "China's South China Sea Claims Dashed by Hague Court Ruling". Bloomberg. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  36. ^ "PCA Press Release: The South China Sea Arbitration (The Republic of the Philippines v. The People's Republic of China) | PCA-CPA". pca-cpa.org. July 12, 2016. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  37. ^ Perlez, Jane (July 12, 2016). "Tribunal Rejects Beijing's Claims in South China Sea". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
  38. ^ Jiye Kim and Daniel Druckman, "Shelved sovereignty or invalid sovereignty? The South China Sea negotiations, 1992–2016." The Pacific Review 33.1 (2020): 32-60. Online
  39. ^ Andy Yee, "Maritime territorial disputes in East Asia: a comparative analysis of the South China Sea and the East China Sea." Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 40.2 (2011): 165-193. Online
  40. ^ Yizheng Zou, and Lee Jones, "China’s Response to Threats to Its Overseas Economic Interests: Softening Non-Interference and Cultivating Hegemony." Journal of Contemporary China 29.121 (2020): 92-108.
  41. ^ Nian Peng, "Budding Indo-Myanmar Relations: Rising But Limited Challenges For China." Asian Affairs 50.4 (2019): 588-601.
  42. ^ Parama Sinha PalitChina's Soft Power Strategy & Comparative Indian Initiatives (2017)
  43. ^ https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/China-s-friends-are-few-and-unreliable
  44. ^ https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3123776/china-russia-ties-no-plans-military-alliance-take-us

Further reading

Library resources about
Foreign policy of China
  • Alden, Christopher. China Returns to Africa: A Superpower and a Continent Embrace (2008)
  • Bajpai, Kanti, Selina Ho, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller, eds. Routledge Handbook of China–India Relations (Routledge, 2020). excerpt
  • Cohen, Warren I. America's Response to China: A History of Sino-American Relations (2010) excerpt and text search
  • Fenby, Jonathan. The Penguin History of Modern China: The Fall and Rise of a Great Power 1850 to the Present (3rd ed. 2019) popular history.
  • Ferdinand, Peter. "Westward ho—the China dream and ‘one belt, one road’: Chinese foreign policy under Xi Jinping." International Affairs 92.4 (2016): 941-957. online
  • Foot, Rosemary, and Amy King. "Assessing the deterioration in China–US relations: US governmental perspectives on the economic-security nexus." China International Strategy Review 1.1 (2019): 39-50 online
  • Garver, John W. China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic (2nd ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history. excerpt
  • Garver, John W. Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century (2001), post 1950.
  • Green, Michael J. By more than providence: Grand strategy and American power in the Asia Pacific since 1783 (Columbia UP, 2017) online
  • Hu, Weixing. "Xi Jinping’s ‘Major Country Diplomacy’: The Role of Leadership in Foreign Policy Transformation." Journal of Contemporary China 28.115 (2019): 1-14.
  • Lampton, David M. Following the Leader: Ruling China, from Deng Xiaoping to Xi Jinping (U of California Press, 2014).
  • Liu, Guoli, ed., Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition. (Transaction, 2004). ISBN 0202307522
  • Lu, Ning. The dynamics of foreign-policy decisionmaking in China (Routledge, 2018).
  • Quested, Rosemary K.I. Sino-Russian relations: a short history (Routledge, 2014) online
  • Sutter, Robert G. Historical Dictionary of Chinese Foreign Policy (2011) excerpt and text search
  • Sutter, Robert G. Foreign Relations of the PRC: The Legacies and Constraints of China's International Politics Since 1949 (Rowman & Littlefield; 2013) 355 pages excerpt and text search
  • Swaine, Michael D. "Chinese views of foreign policy in the 19th party congress." China Leadership Monitor 55 (2018). online re 2017 Congress
  • Westad, Odd Arne. Restless Empire: China and the World Since 1750 (Basic Books; 2012) 515 pages; comprehensive scholarly history
  • Yahuda, Michael. End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy After Mao (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016)
  • Yea, Andy. "Maritime territorial disputes in East Asia: a comparative analysis of the South China Sea and the East China Sea." Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 40.2 (2011): 165-193. Online
  • Zhang. Ketian. “Cautious Bully: Reputation, Resolve, and Beijing’s Use of Coercion in the South China Sea,” International Security 44:1 (Summer 2019): 117-159.
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