Veganism

Veganism
Clockwise from top left: Seitan pizza; roasted sprouts, tofu and pasta; cocoa-avocado brownies; leeks and beans with dumplings.
Pronunciation	Vee-gunism (/ˈviːɡənɪzəm/)
Description	Elimination of the use of animal products, particularly in diet
Early proponents	Roger Crab (1621–1680) Johann Conrad Beissel (1691–1768) James Pierrepont Greaves (1777–1842) Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822) Sylvester Graham (1794–1851) Amos Bronson Alcott (1799–1888) Sarah Bernhardt (1844–1923) Donald Watson (1910–2005) H. Jay Dinshah (1933–2000)
Term coined by	Donald Watson, 1944
Notable vegans
List of vegans

Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of veganism is known as a vegan.

Distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans (or strict vegetarians) refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and oppose the use of animals for any purpose. Another term is environmental veganism, which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the harvesting or industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.

The term vegan was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England, at first to mean "non-dairy vegetarian" and later "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals." Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s. Vegan options became increasingly available in many countries, including in supermarkets and chain restaurants.

Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fibre, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron and phytochemicals, and lower in calories, saturated fat, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc and vitamin B12. Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease, including heart disease, and are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, and Dietitians of Canada. Because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12 (which is produced by microorganisms such as bacteria), researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement.

History

Background

Further information: History of vegetarianism

The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the earliest known use of the English word vegetarian to the actress Fanny Kemble, writing in 1839 in Georgia in the United States, but the practice can be traced to Pythagoras in 6th-century-BCE Greece. Greek philosophers Empedocles and Theophrastus were vegetarians, as were Seneca the Younger, Ovid, Plutarch, Plotinus and Porphyry. Their arguments were based on health, the transmigration of souls, animal welfare and the view, espoused by Porphyry in De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium ("On Abstinence from Animal Food"), that if humans deserve justice so do nonhumans.

In the 19th century vegetarians who avoided not only meat, but also eggs and dairy, were known as strict vegetarians. Several strict-vegetarian communities existed. Amos Bronson Alcott, father of novelist Louisa May Alcott, opened two in Massachusetts in 1834 and 1844: the Temple School and Fruitlands. The latter opposed the use of animals for any reason. In 1847 the British Vegetarian Society held its first meeting in Ramsgate, Kent. Mahatma Gandhi joined the society's executive committee when he lived in London from 1888 to 1891. There appear to have been ethical vegans within the society at this early stage: an 1851 article in its magazine discussed alternatives to shoe leather. The first known vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldon's No Animal Food: Two Essays and 100 Recipes, was published in London in 1910.

Coining the term vegan (1944)

Further information: Vegan Society

Mahatma Gandhi at a Vegetarian Society meeting, London, 20 November 1931, with Henry Salt on his right

In 1931 Gandhi visited London for the second Round Table conference on the future of India. He gave a speech to the Vegetarian Society while there, arguing that it ought to promote a meat-free diet as a matter of ethics, not health. There were regular discussions in the society's newsletter about the ethics of eggs and dairy. In August 1944 several members asked that a section be devoted to non-dairy vegetarianism. When the request was turned down, one of them, Donald Watson, set up a quarterly newsletter, Vegan News. The first edition appeared in November 1944, priced tuppence. Watson chose the word vegan himself and said later that it represented "the beginning and end of vegetarian." World Vegan Day is held every 1 November to mark the newsletter's creation.

The new Vegan Society held its first meeting in early November 1944 at the Attic Club, 144 High Holborn, London. The newsletter changed its name to The Vegan in November 1945, by which time it had 500 subscribers. It published recipes, health news, and a list of suitable products (the "vegan trade list"), such as Colgate toothpaste, Kiwi shoe polish, Dawson & Owen stationery and Gloy glue. Vegan books began appearing: Vegetarian Recipes without Dairy Produce by Margaret B. Rawls; Vegan Recipes by Fay K. Henderson; and Aids to a Vegan Diet for Children by Kathleen V. Mayo.

Donald Watson

Donald Watson
front row, fifth from the right, at the International Vegetarian Union World Congress, Wycliffe College, Stonehouse, Gloucestershire, 1947

The society made clear after a few years that it rejected the use of animals for any purpose, not only as food. Watson told a conference in 1947 that "the vegan renounces it as superstitious that human life depends upon the exploitation of these creatures whose feelings are much the same as our own ..." In 1951 the society defined veganism as "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals." Leslie Cross, the society's vice-president, founded the Plantmilk Society in 1956 to explore commercial soy milk production. As Plantmilk Ltd (later Plamil Foods) it began production in 1965 of one of the first widely distributed soy milks in the Western world. Consumers in the UK bought 92 million litres of plant milk in 2013.

The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, who distributed Watson's newsletter, and in 1960 H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS). Dinshah linked veganism to the concept of ahimsa, "non-harming" in Sanskrit. According to Joanne Stepaniak, the word vegan was first published independently in 1962 by the Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, defined as "a vegetarian who eats no butter, eggs, cheese or milk."

Becoming mainstream (2010s)

Increased interest

Further information: List of vegans

Interest in veganism in the 2010s was reflected in increased page views for the topic on Wikipedia.

From the late 1970s a group of scientists in the United States, including physicians Dean Ornish, Caldwell Esselstyn, Neal D. Barnard, John A. McDougall, Michael Greger and biochemist T. Colin Campbell, argued that diets based on animal fat and animal protein, such as the Western pattern diet, were detrimental to health. They proposed that a low-fat, plant-based diet would prevent, and might reverse, coronary heart disease, diabetes and certain cancers.

Concerns about diet and the environment coincided. A series of books opposed the consumption of animal products: Frances Moore Lappé's Diet for a Small Planet (1971), McDougall's The McDougall Plan (1983), John Robbins's Diet for a New America (1987), Barnard's The Power of Your Plate (1990), and Ornish's Dr. Dean Ornish's Program for Reversing Heart Disease (1990). In the early 2000s scientists increasingly wrote positively about diets that were low in, or free of, animal products, and in 2003 two major North American dietitians' associations approved the vegan diet as safe for all life stages. Later influential books and films included Campbell's The China Study (2005), Esselstyn's Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease (2007), Jonathan Safran's Eating Animals (2009), Kathy Freston's Veganist (2011), and the film Forks over Knives (2011).

The vegan diet became more mainstream in the 2010s. Chain restaurants marked vegan items on their menus, and supermarkets stocked more vegan processed food. The mock-meats market increased by 18 percent between 2005 and 2010, and in the UK the plant milk market increased by 155 percent in two years, from 36 million litres in 2011 to 92 million in 2013. The interest was reflected in increased page views on Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia article on veganism was viewed 73,000 times in August 2009 but 145,000 times in August 2013. Articles on veganism were viewed more during this period than articles on vegetarianism in the English, French, German, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish Wikipedias.

Celebrities, athletes and politicians adopted vegan diets, some seriously, some part-time. The idea of the "flexi-vegan" gained currency; in his book VB6 (2013), New York Times food columnist Mark Bittman recommended sticking to a vegan diet before 6 pm. In 2010 the European Parliament defined vegan for food labels, in force as of 2015. De Vegetarische Slager, the first known vegetarian "butcher" shop, selling mock meats, opened in the Netherlands in 2010. In 2011 Europe's first vegan supermarkets appeared in Germany: Vegilicious in Dortmund, and Veganz in Berlin and elsewhere. In 2013 the Oktoberfest in Munich, traditionally a meat-heavy affair, offered vegan dishes for the first time in its 200-year history.

Demographics

In Sweden four percent said they were vegan in a 2014 poll, as did five percent in Israel, according to one group; 2.6 percent in Israel were vegan or vegetarian in 2010, according to the government. There were an estimated 800,000 vegans in Germany as of 2013. Two percent in the US identified as vegan in a 2012 Gallup poll, as did 0.5 percent in a 2014 Faunalytics poll; the latter found that 70 percent of those who adopted a vegan diet abandoned it. In the UK, where the tofu and mock-meats market was worth £786.5 million in 2012, two percent said they were vegan in a 2007 government survey. In the Netherlands there were an estimated 16,000 vegans as of 2007.

Animal products

Avoidance

Further information: Rendering (food processing)

Cochineal, from the female cochineal insect, is used to dye cosmetics and food.

Dietary vegans avoid consuming animal products, but might use them in clothing and toiletries. Ethical vegans reject the commodification of animals and will not use them for food, clothing, entertainment or any other purpose. The British Vegan Society will certify a product only if it is free of animal involvement as far as possible and practical, including animal testing.

Philosopher Gary Steiner argues that it is not possible to be entirely vegan, because animal use and products are "deeply and imperceptibly woven into the fabric of human society." Animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool and silk. Others in common use are albumen, allantoin, beeswax, blood, bone char, bone china, carmine, casein, cochineal, elastin, emu oil, gelatin, isinglass, keratin, lactic acid, lanolin, lard, rennet, retinol, shellac, squalene, tallow/sodium tallowate, whey and yellow grease. They are not always included in the list of ingredients.

Ethical vegans will not buy leather goods, woollen jumpers, silk scarves, camera film, bedding that contains goose down or duck feathers, or ordinary soap (usually made of animal fat). They avoid certain vaccines; the flu vaccine, for example, is usually grown in hens' eggs. Non-vegan items acquired before they became vegan might be donated to charity or used until worn out. Some vegan clothes, in particular shoes and leather alternatives, are made of petroleum-based products, which has triggered criticism because of the environmental damage involved in their production.

Eggs, dairy, honey, silk

The main difference between a vegan and vegetarian diet is that vegans exclude eggs and dairy products. Ethical vegans state that the production of eggs and dairy causes animal suffering and premature death. In egg production, most male chicks are culled because they do not lay eggs. To obtain milk from dairy cattle, cows are made pregnant to induce lactation; they are kept pregnant and lactating for three to seven years, then slaughtered. Female calves are separated from their mothers within 24 hours of birth, and fed milk replacer to retain the cow's milk for human consumption. Male calves are slaughtered at birth, sent for veal production, or reared for beef.

Vegan groups disagree about insect products. Neither the Vegan Society nor the American Vegan Society considers honey, silk and other insect products as suitable for vegans, while Vegan Action and Vegan Outreach view it as a matter of personal choice. Agave nectar is a popular vegan alternative to honey.

Vegan diet

Vegan cuisine at the Wikibooks Cookbook subproject

Soy

Warm tofu (soybean curd) with garlic sauce. Soybeans are a source of complete protein.

Vegan diets are based on grains and other seeds, legumes (particularly beans), fruits, edible mushrooms, and nuts. Meat analogues (mock meats) based on soybeans (tofu), or wheat-based seitan/gluten, are a common source of plant protein, usually in the form of vegetarian sausage, mince and veggie burgers.

Dishes based on soybeans are a staple of vegan diets because soybeans are a complete protein; this means they contain all the essential amino acids for humans and can be relied upon entirely for protein intake. They are consumed most often in the form of soy milk and tofu (bean curd), which is soy milk mixed with a coagulant. Tofu comes in a variety of textures, depending on water content, from firm, medium firm and extra firm for stews and stir-fries, to soft or silken for salad dressings, desserts and shakes. Soy is also eaten in the form of tempeh, seitan and texturized vegetable protein (TVP); also known as textured soy protein (TSP), the latter is often used in pasta sauces.

Plant milk, cheese

Nutritional content of cows', soy and almond milk
	Cows' milk (whole, vitamin D added)	Soy milk (unsweetened; calcium, vitamins A and D added)	Almond milk (unsweetened)
Calories (cup, 243 g)	149	80	40
Protein (g)	7.69	6.95	1
Fat (g)	7.93	3.91	2.5
Saturated fat (g)	4.55	0.5	0
Carbohydrate (g)	11.71	4.23	2
Fibre (g)	0	1.2	1
Sugars (g)	12.32	1	0
Calcium (mg)	276	301	n/a
Potassium (mg)	322	292	170
Sodium (mg)	105	90	180
Vitamin B12 (µg)	1.10	2.70	n/a
Vitamin A (IU)	395	503	n/a
Vitamin D (IU)	124	119	n/a
Cholesterol (mg)	24	0	0

Plant milks—such as soy milk, almond milk, grain milks (oat milk and rice milk), hemp milk, and coconut milk—are used in place of cows' or goats' milk. Soy milk provides around 7 g of protein per cup (240 ml or 8 fluid ounces), compared with 8 g of protein per cup of cow's milk. Almond milk is lower in calories, carbohydrates and protein. Soy milk should not be used as a replacement for breast milk for babies; babies who are not breastfed need commercial infant formula, normally based on cows' milk or soy. The latter is known as soy-based infant formula, or SBIF.

Vegan cheeses

Cheese analogues are made from soy, nuts and tapioca. Vegan cheeses such as Chreese, Daiya, Sheese, Teese and Tofutti can replace both the taste and meltability of dairy cheese. Nutritional yeast is a common cheese substitute in vegan recipes. Several recipe books describe how to make cheese substitutes at home; one recipe for vegan brie combines cashew nuts, soy yogurt and coconut oil. In 2014 Oakland's Counter Culture Labs and Sunnyvale's BioCurious produced vegan cheese in the lab from casein extracted from genetically modified yeast. Butter can be replaced with a vegan margarine such as Earth Balance.

Egg replacements

Further information: Egg substitutes

Vegan (egg-free) mayonnaise brands include Vegenaise, Nayonaise, Miso Mayo, Just Mayo, and Plamil's Egg-Free Mayo. Eggs are used in recipes as thickeners and binders; the protein in eggs thickens when heated and binds the other ingredients together. This effect can be achieved in vegan recipes with ground flax seeds or chia seeds; replace each egg in a recipe with one tablespoon of flaxseed meal mixed with three tablespoons of water. Commercial egg substitutes, such as Bob's Red Mill egg replacer and Ener-G egg replacer, are also available.

For vegan pancakes a tablespoon of baking powder can be used instead of eggs. Other ingredients include, to replace one egg, one tablespoon of soy flour and one tablespoon of water; a quarter cup of mashed bananas, mashed prunes or apple sauce; or in batter two tablespoons of white flour, half a tablespoon of vegetable oil, two tablespoons of water and half a tablespoon of baking powder. Silken (soft) tofu and mashed potato can also be used.

Vegan food groups

Further information: Food group

New Four Food Groups, clockwise from top left: fruit; legumes (such as soybeans) for protein; vegetables; whole grains, as in whole-wheat bread.

Since 1991 the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) has recommended a no-cholesterol, low-fat vegan diet based on what they call the New Four Food Groups: fruit, legumes, grains and vegetables. Legumes include peas, beans, lentils and peanuts.

PCRM recommends three or more servings a day of fruit (at least one of which is high in vitamin C, such as citrus fruit, melon or strawberries); two or more of protein-rich legumes (such as soybeans, which can be consumed as soy milk, tofu or tempeh); five or more of whole grains (such as corn, barley, rice and wheat, in products such as bread and tortillas); and four or more of vegetables (dark-green leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark-yellow and orange such as carrots or sweet potatoes).

The vegan food group was created as an alternative to the Four Food Groups – meat, milk, vegetables and fruit, and cereal and breads – recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) from 1956 until 1992. In 1992 the USDA replaced this with the food guide pyramid and in 2011 with MyPlate, which is consistent with a vegan diet. MyPlate is divided into five groups: grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy (or calcium-fortified soymilk), and protein. The protein includes meat, poultry, seafood, beans and peas, eggs, processed soy products, nuts and seeds. In the UK the National Health Service recommends the Eatwell Plate, also with five groups and consistent with a vegan diet: fruit and vegetables; potatoes, bread and other starchy foods; dairy or non-dairy alternatives; meat, fish, eggs or beans for protein; and fat and sugar.

Nutrients

Protein

Further information: Pea protein, Protein (nutrient), Protein–energy malnutrition, Rice protein, and Soy protein

Rice and beans is a common vegan protein combination.

Proteins are composed of amino acids. Vegans obtain all their protein from plants, omnivores usually a third and ovo-lacto vegetarians half. Sources of plant protein include legumes such as soy beans (consumed as tofu, tempeh, texturized vegetable protein, soy milk and edamame), peas, peanuts, black beans and chickpeas (the latter often eaten as hummus); grains such as quinoa (pronounced keenwa), brown rice, corn, barley, bulgur and wheat (the latter eaten as bread and seitan); and nuts and seeds. Combinations that contain high amounts of all the essential amino acids include rice and beans, corn and beans, and hummus and whole-wheat pita.

Soy beans and quinoa are known as complete proteins because they each contain all the essential amino acids in amounts that meet or exceed human requirements. Mangels et al. write that consuming the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of protein (0.8 g/kg body weight) in the form of soy will meet the biologic requirement for amino acids. In 2012 the United States Department of Agriculture ruled that soy protein (tofu) may replace meat protein in the National School Lunch Program.

The American Dietetic Association said in 2009 that a variety of plant foods consumed over the course of a day can provide all the essential amino acids for healthy adults, which means that protein combining in the same meal may not be necessary. Mangels et al. write that there is little reason to advise vegans to increase their protein intake, but erring on the side of caution, they recommend a 25 percent increase over the RDA for adults, to 1.0 gram of protein per kilogram of body weight.

Vitamin B12

Further information: Vitamin B12 deficiency, Vitamin B12 § Supplements, and Food fortification

Tahini miso soup with brown rice, turnips, squash, radishes and nori (an edible seaweed). Nori is cited as a plant source of B12, but vegans are advised to take supplements.

Vitamin B12 is a bacterial product needed for cell division, the formation and maturation of red blood cells, the synthesis of DNA, and normal nerve function. A deficiency can lead to megaloblastic anemia and nerve damage. Vegans are unable in most cases to obtain B12 from their diet, which is often used as an argument against veganism; vegetarians are also at risk. A 2013 review of the medical literature found that "vegetarians develop B12 depletion or deficiency regardless of demographic characteristics, place of residency, age, or type of vegetarian diet."

Increased hygiene in the food supply is probably the cause of the depletion of B12 from plant-based diets. Neither plants nor animals make B12; it is produced by microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi and algae. Plants not washed properly may contain B12 from bacteria in the soil, often from faeces, and drinking water may be similarly contaminated, particularly in the developing world. Animals obtain it by eating contaminated plants, other animals, or their own faeces, and thereby become sources of B12 if eaten themselves. Bacteria in the human digestive tract produce B12, but most is expelled in the faeces. The mouth is another source, but in small amounts and possibly analogue (not biologically active).

Japanese researchers say that around 4 g of dried purple nori, an edible seaweed, supplies the adult RDA of B12. Tempeh, a fermented soybean food, is cited as another source, perhaps because of contamination during production. Nevertheless the consensus among researchers is that vegans and vegetarians should use supplements, or eat foods fortified with B12 such as soy milk or cereal. One tablespoon of Red Star Vegetarian Support Formula nutritional yeast delivers the adult RDA of 2.4 mcg of B12. B12 supplements are produced industrially through bacterial fermentation-synthesis; no animal products are involved in that process.

There is no gold standard for assessing B12 status, which has caused disagreement about B12 levels in vegans, and there are few studies of long-term vegans who have not used supplements or fortified foods. Studies of vegans not taking supplements or eating fortified food have found low B12 levels and clinical signs of deficiency; low B12 levels without signs of a deficiency; and neither. Mangels et al. say: "It is likely that all Western vegans consuming unsupplemented diets will eventually develop vitamin B12 deficiency, although it may take decades for this to occur.

Calcium

Further information: Calcium in biology, Calcium carbonate, Calcium citrate, and Disorders of calcium metabolism

photograph

(Left to right): almond milk, hemp milk, soy milk, coconut milk, rice milk. One cup of fortified, unsweetened soy milk contains 300 mg of calcium, 6.95 g of protein and 80 calories.

Calcium is needed to maintain bone health and for several metabolic functions, including muscle function, vascular contraction and vasodilation, nerve transmission, intracellular signalling and hormonal secretion. Ninety-nine percent of the body's calcium is stored in the bones and teeth.

Vegans are advised to eat three servings a day of a high-calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, fortified tofu, almonds or hazelnuts, and to take a supplement as necessary. Plant sources include broccoli, turnip, bok choy and kale; the bioavailability of calcium in spinach is poor. Vegans should make sure they consume enough vitamin D, which is needed for calcium absorption.

A 2007 report based on the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition, which began in 1993, suggested that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over meat eaters and vegetarians, likely because of lower dietary calcium intake. The study found that vegans consuming at least 525 mg of calcium daily have a risk of fractures similar to that of other groups. A 2009 study found the bone mineral density (BMD) of vegans was 94 percent that of omnivores, but deemed the difference clinically insignificant.

Vitamin D

Further information: Vitamin D deficiency, Rickets, and Hypervitaminosis D

Most people can obtain enough vitamin D from sunlight in the spring, summer and fall.

Vitamin D (calciferol) is needed for several functions, including calcium absorption, enabling mineralization of bone, and bone growth. Without it bones can become thin and brittle; together with calcium it offers protection against osteoporosis. Vitamin D is produced in the body when ultraviolet rays from the sun hit the skin; outdoor exposure is needed because UVB radiation does not penetrate glass. It is present in salmon, tuna, mackerel and cod liver oil, with small amounts in cheese, egg yolks and beef liver, and in some mushrooms.

Most vegan diets contain little or no vitamin D without fortified food. People with little sun exposure may need supplements. The extent to which sun exposure is sufficient depends on the season, time of day, cloud and smog cover, skin melanin content, and whether sunscreen is worn. According to the National Institutes of Health, most people can obtain and store sufficient vitamin D from sunlight in the spring, summer and fall, even in the far north. They report that some researchers recommend 5–30 minutes of sun exposure without sunscreen between 10 am and 3 pm, at least twice a week. Tanning beds emitting 2–6 per cent UVB radiation have a similar effect, though tanning is inadvisable.

Vitamin D comes in two forms. Cholecalciferol (D3) is synthesized in the skin after exposure to the sun, or consumed in the form of animal products; when produced industrially it is taken from lanolin in sheep's wool. Ergocalciferol (D2) is derived from ergosterol from UV-exposed mushrooms or yeast and is suitable for vegans. Conflicting studies have suggested that the two forms may or may not be bioequivalent. According to researchers from the Institute of Medicine, the differences between D2 and D3 do not affect metabolism, both function as prohormones, and when activated exhibit identical responses in the body.

Iron

Further information: Human iron metabolism, Iron supplement, and Iron deficiency

Oatmeal, banana, maple syrup, pecans and coconut milk; one packet of instant oatmeal contains 8.2 mg of iron.

Vegetarian and vegan diets usually contain as much iron as animal-based diets, or more. Vegan diets generally contain more iron than vegetarian diets because dairy products contain very little. There are concerns about the bioavailability of iron from plant foods, assumed by some researchers to be around 5–15 percent compared to 18 percent from a nonvegetarian diet. Iron deficiency anaemia is found as often in nonvegetarians as in vegetarians, though studies have shown vegetarians' iron stores to be lower.

Mangels et al. write that because of the lower bioavailability of iron from plant sources, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences established a separate RDA for vegetarians and vegans of 14 mg for vegetarian men and postmenopausal women, and 33 mg for premenopausal women not using oral contraceptives. Supplements should be used with caution after consulting a physician, because iron can accumulate in the body and cause damage to organs. This is particularly true of anyone with hemochromatosis, a relatively common condition that can remain undiagnosed.

High-iron vegan foods include soy beans, black-strap molasses, black beans, lentils, chickpeas, spinach, tempeh, tofu and lima beans. Iron absorption can be enhanced by eating a source of vitamin C at the same time, such as half a cup of cauliflower or five fluid ounces of orange juice. Coffee and some herbal teas can inhibit iron absorption, as can spices that contain tannins (turmeric, coriander, chillies and tamarind).

Omega-3 fatty acids, iodine

Further information: Essential fatty acid interactions, Iodine in biology, and Iodine deficiency

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid, is found in leafy green vegetables and nuts, and in vegetable oils such as canola and flaxseed oil. Vegan Outreach suggests vegans take 1/4 teaspoon of flaxseed oil (also known as linseed oil) daily, and use oils containing low amounts of omega-6 fatty acids, such as olive, canola, avocado or peanut oil. Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain and Ireland, dairy products are relied upon for iodine delivery because of low levels in the soil. Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or regular consumption of seaweeds, such as kelp.

Health effects

Further information: Vegan nutrition and Raw veganism

Veganism appears to provide health benefits, including a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease and certain forms of cancer. A 2015 meta-analysis suggested that vegetarian, and particularly vegan, diets aided weight loss more effectively than non-vegetarian ones (the conclusion applied to diets of relatively short duration rather than long-term weight control). Studies of Adventists have suggested that, compared to non-vegetarians, vegans may have a reduced risk of most cancers, although a greater risk of urinary tract cancer. Both vegetarian and vegan diets are considered to be cancer-protective, although relatively few studies have been conducted.

Vegan products in a supermarket, Oceanside, California, 2014

According to nutritionist Winston Craig, writing in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition in 2009, vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fibre, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron and phytochemicals, and lower in calories, saturated fat, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc and vitamin B12. Craig wrote that vegans tend to be thinner, with lower serum cholesterol and lower blood pressure. Factors associated with a vegan diet being considered cancer-protective include an increased intake of fruits and vegetables; absence of meat; sources of vegan protein, including soy protein; and typically lower body mass index (BMI).

Eliminating all animal products increases the risk of deficiencies of vitamins B12 and D, calcium and omega-3 fatty acids. Craig advised vegans to eat fortified foods or take supplements, and warned that iron and zinc may be problematic because of limited bioavailability. Vegans might be at risk of low bone mineral density without supplements.

The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada state that properly planned vegan diets are appropriate for all life stages, including pregnancy and lactation. They indicate that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders, but that its adoption may serve to camouflage a disorder rather than cause one. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council similarly recognizes a well-planned vegan diet as viable for any age. As of 2011 the German Society for Nutrition did not recommend a vegan diet and cautioned against it for babies and children, the pregnant and the elderly. The British National Health Service's Eatwell Plate allows for an entirely plant-based diet, as does the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) MyPlate. Since 2012 the USDA has allowed tofu to replace meat in the National School Lunch Program.

Pregnancy, infants and children

Further information: Nutrition and pregnancy

The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada consider well-planned vegetarian and vegan diets "appropriate for individuals during all stages of the lifecycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence, and for athletes." The German Society for Nutrition cautioned against a vegan diet for pregnant women, babies and children as of 2011. The Canadian Pediatric Society regards well-planned vegan diets as appropriate "at all stages of fetal, infant, child and adolescent growth"; attention should be given to nutrient intake, particularly protein, vitamins B12 and D, essential fatty acids, iron, zinc and calcium.

According to a 2015 systematic review, there is little evidence available about vegetarian and vegan diets during pregnancy, and a lack of randomized studies meant that the effects of diet could not be distinguished from confounding factors. It concluded: "Within these limits, vegan-vegetarian diets may be considered safe in pregnancy, provided that attention is paid to vitamin and trace element requirements." A daily source of vitamin B12 is important for pregnant and lactating vegans, as is vitamin D if there are concerns about low sun exposure. Researchers have reported cases of vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers that were linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children. A doctor or registered dietitian should be consulted about taking supplements during pregnancy.

Vegan toiletries

Further information: Testing cosmetics on animals

Soap made from olive oil; soap is usually made from tallow (animal fat)

The British Vegan Society criteria for vegan certification are that the product contain no animal products, and that neither the product nor its ingredients have been tested on animals by, or on behalf of, the manufacturer or by anyone over whom the manufacturer has control. The society's website contains a list of certified products, as does the Choose Cruelty Free website in Australia. Beauty Without Cruelty, founded as a charity in 1959, was one of the earliest manufacturers and certifiers of vegan toiletries. Several international companies stock large vegan ranges, including Lush.

Because animal ingredients are cheap, they are ubiquitous in toiletries. After animals are slaughtered for meat, the leftovers are put through the rendering process, and some of that material, especially the fats, ends up in toiletries and cosmetics. Animal Ingredients A to Z (2004) and Veganissimo A to Z (2013) are directories for vegans that list which ingredients might be animal-derived. Common animal products include tallow in soap, and glycerine (derived from collagen), which is used as a lubricant and humectant in haircare products, moisturizers, shaving foam, soap and toothpaste; there is a plant-based form but the glycerine toiletries is often animal-based.

Lanolin from sheep's wool is another common ingredient, found in lip balm and moisturizers, as is stearic acid, used in face creams, shaving foam and shampoos; as with glycerine, it can be plant-based, but the animal-derived form is often used. Lactic acid, an alpha-hydroxy acid derived from animal milk, is used in moisturizers, as is allantoin, from the comfrey plant or cows' urine, in shampoos, moisturizers and toothpaste. Carmine from scale insects, such as the female cochineal, is used in food and cosmetics to produce red and pink shades.

Philosophy

Ethical veganism

Further information: Carnism and Ethics of eating meat

Gary Francione

Ethical veganism is based on opposition to speciesism, the assignment of value to individuals on the basis of species membership alone. There is a division within animal rights theory between rights-based (deontological) and utilitarian (consequentialist) approaches, and another division between protectionism, which pursues improved conditions for animals, and abolitionism, which seeks to end human ownership of non-humans. Abolitionists argue that protectionism serves only to make the public feel that animal use can be morally unproblematic (the "happy meat" position). Rights-theorists tend to be abolitionist and utilitarians protectionist.

Adopting veganism must be the baseline for anyone who believes that non-humans have intrinsic moral value, in the view of law professor Gary Francione, a rights theorist and prominent abolitionist. All sentient beings should have the right not to be treated as property. Pursuing improved welfare conditions is like campaigning for "conscientious rapists" who will rape without beating, he argues. Philosopher Tom Regan, also a rights theorist, argues that animals possess value as "subjects-of-a-life," because they have beliefs, desires, memory and the ability to initiate action in pursuit of goals. The right of subjects-of-a-life not to be harmed can be overridden by other moral principles, but pleasure, convenience and the economic interests of farmers are not weighty enough.

Peter Singer

Philosopher Peter Singer, a prominent protectionist, argues from a utilitarian perspective that there is no moral or logical justification for failing to count animal suffering as a consequence when making decisions, and that killing animals should be rejected unless necessary for survival. Despite this, he writes that "[e]thical thinking can be sensitive to circumstances," and that he is "not too concerned about trival infractions."

An argument proposed by Bruce Friedrich, also a protectionist, is that strict adherence to veganism harms animals, because it focuses on personal purity, rather than encouraging people to give up whatever animal products they can. For Francione, this is similar to arguing that, because human-rights abuses can never be eliminated, we should not defend human rights in situations we control. By failing to ask a server whether something contains animal products, we reinforce that the moral rights of animals are a matter of convenience, he argues. He concludes from this that the protectionist position fails on its own consequentialist terms.

Another view is that ethical veganism remains "subtly human-centred." Philosopher Val Plumwood saw ethical veganism as subscribing to the error of human–nature dualism by viewing humanity as separate from the rest of nature. Ethical vegans want to admit non-human animals into the category that deserves special protection, rather than reconstructing the human and non-human to recognize their "ecological embeddedness." In so doing, she wrote, humanity places itself at ecological risk. She also maintained that ethical veganism, which she called ontological veganism, is ethnocentric in that it prioritizes the position of privileged Western consumers.

Environmental veganism

Further information: Environmental vegetarianism, Feed conversion ratio, and Vegan organic gardening

Paul Watson

Environmental vegans focus on conservation, rejecting the use of animal products on the premise that fishing, hunting, trapping and farming, particularly factory farming, are environmentally unsustainable. Around 30 percent of the planet's surface is devoted to the livestock sector. In the United States ten billion land animals are killed every year for human consumption, and in 2005 48 billion birds were killed globally. A 2006 UN report, Livestock's Long Shadow, concluded that livestock farming (mostly of cows, chickens and pigs) has an impact on the air, land, soil, water, biodiversity and climate change.

Paul Watson of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society called pigs and chicken "major aquatic predators," and said that all Sea Shepherd ships are vegan for environmental reasons. In 1999 222 million tonnes of meat were produced globally. Livestock consumed 1,174 million tonnes of food in 2002, including 7.6 million tonnes of fishmeal and 670 million tonnes of cereals, one-third of the global cereal harvest. In 2001 they consumed 45 million tonnes of roots and vegetables and 17 million tonnes of pulses. As of 2006 the livestock industry accounted for 9 percent of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, 37 percent of methane, 65 percent of nitrous oxide, and 68 percent of ammonia; livestock waste emitted 30 million tonnes of ammonia a year, which is involved in the production of acid rain. Greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry. Plant agriculture such as rice cultivation can also cause environmental problems.

Sows in gestation crates. Vegans view animal agriculture as an environmental threat.

A 2007 Cornell University study concluded that vegetarian diets use the least land per capita, but require higher quality land than is needed to feed animals. A 2010 UN report, Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production, argued that animal products "in general require more resources and cause higher emissions than plant-based alternatives." It argued that a move away from animal products is needed to reduce environmental damage.

Steven Davis, a professor of animal science, argued in 2003 that, applying the least-harm principle, human beings should convert to a ruminant-based rather than plant-based diet, because of the animals killed by crop production. Based on a finding that wood-mouse populations fell from 25 to five per hectare after harvest, Davis estimated that 10 animals per hectare are killed from crop farming every year. If all 120,000,000 acres (490,000 km²) of cropland in the continental United States were used for a vegan diet, 500 million animals would die, but if half the land were used for ruminant pasture the number would be 900,000. This assumes that people switch to beef, lamb and dairy products from the eight billion poultry killed each year.

Philosopher Andy Lamey argued that, to include nonhuman deaths in the moral cost of veganism, Davis must also include human deaths caused by his proposed diet. Economist Gaverick Matheny wrote that Davis had miscalculated the animal deaths, basing his figures on land area rather than per consumer. In addition, by focusing on numbers rather than welfare, and by excluding factory-farmed animals, Davis had equated lives with lives worth living. His argument ignored the harm done to farmed animals: pain from branding, dehorning and castration, confinement, transport without food or water to a slaughterhouse, and a frightening death. Matheny argued that (strict) vegetarianism probably allows for a greater number of animals with lives worth living.

Bibliography

Further reading

• American Dietetic Association. "A new food guide for North American vegetarians", 2003.
• Jacobs, D. R., et al. "Food, plant food, and vegetarian diets in the US dietary guidelines: conclusions of an expert panel", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), May 2009, pp. 1549–1552.
• Mangels, Reed; Messina, Virginia; and Messina, Mark. The Dietitian's Guide to Vegetarian Diets, Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2011.
• Mangels, Reed. The Everything Vegan Pregnancy Book, Adams Media, 2011.
• Mangels, Reed. "Pregnancy and the Vegan Diet", Vegetarian Resource Group, 2006.
• The Vegan, past issues.

Films

• Earthlings, 2005.
• Food, Inc. 2008.
• Forks over Knives, 2011.
• Vegucated, 2011.
• Speciesism: The Movie, 2012.
• Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home, 2012
• Cowspiracy, 2014

Early vegan/vegetarian texts (chronological)

• Riston, Joseph. An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty, Wilks and Taylor, 1802.
• Kingsford, Anna. The Perfect Way in Diet, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1881.
• Shelley, Percy Bysshe. A Vindication of Natural Diet, F. Pitman, 1884.
• Salt, Henry Stephens. A Plea for Vegetarianism, Vegetarian Society, 1886.
• Williams, Howard. The Ethics of Diet, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1896.
• Wheldon, Rupert H. No Animal Food, Health Culture Co., 1910 (first known vegan cookbook).