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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
[[File:Central Europe (Brockhaus).PNG|300px|thumb||right|Central Europe according to [[The World Factbook]] (2009)<ref name=Fact>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2144.html|title=The World Factbook: Field listing – Location |work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|year=2009|accessdate=2009-05-03}}</ref> [[Encyclopedia Britannica]] and [[Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]] (1998)]]
[[File:Central Europe (Brockhaus).PNG|300px|thumb||right|Central Europe according to [[The World Factbook]] (2009)<ref name=Fact>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2144.html|title=The World Factbook: Field listing – Location |work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|year=2009|accessdate=2009-05-03}}</ref> [[Encyclopedia Britannica]] and [[Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]] (1998).]]
[[File:Map of Central Europe.png|300px|thumb|Map of Central Europe|Central Europe according to German [[Mitteleuropa]], considering all political and cultural criteria <ref name="ReferenceA">Lonnie Johnson, [http://books.google.com/books/about/Central_Europe.html?id=e_m13Hk3AFEC&redir_esc=y ''Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends''], Oxford University Pres</ref>]]
[[File:Map of Central Europe.png|300px|thumb|Map of Central Europe|Central Europe according to German [[Mitteleuropa]], considering all political and cultural criteria.<ref name="ReferenceA">Lonnie Johnson, [http://books.google.com/books/about/Central_Europe.html?id=e_m13Hk3AFEC&redir_esc=y ''Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends''], Oxford University Pres</ref>]]
[[File:CentralEurope.png|thumb|300px|right|Central Europe according to P. Jones (Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography). Many Central European countries and regions were parts of the [[German Empire|German]] and the [[Austro-Hungarian]] empires, or the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]; thus they also have historical and cultural connections.]]
[[File:CentralEurope.png|thumb|300px|right|Central Europe according to P. Jones (Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography). Many Central European countries and regions were parts of the [[German Empire|German]] and the [[Austro-Hungarian]] empires, or the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; thus they also have historical and cultural connections.]]


'''Central Europe''' or alternatively '''Middle Europe''' is a region of the [[Europe]]an [[continent]] lying between the variously defined areas of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Western Europe]]. The term and widespread interest in the region itself came back into fashion<ref name=Economist>{{cite web|title=Central Europe — The future of the Visegrad group|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=E1_PRSTNSV|work=[[The Economist]]|date=2005-04-14|accessdate=2009-03-07}}</ref> by the end of the [[Cold War]], which had divided [[Europe]] politically into East and West, splitting Central Europe in half.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.jrank.org/pages/11016/Regions-Regionalism-Eastern-Europe-Future-Eastern-Europe.html |title=Regions, Regionalism, Eastern Europe by Steven Cassedy |publisher=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Charles Scribner's Sons |year=2005 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref><ref>[http://www.historyguide.org/europe/lecture14.html Lecture 14: The Origins of the Cold War]. Historyguide.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-29.</ref>
'''Central Europe''' or alternatively '''Middle Europe''' is a region of the [[Europe]]an [[continent]] lying between the variously defined areas of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Western Europe]]. The term and widespread interest in the region came back with the regeneration and [[gentrification]] of the region since 1989,<ref name=Economist>{{cite web|title=Central Europe — The future of the Visegrad group|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=E1_PRSTNSV|work=[[The Economist]]|date=2005-04-14|accessdate=2009-03-07}}</ref> the end of the [[Cold War]], which had divided [[Europe]] politically into the [[Eastern Bloc]] and the [[Western Bloc]], splitting Central Europe in half for 45 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.jrank.org/pages/11016/Regions-Regionalism-Eastern-Europe-Future-Eastern-Europe.html |title=Regions, Regionalism, Eastern Europe by Steven Cassedy |publisher=New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Charles Scribner's Sons |year=2005 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref><ref>[http://www.historyguide.org/europe/lecture14.html Lecture 14: The Origins of the Cold War]. Historyguide.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-29.</ref>


The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common [[Cultural identity|identity]], is somewhat elusive.<ref name="Agh 1998 pages=2–8">{{harvnb|Agh|1998|pages=2–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pehe.cz/prednasky/2002/central-european-identity-in-politics |title=Central European Identity in Politics — Jiří Pehe |language=Czech|publisher=Conference on Central European Identity, Central European Foundation, Bratislava |year=2002 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.culturelink.org/conf/cultid01/index.html |title=Europe of Cultures: Cultural Identity of Central Europe |publisher=Europe House Zagreb, Culturelink Network/IRMO |date=1996-11-24 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> However, scholars assert that a distinct "Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists".<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=k9IwimrMIQgC |title=Comparative Central European culture |publisher=Purdue University Press |year=2002|isbn=9781557532404|accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref><ref name="ceu.bard.edu">{{cite web|title=An Introduction to Central Europe: History, Culture, and Politics – Preparatory Course for Study Abroad Undergraduate Students at CEU|url=http://ceu.bard.edu/academic/documents/MandatorycourseonCentralEurope.pdf|work=[[Central European University]]|location=[[Budapest]]|date=Fall 2006}}</ref> It is based on "similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural [[Cultural heritage|characteristic]]s",<ref name="books.google.com"/><ref name="Ben Koschalka – content, Monika Lasota – design and coding">{{cite web|author=Ben Koschalka – content, Monika Lasota – design and coding |url=http://www.ces.uj.edu.pl/fiut/culture.htm |title=To Be (or Not To Be) Central European: 20th Century Central and Eastern European Literature |publisher=Centre for European Studies of the Jagiellonian University |accessdate=2010-01-31}}{{dead link|date=February 2012}}</ref> and it is identified as having been "one of the world's richest sources of creative talent" between the 17th and 20th centuries.<ref name="h-net.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/~habsweb/occasionalpapers/untaughtlessons.html |title=Ten Untaught Lessons about Central Europe-Charles Ingrao |publisher=HABSBURG Occasional Papers, No. 1. |year=1996 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> ''Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture'' characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide".<ref name="quod.lib.umich.edu">{{cite web|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/crossc/intro.html |title=Introduction to the electronic version of Cross Currents |publisher=Scholarly Publishing Office of the University of Michigan Library |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> Germany's ''Constant Committee for Geographical Names'' defines Central Europe both as a distinct [[cultural area]] and a political region.<ref name="StAGN.de">{{cite web|url=http://141.74.33.52/stagn/JordanEuropaRegional/tabid/71/Default.aspx |title=StAGN-Empfehlung zur Großgliederung Europas |publisher=StAGN.de |accessdate=2011-01-31}}</ref><ref name="docstoc.com">{{cite web | url=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/53115069/A-Subdivision-of-Europe-into-Larger-Regions-by-Cultural | title=A Subdivision of Europe into Larger Regions by Cultural Criteria | accessdate=2011-01-15}}</ref> [[George Schöpflin]] and others argue that Central Europe is defined by being "a part of [[Western Christianity]]",<ref name="ReferenceB">History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe: junctures and disjunctures in the 19th and 20th centuries, Volume 2 [http://books.google.com/books?id=5pAwqsSyTlsC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=George+Sch%C3%B6pflin+western+christianity&source=bl&ots=3VoR5q9GoR&sig=u26ochQIqarz0uvndPBT6ZAv0fg&hl=en&ei=zwi_TobmAsfDswbri4GFAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=George%20Sch%C3%B6pflin%20western%20christianity&f=false]</ref> while [[Samuel P. Huntington]] places the region firmly within [[Western culture]].<ref name="llull.cat">When identity becomes an alibi (Institut Ramon Llull) [www.llull.cat/rec_transfer/webt1/transfer01_essa05.pdf]</ref>
The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common [[Cultural identity|identity]], is somewhat elusive.<ref name="Agh 1998 pages=2–8">{{harvnb|Agh|1998|pages=2–8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pehe.cz/prednasky/2002/central-european-identity-in-politics |title=Central European Identity in Politics — Jiří Pehe |language=Czech|publisher=Conference on Central European Identity, Central European Foundation, Bratislava |year=2002 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.culturelink.org/conf/cultid01/index.html |title=Europe of Cultures: Cultural Identity of Central Europe |publisher=Europe House Zagreb, Culturelink Network/IRMO |date=1996-11-24 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> However, scholars assert that a distinct "Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists."<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=k9IwimrMIQgC |title=Comparative Central European culture |publisher=Purdue University Press |year=2002|isbn=9781557532404|accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref><ref name="ceu.bard.edu">{{cite web|title=An Introduction to Central Europe: History, Culture, and Politics – Preparatory Course for Study Abroad Undergraduate Students at CEU|url=http://ceu.bard.edu/academic/documents/MandatorycourseonCentralEurope.pdf|work=[[Central European University]]|location=[[Budapest]]|date=Fall 2006}}</ref> It is based on "similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural [[Cultural heritage|characteristic]]s",<ref name="books.google.com"/><ref name="Ben Koschalka – content, Monika Lasota – design and coding">{{cite web|author=Ben Koschalka – content, Monika Lasota – design and coding |url=http://www.ces.uj.edu.pl/fiut/culture.htm |title=To Be (or Not To Be) Central European: 20th Century Central and Eastern European Literature |publisher=Centre for European Studies of the Jagiellonian University |accessdate=2010-01-31}}{{dead link|date=February 2012}}</ref> and it is identified as having been "one of the world's richest sources of creative talent" between the 17th and 20th centuries.<ref name="h-net.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/~habsweb/occasionalpapers/untaughtlessons.html |title=Ten Untaught Lessons about Central Europe-Charles Ingrao |publisher=HABSBURG Occasional Papers, No. 1. |year=1996 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> ''Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture'' characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide".<ref name="quod.lib.umich.edu">{{cite web|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/crossc/intro.html |title=Introduction to the electronic version of Cross Currents |publisher=Scholarly Publishing Office of the University of Michigan Library |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> Germany's ''Constant Committee for Geographical Names'' defines Central Europe both as a distinct [[cultural area]] and a political region.<ref name="StAGN.de">{{cite web|url=http://141.74.33.52/stagn/JordanEuropaRegional/tabid/71/Default.aspx |title=StAGN-Empfehlung zur Großgliederung Europas |publisher=StAGN.de |accessdate=2011-01-31}}</ref><ref name="docstoc.com">{{cite web | url=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/53115069/A-Subdivision-of-Europe-into-Larger-Regions-by-Cultural | title=A Subdivision of Europe into Larger Regions by Cultural Criteria | accessdate=2011-01-15}}</ref> [[György Schöpflin|George Schöpflin]] and others argue that Central Europe is defined by being "a part of [[Western Christianity]]",<ref name="ReferenceB">History of the literary cultures of East-Central Europe: junctures and disjunctures in the 19th and 20th centuries, Volume 2 [http://books.google.com/books?id=5pAwqsSyTlsC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=George+Sch%C3%B6pflin+western+christianity&source=bl&ots=3VoR5q9GoR&sig=u26ochQIqarz0uvndPBT6ZAv0fg&hl=en&ei=zwi_TobmAsfDswbri4GFAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=George%20Sch%C3%B6pflin%20western%20christianity&f=false]</ref> while [[Samuel P. Huntington]] places the region firmly within [[Western culture]].<ref name="llull.cat">When identity becomes an alibi (Institut Ramon Llull) [www.llull.cat/rec_transfer/webt1/transfer01_essa05.pdf]</ref>


From the 2000s on, Central Europe has been going through a phase of "strategic awakening",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,610019,00.html |title=The Mice that Roared: Central Europe Is Reshaping Global Politics|publisher=Spiegel.de |date=26 February 2006 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> with initiatives like the [[Central European Initiative|CEI]], [[Centrope]] or [[Visegrád Group|V4]]. While the region's economy shows high disparities with regard to income,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.central2013.eu/about-central/regions/ |title=Which regions are covered? |publisher=European Regional Development Fund |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> all Central European countries are listed by the [[Human Development Index]] as [[developed country|"very high development"]] countries.<ref name="hdi">[http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf 2010 Human Development Index]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-10-29.</ref>
From the 1989 (decade) on, with initiatives like the [[Central European Initiative|CEI]] (1989), [[Visegrád Group|V4]] (1993) or [[Centrope]] (2003), Central Europe is going through a phase of "strategic awakening",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,610019,00.html |title=The Mice that Roared: Central Europe Is Reshaping Global Politics|publisher=Spiegel.de |date=26 February 2006 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> . While the region's economy shows high disparities with regard to income,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.central2013.eu/about-central/regions/ |title=Which regions are covered? |publisher=European Regional Development Fund |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> all Central European countries are listed by the [[Human Development Index]] as [[developed country|"very high development"]] countries.<ref name="hdi">[http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/14/hdr2013_en_complete.pdf 2013 Human Development Index]. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2014-01-24.</ref>


== States ==
== Countries ==


The comprehension of the concept of ''Central Europe'' is an ongoing source of controversy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1124570.html?refid=gg_x_02 |title=For the Record – The Washington Post – HighBeam Research |publisher=Highbeam.com |date=3 May 1990 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> though the [[Visegrád Group]] constituents are generally included as ''[[de facto]]'' C.E. countries.<ref name="From Visegrad to Mitteleuropa">{{cite news| url=http://www.economist.com/node/3871275?Story_ID=E1_PRSTNSV | work=The Economist | title=From Visegrad to Mitteleuropa | date=14 April 2005}}</ref>
The comprehension of the concept of ''Central Europe'' is an ongoing source of controversy,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1124570.html?refid=gg_x_02 |title=For the Record – The Washington Post – HighBeam Research |publisher=Highbeam.com |date=3 May 1990 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> though the [[Visegrád Group]] constituents are generally included as ''[[de facto]]'' C.E. countries.<ref name="From Visegrad to Mitteleuropa">{{cite news| url=http://www.economist.com/node/3871275?Story_ID=E1_PRSTNSV | work=The Economist | title=From Visegrad to Mitteleuropa | date=14 April 2005}}</ref>
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=== Countries classified as Central European ===
=== Countries classified as Central European ===


Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section [[Central Europe#Current views on Central Europe|Current views on Central Europe]]) the region includes:
According to the majority of sources (see section [[Central Europe#Current views on Central Europe|Current views on Central Europe]] for some) the region includes:
*{{flagcountry|Austria}}
*{{flag|Austria}}
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}
*{{flagcountry|Germany}}
*{{flag|Germany}}
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}}
*{{flag|Hungary}}
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}}
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
*{{flagcountry|Poland}}
*{{flag|Poland}}
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}}
*{{flag|Slovakia}}
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}}<ref name="Geopolitics of EU Enlargement">{{cite book|url=http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/kepek/netre/51.gif|title=Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire |page=165 |chapter=Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation |authors=Armstrong, Werwick. Anderson, James |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-30132-4}}</ref> (typically placed in Central Europe, or sometimes in [[Southeastern Europe]])<ref name="Armstrong2007">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.si/books?id=FWA3ppuOgK4C&pg=PA165 |title=Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire |page=165 |chapter=Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation |authors=Armstrong, Werwick. Anderson, James |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-30132-4}}</ref><ref name="Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia"/>
*{{flag|Slovenia}}<ref name="Geopolitics of EU Enlargement">{{cite book|url=http://terkepek.adatbank.transindex.ro/kepek/netre/51.gif|title=Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire |page=165 |chapter=Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation |authors=Armstrong, Werwick. Anderson, James |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-30132-4}}</ref> typically placed in Central Europe, or sometimes in [[Southeastern Europe]]<ref name="Armstrong2007">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.si/books?id=FWA3ppuOgK4C&pg=PA165 |title=Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire |page=165 |chapter=Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation |authors=Armstrong, Werwick. Anderson, James |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-30132-4}}</ref><ref name="Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia"/>
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}}
*{{flag|Switzerland}}


=== Countries (regions) occasionally included in Central Europe ===
=== Countries (regions) occasionally included in Central Europe ===
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Some sources also add neighbouring countries for historical (the former [[Austro-Hungarian Empire|Austro-Hungarian]] and [[German Empire]]s, and modern [[Baltic states]]), based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:
Some sources also add neighbouring countries for historical (the former [[Austro-Hungarian Empire|Austro-Hungarian]] and [[German Empire]]s, and modern [[Baltic states]]), based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:


*{{flagcountry|Croatia}}<ref name="ReferenceA">Lonnie Johnson, [http://books.google.com/books/about/Central_Europe.html?id=e_m13Hk3AFEC&redir_esc=y ''Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends''], Oxford University Pres</ref> alternatively it is placed in [[Southeastern Europe]].<ref name="Armstrong2007">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.si/books?id=FWA3ppuOgK4C&pg=PA165 |title=Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire |page=165 |chapter=Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation |authors=Armstrong, Werwick. Anderson, James |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-30132-4}}</ref><ref name="Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia">[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Map+of+europe Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]</ref><ref>[http://www.bpb.de/wissen/9EP84F Federal Agency for Civic Education Germany (german)]</ref><ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e48d7d6.html UNHCR - Croatia]</ref><ref>[http://international.fsu.edu/Types/College/Croatia/Default.aspx Florida Stats University - Croatian Program - Security & Cooperation in South Eastern Europe]</ref><ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/country/prordn/details_new.cfm?gv_PAY=HR&gv_reg=ALL&gv_PGM=1323&LAN=7&gv_per=2&gv_defL=7 European Commission - Development programmes - Operational Programme 'South East Europe (SEE)']</ref><ref>Andrew Geddes,Charles Lees,Andrew Taylor : ''"The European Union and South East Europe: The Dynamics of Europeanization and multilevel goverance"'', 2013, [[Routledge]]</ref><ref>Klaus Liebscher, Josef Christl, Peter Mooslechner, Doris Ritzberger-Grünwald : ''"European Economic Integration and South-East Europe: Challenges and Prospects"'', 2005, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited</ref>
*{{flag|Croatia}}<ref name="ReferenceA">Lonnie Johnson, [http://books.google.com/books/about/Central_Europe.html?id=e_m13Hk3AFEC&redir_esc=y ''Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends''], Oxford University Pres</ref> alternatively it is placed in [[Southeastern Europe]].<ref name="Armstrong2007">{{cite book |url=http://books.google.si/books?id=FWA3ppuOgK4C&pg=PA165 |title=Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire |page=165 |chapter=Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation |authors=Armstrong, Werwick. Anderson, James |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-134-30132-4}}</ref><ref name="Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia">[http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Map+of+europe Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]</ref><ref>[http://www.bpb.de/wissen/9EP84F Federal Agency for Civic Education Germany (german)]</ref><ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e48d7d6.html UNHCR - Croatia]</ref><ref>[http://international.fsu.edu/Types/College/Croatia/Default.aspx Florida Stats University - Croatian Program - Security & Cooperation in South Eastern Europe]</ref><ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/country/prordn/details_new.cfm?gv_PAY=HR&gv_reg=ALL&gv_PGM=1323&LAN=7&gv_per=2&gv_defL=7 European Commission - Development programmes - Operational Programme 'South East Europe (SEE)']</ref><ref>Andrew Geddes,Charles Lees,Andrew Taylor : ''"The European Union and South East Europe: The Dynamics of Europeanization and multilevel goverance"'', 2013, [[Routledge]]</ref><ref>Klaus Liebscher, Josef Christl, Peter Mooslechner, Doris Ritzberger-Grünwald : ''"European Economic Integration and South-East Europe: Challenges and Prospects"'', 2005, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited</ref>
*{{flagcountry|Romania}}<ref>https://www.google.com/search?q=central+europe+romania&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1#hl=en&tbo=1&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22ROMANIA+IS+IN+THE+SOUTHEASTERN+PART+OF+CENTRAL+EUROPE%22&oq=%22ROMANIA+IS+IN+THE+SOUTHEASTERN+PART+OF+CENTRAL+EUROPE%22&gs_l=serp.3...16472.18398.1.18584.3.3.0.0.0.0.78.200.3.3.0...0.0...1c.1.wbGIt7ADCVY&psj=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.&fp=6713caafbf43bae1&bpcl=37189454&biw=930&bih=593</ref><ref>United States. [[Foreign Broadcast Information Service]] [https://www.google.com/search?hl=ro&tbo=1&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22countries+in+central+europe+are%22&oq=%22countries+in+central+europe+are%22&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=serp.3...1.41835.3.42017.33.32.0.1.1.0.134.2664.24j8.32.0...0.0.NqdP75qeFiw&pbx=1&biw=1024&bih=653&cad=cbv&sei=18rdT4qVPI2TswaRiqWhDQ#hl=ro&tbo=1&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22Romania+is+a+Central+European+country+(just+as+Poland)%22&oq=%22Romania+is+a+Central+European+country+(just+as+Poland)%22&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=serp.3...9367.9367.0.9667.1.1.0.0.0.0.78.78.1.1.0...0.0.LH73C_4YV08&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=a55f214c2aac387c&biw=1024&bih=653 ''Daily report: East Europe'']</ref><ref>Council of Europe. Parliamentary Assembly [http://books.google.ro/books?id=xH1gJ_OonGUC&pg=PA1579&dq=%22Romania+is+a+Central+European+country%22&hl=ro&sa=X&ei=WxXbT_f9J47htQaX5qWkCQ&sqi=2&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22Romania%20is%20a%20Central%20European%20country%22&f=false ''Official Report of Debates'']</ref>
*{{flag|Romania}}<ref>https://www.google.com/search?q=central+europe+romania&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1#hl=en&tbo=1&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22ROMANIA+IS+IN+THE+SOUTHEASTERN+PART+OF+CENTRAL+EUROPE%22&oq=%22ROMANIA+IS+IN+THE+SOUTHEASTERN+PART+OF+CENTRAL+EUROPE%22&gs_l=serp.3...16472.18398.1.18584.3.3.0.0.0.0.78.200.3.3.0...0.0...1c.1.wbGIt7ADCVY&psj=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.&fp=6713caafbf43bae1&bpcl=37189454&biw=930&bih=593</ref><ref>United States. [[Foreign Broadcast Information Service]] [https://www.google.com/search?hl=ro&tbo=1&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22countries+in+central+europe+are%22&oq=%22countries+in+central+europe+are%22&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=serp.3...1.41835.3.42017.33.32.0.1.1.0.134.2664.24j8.32.0...0.0.NqdP75qeFiw&pbx=1&biw=1024&bih=653&cad=cbv&sei=18rdT4qVPI2TswaRiqWhDQ#hl=ro&tbo=1&tbm=bks&sclient=psy-ab&q=%22Romania+is+a+Central+European+country+(just+as+Poland)%22&oq=%22Romania+is+a+Central+European+country+(just+as+Poland)%22&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_l=serp.3...9367.9367.0.9667.1.1.0.0.0.0.78.78.1.1.0...0.0.LH73C_4YV08&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=a55f214c2aac387c&biw=1024&bih=653 ''Daily report: East Europe'']</ref><ref>Council of Europe. Parliamentary Assembly [http://books.google.ro/books?id=xH1gJ_OonGUC&pg=PA1579&dq=%22Romania+is+a+Central+European+country%22&hl=ro&sa=X&ei=WxXbT_f9J47htQaX5qWkCQ&sqi=2&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22Romania%20is%20a%20Central%20European%20country%22&f=false ''Official Report of Debates'']</ref>
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} ([[Vojvodina]], [[Mačva]] and [[Belgrade]]<ref name="Vojvodina.gov.rs">{{cite web|url=http://www.vojvodina.gov.rs/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=174&Itemid=83 |title=Vlada Autonomne Pokrajine Vojvodine – Index |publisher=Vojvodina.gov.rs |date=27 January 2010 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> historically also [[Sandžak]],<ref name="mtholyoke.edu">[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos128.htm The Austrian Occupation of Novibazar, 1878–1909]. Mtholyoke.edu. Retrieved on 2011-10-29.</ref> [[Šumadija]] and [[Braničevo (region)|Braničevo]], and at various times [[Central Serbia]])<ref name="conflicts.rem33.com">http://www.conflicts.rem33.com/images/Ungarn/OESTEREICH%20ENTWICKLUNG.jpg</ref>
*{{flag|Serbia}} ([[Vojvodina]], [[Mačva]] and [[Belgrade]]<ref name="Vojvodina.gov.rs">{{cite web|url=http://www.vojvodina.gov.rs/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=174&Itemid=83 |title=Vlada Autonomne Pokrajine Vojvodine – Index |publisher=Vojvodina.gov.rs |date=27 January 2010 |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> historically also [[Sandžak]],<ref name="mtholyoke.edu">[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos128.htm The Austrian Occupation of Novibazar, 1878–1909]. Mtholyoke.edu. Retrieved on 2011-10-29.</ref> [[Šumadija]] and [[Braničevo (region)|Braničevo]], and at various times [[Central Serbia]])<ref name="conflicts.rem33.com">http://www.conflicts.rem33.com/images/Ungarn/OESTEREICH%20ENTWICKLUNG.jpg</ref>


The [[Baltic states]], geographically located in [[Northern Europe]], have been considered part of Central Europe in the German tradition of the term, [[Mittleuropa]].
The [[Baltic states]], geographically located in [[Northern Europe]], have been considered part of Central Europe in the German tradition of the term, [[Mittleuropa]].
Line 40: Line 40:


Smaller parts of the following states may sometimes be included:
Smaller parts of the following states may sometimes be included:
*{{flag|Ukraine}} ([[West Ukraine]])
*{{flagcountry|Ukraine}} ([[Zakarpatska Oblast]], [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] and northern [[Bukovina]])
*{{flagcountry|Belarus}} ([[Grodno Region|Hrodna]] and [[Brest Region|Brest Voblast]])
*{{flag|Belarus}} ([[West Belarus]])
*{{flagcountry|Russia}} ([[Kaliningrad Oblast]])
*{{flag|Russia}} ([[Kaliningrad Oblast]])
*{{flagcountry|France}} ([[Alsace]] and portions of [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]])
*{{flag|France}} ([[Alsace]] and portions of [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]])
*{{flagcountry|Italy}} ([[South Tyrol]], [[Trentino]], [[Trieste]] and [[Gorizia]], [[Friuli]], occasionally all of Northern Italy)
*{{flag|Italy}} ([[South Tyrol]], [[Trentino]], [[Trieste]] and [[Gorizia]], [[Friuli]], occasionally all of Northern Italy)
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} ([[Transylvania]]<ref>Sven Tägil, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ll-6JYQyPsIC&pg=PA191&dq=Transylvania+%22Central+Europe%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ly7HT_mtM4mZhQeQiM2NCw&sqi=2&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Transylvania%20%22Central%20Europe%22&f=false Regions in Central Europe: The Legacy of History], C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999, p. 191</ref> and [[Bukovina]]<ref>Klaus Peter Berger, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gEeP9NY2qGkC&pg=PA132&dq=Bukovina+part+of++%22Central+Europe%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aDHHT7-aCYee8gOV4Iz5DQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=partof%20Central%20Europe&f=false The Creeping Codification of the New Lex Mercatoria], Kluwer Law International, 2010, p. 132</ref><!--Sources presented above attest that Tr and Buk are in CE, but do not say that the rest of Rom is in EE. No sources yet that split the country between CE and EE.-->)
*{{flag|Romania}} ([[Transylvania]]<ref>Sven Tägil, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ll-6JYQyPsIC&pg=PA191&dq=Transylvania+%22Central+Europe%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ly7HT_mtM4mZhQeQiM2NCw&sqi=2&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Transylvania%20%22Central%20Europe%22&f=false Regions in Central Europe: The Legacy of History], C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1999, p. 191</ref> and Southern [[Bukovina]]<ref>Klaus Peter Berger, [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gEeP9NY2qGkC&pg=PA132&dq=Bukovina+part+of++%22Central+Europe%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aDHHT7-aCYee8gOV4Iz5DQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=partof%20Central%20Europe&f=false The Creeping Codification of the New Lex Mercatoria], Kluwer Law International, 2010, p. 132</ref><!--Sources presented above attest that Tr and Buk are in CE, but do not say that the rest of Rom is in EE. No sources yet that split the country between CE and EE.-->)
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} ([[Vojvodina]], [[Mačva]] and [[Belgrade]]<ref name="Vojvodina.gov.rs"/> historically also [[Sandžak]],<ref name="mtholyoke.edu"/> [[Šumadija]] and [[Braničevo (region)|Braničevo]], and at various times [[Central Serbia]])<ref name="conflicts.rem33.com"/>
*{{flag|Serbia}} ([[Vojvodina]], [[Mačva]] and [[Belgrade]]<ref name="Vojvodina.gov.rs"/> historically also [[Sandžak]],<ref name="mtholyoke.edu"/> [[Šumadija]] and [[Braničevo (region)|Braničevo]], and at various times [[Central Serbia]])<ref name="conflicts.rem33.com"/>


==General data==
==General data==
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==Economy==
==Economy==
[[Industrialisation]] reached Central Europe early: Luxembourg and Germany by 1860, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland by 1870, Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia by 1880.<ref>http://srufaculty.sru.edu/james.hughes/100/100-5/d-5-19.htm</ref> Depending on a definition of, most of these countries are considered [[Developed country|developed]].
Countries with 'Very high' score in [[Human Development Index|HDI]], [[OECD]] membership, [[International Monetary Fund|IMF's]] 'Advanced Economies', [[DAC]] membership and [[World Bank|WB's]] 'High income economies':
*{{flag|Austria}}
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}
*{{flag|Germany}}
*{{flag|Luxembourg}}
*{{flag|Slovakia}}
*{{flag|Slovenia}}
*{{flag|Switzerland}}
'Very high' score in [[Human Development Index|HDI]], [[OECD]] membership, [[DAC]] membership and [[World Bank|WB's]] 'High income economies':
*{{flag|Poland}}
'Very high' score in [[Human Development Index|HDI]], [[DAC]] membership and [[World Bank|WB's]] 'High income economies':
*{{flag|Croatia}}
Countries with 'Very high' score in [[Human Development Index|HDI]] and [[OECD]] membership:
*{{flag|Hungary}}
'Very high' score in [[Human Development Index|HDI]]:
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
'High' score in [[Human Development Index|HDI]]:
*{{flag|Romania}}
*{{flag|Serbia}}

===Gross Domestic Product===

====Nominal====
[[File:Map of countries by GDP (nominal) in US$.png|thumb|300px|Countries by GDP (nominal) according to the ''[[CIA World Factbook]]''.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2195.html|title=GDP (Official Exchange Rate)|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]|accessdate=June 2, 2012}}</ref>]]
Central European countries are generally wealthy in terms of nominal GDP (in millions, 2012):<ref>http://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/dnltransfer.asp?fID=2</ref>
*{{flag|Germany}}: 3,425,956 US$ (4th)
*{{flag|Switzerland}}: 631,183 US$ (20th)
*{{flag|Poland}}: 489,852 US$ (24th)
*{{flag|Austria}}: 394,458 US$ (27th)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}: 196,446 US$ (49th)
*{{flag|Romania}}: 169,396 US$ (54th)
*{{flag|Hungary}}: 124,600 US$ (58th)
*{{flag|Slovakia}}: 91,349 (62nd)
*{{flag|Croatia}}: 56,447 US$ (71st)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}}: 55,143 US$ (72nd)
*{{flag|Slovenia}}: 45,380 US$ (79th)
*{{flag|Serbia}}: 38,491 US$ (87th)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}}: 5,827 US$ (147th)

====Purchasing Power Parity====
Countries in Central Europe have generally much different GDP purchasing power parity when compared to the nominal GDP (in trillions, World Bank, 2012):<ref>http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD/countries/order%3Dwbapi_data_value_2012%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last?order=wbapi_data_value_2012%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_value-last&sort=desc&display=default</ref>
*{{flag|Germany}}: 3,349 US$ (6th)
*{{flag|Poland}}: 854 US$ (18th)
*{{flag|Switzerland}}: 427 US$ (31st)
*{{flag|Austria}}: 374 US$ (37th)
*{{flag|Romania}}: 352 US$ (38th)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}: 280 US$ (47th)
*{{flag|Hungary}}: 220 US$ (52nd)
*{{flag|Slovakia}}: 137 US$ (62nd)
*{{flag|Croatia}}: 88 US$ (73rd)
*{{flag|Serbia}}: 83 US$ (74th)
*{{flag|Slovenia}}: 57 US$ (85th)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}}: 48.6 US$ (92nd)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}}: 3.2 US$ (168th) in 2009 (CIA)<ref>https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2001.html</ref>

====Nominal per capita====
[[File:BNP perhoofd 2012.PNG|thumb|300px|Countries by 2012 [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|GDP (nominal) per capita]].<ref>Based on the IMF figures. If no number was available for a country from IMF, CIA figures were used.</ref>
{|width="100%"
|-
| valign=top | {{legend|#400000|over $102,400}} {{legend|#800000|$51,200–102,400}} {{legend|#a00000|$25,600–51,200}} {{legend|#d00000|$12,800–25,600}} {{legend|#fd2a00|$6,400–12,800}} {{legend|#fe7733|$3,200–6,400}}
| valign=top | {{legend|#fea933|$1,600–3,200}} {{legend|#fed24c|$800–1,600}} {{legend|#feff33|$400–800}} {{legend|#ffffa6|below $400}} {{legend|white|unavailable}}
|}
]]
Gross domestic product (nominal) in GDP varies in central Europe from middle to high
(UN, 2012):<ref>National Accounts Main Aggregates Database, December 2013, United Nations Statistics Division. Accessed on 13 December 2013.</ref>
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}}: 158,977 US$ (1st)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}}: 105,287 US$ (3rd)
*{{flag|Switzerland}}: 78,924 US$ (6th)
*{{flag|Austria}}: 46,604 US$ (16th)
*{{flag|Germany}}: 41,376 US$ (23rd)
*{{flag|Slovenia}}: 21,947 US$ (38th)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}: 18,428 US$ (43rd)
*{{flag|Slovakia}}: 16,774 US$ (46th)
*{{flag|Croatia}}: 13,105 US$ (57th)
*{{flag|Poland}}: 12,820 US$ (58th)
*{{flag|Hungary}}: 12,490 US$ (60th)
*{{flag|Romania}}: 7,787 US$ (75th)
*{{flag|Serbia}}: 5,315 US$ (100th)

====PPP per capita====
[[File:Gdpercapita.PNG|thumb|300px|Countries by 2011 GDP (PPP) per capita, based on World Bank figures; if no IMF/World Bank figure was available for a country, the CIA figure was used.]]
Gross Domestic Power demonstrates that some Central European countries tend to have either much lower or higher rate of GDP in purchasing power parity (World Bank, 2012):<ref>Data refer mostly to the year 2012. "GDP per capita, PPP (current international $)", World Development Indicators database, World Bank. Database updated on 23 September 2013. Accessed on 9 October 2013.</ref>
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} 89,400 Int$ (not ranked), according to the CIA (2009)<ref>GDP - per capita (PPP), The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency. Accessed on 9 October 2013.</ref>
*{{flag|Luxembourg}}: 91,388 Int$ (1st)
*{{flag|Switzerland}}: 53,367 Int$ (5th)
*{{flag|Austria}}: 44,208 Int$ (10th)
*{{flag|Germany}}: 40,901 Int$ (17th)
*{{flag|Slovenia}}: 27,475 Int$ (34th)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}: 26,590 Int$ (37th)
*{{flag|Slovakia}}: 25,300 Int$ (41st)
*{{flag|Poland}}: 22,162 Int$ (47th)
*{{flag|Hungary}}: 22,119 Int$ (48th)
*{{flag|Croatia}}: 20,532 Int$ (50th)
*{{flag|Romania}}: 16,518 Int$ (60th)
*{{flag|Serbia}}: 11,544 Int$ (76th)

===Gini coefficient===
[[File:Wealth gini 2013 .svg|thumb|300px|Map of Wealth Inequality, 2013]]
Central Europe is generally characterised by a [[List of countries by distribution of wealth|low wealth inequality]]. The countries with lowest GINI inequality rate: [[Slovenia]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], Luxembourg, Romania, Hungary, Poland and Germany. The rate in Switzerland is 4th highest in the world.


===Currencies===
===Currencies===
{{Main|List of currencies in Europe}}
Currently, the members of the [[Eurozone]] include: Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania use their currencies (Bulgarian lev, Croatian kuna, Czech koruna, Hungarian forint, Polish złoty, Romanian leu), but are obliged to adopt the Euro.
Currently, the members of the [[Eurozone]] include: Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia and Slovenia. Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania use their currencies but are obliged to adopt the Euro:
*[[Croatian kuna]] (HRK: 1 kn = 100 lipa)
*[[Czech koruna]] (CZK: 1 Kč = haléř[ů])
*[[Hungarian forint]] (HUF: 1 Ft = fillér [defunct])
*[[Polish złoty]] (PLN: 1 zł = 100 grosz[y])
*[[Romanian leu]] (RON: 1 lei = 100 ban[i])
Liechtenstein, Serbia and Switzerland use their own currencies:
*[[Serbian dinar]] (RSD or РСД: RSD/РСД [unofficially ''din'' or ''дин''] = 100 para)
*[[Swiss franc]] (Liechtenstein and Switzerland) (CHF: 1 CHF = 100 Rap[pen]/centime/ centesimo)


===Human Development Index===
===Human Development Index===
Line 74: Line 183:
| {{legend|#A8C3FF|Medium}} ||
| {{legend|#A8C3FF|Medium}} ||
|}]]
|}]]
Countries in descending order of [[Human Development Index]] (2013 data):<ref name="hdi"/>
Countries in descending order of the [[Human Development Index]] (2013 data):<ref name="hdi"/>
*{{Flag|Germany}}: 0.920 (ranked 5)
*{{Flag|Germany}}: 0.920 (ranked 5)
*{{Flag|Switzerland}}: 0.913 (ranked 9)
*{{Flag|Switzerland}}: 0.913 (ranked 9)
Line 91: Line 200:
===Globalisation===
===Globalisation===
[[File:Globalization Index.svg|thumb|right|300px|Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization Index.]]
[[File:Globalization Index.svg|thumb|right|300px|Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization Index.]]
The [[Globalisation index|index of globalization]] in Central European countries (2013 data)<ref>[http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/static/pdf/rankings_2012.pdf ]{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref>
The [[Globalisation index|index of globalization]] of Central European countries (2013 data)<ref>[http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/static/pdf/rankings_2012.pdf ]{{dead link|date=July 2013}}</ref>


*{{Flag|Austria}}: 89.48 (ranked 4)
*{{Flag|Austria}}: 89.48 (ranked 4)
Line 105: Line 214:
*{{Flag|Serbia}}: 64.90 (ranked 53)
*{{Flag|Serbia}}: 64.90 (ranked 53)
*{{Flag|Liechtenstein}}: 52.88 (not officially ranked: 101)
*{{Flag|Liechtenstein}}: 52.88 (not officially ranked: 101)

===Innovation===
In the [[Bloomberg Innovation Index]] ranking 50 most innovative countries<ref>http://wyborcza.biz/biznes/1,100896,15324289,Ranking_najbardziej_innowacyjnych_krajow__Zaskakujaco.html#BoxBizTxt</ref>, most countries in Central Europe were mentioned:<ref>http://images.businessweek.com/bloomberg/pdfs/most_innovative_countries_2014_011714.pdf</ref>
*{{Flag|Germany}} (ranked 5th)
*{{Flag|Switzerland}} (ranked 8th)
*{{Flag|Austria}} (ranked 17th)
*{{Flag|Luxembourg}} (ranked 21st)
*{{Flag|Czech Republic}} (ranked 23rd)
*{{Flag|Poland}} (ranked 24th)
*{{Flag|Hungary}} (ranked 26th)
*{{Flag|Slovenia}} (ranked 31st)
*{{Flag|Romania}} (ranked 37th)
*{{Flag|Croatia}} (ranked 43rd)
*{{Flag|Slovakia}} (ranked 46th)
*{{Flag|Liechtenstein}} (not ranked amongst top 50 countries)
*{{Flag|Serbia}} (not ranked amongst top 50 countries)


===Prosperity Index===
===Prosperity Index===
[[Legatum Prosperity Index]] demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe:<ref>http://www.prosperity.com/</ref>
[[Legatum Prosperity Index]] demonstrates an average to a high level of prosperity in Central Europe:<ref>http://www.prosperity.com/</ref>
*{{Flag|Switzerland}} (ranked 2)
*{{Flag|Switzerland}} (ranked 2)
*{{Flag|Luxembourg}} (ranked 10)
*{{Flag|Luxembourg}} (ranked 10)
Line 153: Line 278:
*{{Flag|Romania}} (ranked 69)
*{{Flag|Romania}} (ranked 69)
*{{Flag|Serbia}} (ranked 72)
*{{Flag|Serbia}} (ranked 72)
*{{Flag|Liechtenstein}} (not ranked)


According to the [[Bribe Payers Index]], released yearly since 1995 by the [[Berlin]]-based NGO [[Transparency International]], Germany, and Switzerland—the only two Central European countries examined in the study—were respectively ranked 2nd and 4th in 2011.<ref>http://bpi.transparency.org/bpi2011/results/</ref>
According to the [[Bribe Payers Index]], released annually since 1995 by the Berlin-based NGO [[Transparency International]], Switzerland and Germany (the only two Central European countries examined in the study) were ranked respectively 2nd and 4th in 2011.<ref>http://bpi.transparency.org/bpi2011/results/</ref>


===Infrastructure===
===Infrastructure===
Industrialisation occurred early in Central Europe. That caused construction of rail and other types of infrastructure.
[[Industrialisation]] reached Central Europe very early. That caused construction of rail and other types of infrastructure.


====Rail====
====Rail====
[[Image:Rail density map.png|thumb|300px|Rail network density.]]
[[Image:Rail density map.png|thumb|300px|Rail network density.]]
Rail infrastructure is the densest in the world. Railway density, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, is the highest in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary (98.7), Romania (85.9), Slovakia (73.9), Croatia (72.5) and Serbia (43.1), when compared with most of Europe and the rest of the world.<ref>http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Inland_transport_infrastructure_at_regional_level</ref><ref>http://w3.unece.org/pxweb/quickstatistics/readtable.asp?qs_id=47</ref>
The use of began with the opening of the steam-hauled [[Bavarian Ludwig Railway]] between [[Nuremberg]] and [[Fürth]] on 7 December 1835. This event opened a wide introduction of the technology in the part of Europe. The rail infrastructure is Central Europe is very dense. Railway density, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1000 km2, is much higher in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary (98.7), Romania (85.9), Slovakia (73.9), Croatia (72.5) and Serbia (43.1), then the average in Europe and the rest of the world.<ref>http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Inland_transport_infrastructure_at_regional_level</ref><ref>http://w3.unece.org/pxweb/quickstatistics/readtable.asp?qs_id=47</ref>


===Branches===
===Branches===
[[File:Map and Scatterplot of countries by Economic Complexity..jpg|thumb|300px|Map and Scatterplot of Countries by Economic Complexity]]This list orders countries by their [[economic complexity index]] (ECI), as it was defined and calculated by [[Ricardo Hausmann]], Cesar Hidalgo and other contributors based mainly at the Harvard-MIT [[The Observatory of Economic Complexity|Observatory of Economic Complexity]].
Compared to most of Europe, the economies of Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Hungary, the Slovak Republic, Poland, Croatia and Romania tend to demonstrate [[List of countries by economic complexity|high complexity]]. Industrialisation has reached Central Europe early relatively early: Luxembourg and Germany by 1860, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland by 1870, Austria, Croatia Hungary, Liechtenstein, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia by 1880.<ref>http://srufaculty.sru.edu/james.hughes/100/100-5/d-5-19.htm</ref>
Compared to most of Europe, the economies of Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Hungary, the Slovak Republic, Poland, Croatia and Romania tend to demonstrate [[List of countries by economic complexity|high complexity]].<ref>http://atlas.media.mit.edu/rankings/</ref> The ranking includes:
*{{flag|Germany}} (2nd)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (3rd)
*{{flag|Austria}} (5th)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (8th)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (10th)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (14th)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (15th)
*{{flag|Poland}} (25th)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (26th)
*{{flag|Romania}} (27th)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (37th)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (not ranked)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (not ranked)


====Agriculture====
====Agriculture====
Central European countries are some of the most [[significant food producers]] in the world. The Czech Republic is world's fourth largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Germany is the world's largest hops producer, third producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, sixth largest milk producer, fifth largest potato producer. Hungary is world's fifth hops and seventh largest [[triticale]] producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberry, currant, and rye, third largest, fifth apple and buckwheat producer, seventh largest potatoes producer. Slovenia is world's sixth hops producer.
Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. The Czech Republic is world's 4th largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Germany is the world's largest hops producer, 3rd producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, 5th largest potato producer. Hungary is world's 5th hops and 7th largest triticale producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberry, currant and rye, 3rd largest, 5th apple and buckwheat producer, 7th largest potatoes producer. Slovenia is world's 6th hops producer.


====Tourism====
====Tourism====
Central European countries, especially Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Luxembourg are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.<ref>http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TravelTourismCompetitiveness_Report_2011.pdf</ref> Poland is presently a major destination for outsourcing.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/23/business/international/midsize-cities-in-poland-develop-as-service-hubs-for-outsourcing-industry.html?_r=0</ref>
Switzerland, Germany, Austria and Luxembourg are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.<ref>http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TravelTourismCompetitiveness_Report_2011.pdf</ref>


====Outsourcing destination====
====Outsourcing destination====
[[Kraków]], [[Warsaw]], and [[Wroclaw]], Poland; [[Prague]] and [[Brno]], Czech Republic; [[Budapest]], Hungary; [[Bucharest]], Romania; [[Bratislava]], Slovakia; [[Ljubljana]], Slovenia; [[Lviv]], Ukraine; and [[Zagreb]], Croatia, are among the world's top 100 outsourcing destinations.<ref>http://www.tholons.com/TholonsTop100/pdf/Tholons%20Top%20100%202013_Rankings%20and%20Report%20Overview.pdf</ref>
Kraków, Prague, Budapest, Brno, Warsaw, Bucharest, Bratislava, Kyiv, Ljubljana, Wroclaw and Lviv are amongst Tholons top 100 outsourcing destinations.<ref>http://www.tholons.com/nl_pdf/Whitepaper_December_2013.pdf</ref> Poland is currently a major destination for outsourcing business services.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/23/business/international/midsize-cities-in-poland-develop-as-service-hubs-for-outsourcing-industry.html?_r=0</ref>

==Human rights==
{{Main|Human rights in Europe}}
Central European countries generally have a good record on human rights, with a long-standing history. [[Golden Bull of 1222]] of Hungary defines the first time the rights of citizens (however, limited to gentry), the [[Statute of Kalisz|General Charter of Jewish Liberties]] (Statute of Kalisz) introduced numerous right for the Jews in [[Poland]], leading to an autonomous "nation within a nation", and [[Warsaw Confederation]] confirmed the religious freedom of all residents of Poland In 1781, [[Serfdom]] is abolished in the [[Habsburg]] countries through the emperor [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]]. Countries in Central Europe have either medium of low risk of human rights risk.<ref>http://maplecroft.com/portfolio/new-analysis/2013/12/04/70-increase-countries-identified-extreme-risk-human-rights-2008-bhuman-rights-risk-atlas-2014b/</ref>

===Children===
{{Main|Children's rights}}
[[File:Map of domestic corporal punishment abolition.svg|thumb|right|300px|{{legend|#C83737|Countries that have explicitly abolished all forms of corporal punishment of children.}}]]
[[Corporal punishment]] is either prohibited or considered a criminal offence in most of Central Europe's countries, in all settings ([[School corporal punishment|school]] and [[Corporal punishment in the home|home]]):<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/frame.html</ref>
*{{flag|Poland}} (in schools since 1783 and unlawful since 1964,<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/poland.html</ref> since 2010 criminalised in all of its forms)<ref>http://www.corpun.com/rules2.htm#poland</ref>
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (in the home 1811, illegal since 1985, explicitly criminalised in all forms since 2008)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/liechtenstein.html</ref>
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (since 1845 prohibited in schools and since 2008 in all its forms)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/luxembourg.html</ref>
*{{flag|Romania}} (in schools prohibited since 1948 and unlawful since 1991, since 2004 forbidden in all its forms)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/romania.html</ref>
*{{flag|Austria}} (in schools banned since 1974, since 1989 in all of its forms)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/austria.html</ref>
*{{flag|Germany}} (in schools banned gradually in the period 1975-1983, since 2000 in all of its forms)<ref>http://www.corpun.com/desc8707.htm</ref>
*{{flag|Hungary}} (in schools prohibited since 1993, since 2004 illegal in all its forms)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/hungary.html</ref>
*{{flag|Croatia}} (since 1999 prohibited in schools and since 2003 in the home)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/prohib_states.html#croatia</ref><ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/croatia.html</ref>
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (in schools prohibited since 1996 and in the home since 2008)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/slovenia.html</ref>
Laws partially banning or outlawing corporal punishments have been introduced in the following countries:
*{{flag|Serbia}} (in schools prohibited since 1929 and criminalised since 1992)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/serbia.html</ref>
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (in schools unlawful since 1993)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/switzerland.html</ref>
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (in schools prohibited since 2008)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/slovakia.html</ref>
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (in schools abolished in 1870<ref>http://www.rodina.cz/clanek6479.htm</ref>, partly prohibited in the home since 2014)<ref>http://www.endcorporalpunishment.org/pages/progress/reports/czech.html</ref>

===Civil rights===
{{Main|Civil rights}}
All countries in Central Europe are ranked 'free', according to the [[Freedom in the World]] reports.

===Death penalty===
[[Capital punishment]], as an irrevocable punishment prone to miscarriage of justice and degrading treatment of a human being, has been formally [[Use of capital punishment by country|abolished]] in all countries of Central Europe for all offences by 2006.

===LGBT===
{{Main|LGBT rights by country or territory}}
LGBT people in Central Europe may face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. All of the countries of the region have signed the [[LGBT rights at the United Nations|LGBT rights Declaration]], rights of heterosexual citizens are unavailable to LGBT people. None of Central European countries is on the list of countries with state-sponsored homophobia.<ref>http://ilga.org/historic/Statehomophobia/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2009.pdf</ref> Some of the prominent living people in Central Europe are gay: [[Ulrike Lunacek]] (Austria), [[Guido Westerwelle]] (Germany), [[Xavier Bettel]] (Luxembourg) and [[Robert Biedroń]] (Poland).
Homosexuality is legal in all countries of Central Europe (since):
*{{flag|Poland}} (never criminalised under Polish jurisdiction,<ref>illegal under [[Partitions of Poland|the Partitions]] in Austria and Germany and in Russia since 1835 by a decree of the tsar Nicolas I</ref> and confirmed legal in 1932)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (1794)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (1942)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (1961)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (1961)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (1961)
*{{flag|Germany}} (1967-68 in all Germany)
*{{flag|Austria}} (1971)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (1977)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (1977)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (1989)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (1994)
*{{flag|Romania}} (1996)

Transgender rights are very well-developed in some countries of Central Europe.<ref>http://www.ilga-europe.org/home/news/latest/idaho_2013/trans_map_index_2013</ref> A transgender Pole [[Anna Grodzka]] has become an MP in the [[Polish parliamentary election, 2011|2011 Polish parliamentary elections]].
*{{flag|Austria}}, {{flag|Germany}}, {{flag|Hungary}} and {{flag|Poland}} - recognise gender change and require no sterilisation
*{{flag|Croatia}}, {{flag|Czech Republic}}, {{flag|Luxembourg}}, {{flag|Romania}}, {{flag|Slovakia}} and {{flag|Switzerland}} - recognise gender change, but require sterilisation
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}}, {{flag|Serbia}} and {{flag|Slovenia}} have no gender recognition
There has been cases of [[hate crime]] assaults on transgender people or harassment.<ref>http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/may/17/transgender-mp-voices-heard</ref> In the period between 2008 and 2012, 2 transgender people have been murdered in Germany, 1 person in Poland and 1 in Serbia.<ref>http://www.transrespect-transphobia.org/en_US/tvt-project/tmm-results/march-2013.htm</ref>

===Slavery===
[[File:Modern incidence of slavery.png|thumb|300px|Modern incidence of slavery, as a percentage of the population, by country. Estimates from the [[Walk Free Foundation]]. Estimates by sources with broader definitions of slavery will be higher.]]
The issue of slavery was specifically addressed in:
*{{flag|Germany}} (~1220 condemned by [[Sachsenspiegel]], the most influential German law journal, and in 1946, slavery was first [[Nuremberg trials|persecuted]] as by the procurer of [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|forced labour during the WW2]], [[Fritz Sauckel]])<ref>"Forced and Slave Labour in Nazi-Dominated Europe, 1933 to 1945", United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Symposium (2002)</ref>
*{{flag|Poland}} (banned since 1588)<ref>{{cite book |title =The union of Lublin, Polish federalism in the golden age |first=Harry E. |last=Dembkowski |publisher=East European Monographs, 1982 |isbn= 978-0-88033-009-1 |page=271 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=svAaAAAAMAAJ&q=poland+lithuania+1588+slavery&dq=poland+lithuania+1588+slavery |year =1982 }}</ref>
*{{flag|Serbia}} (since 1835, yet there are claims that slavery did not exist in Serbia, except the Ottoman occupation)<ref>Serbian: http://serbum.com/?p=1253</ref>
According to the [[Walk Free Foundation]], modern slavery, defined as: "the possession and control of a person in such a way as to significantly deprive that person of his or her individual liberty, with the intent of exploiting that person through their use, management, profit, transfer or disposal. Usually this exercise will be achieved through means such as violence or threats of violence, deception and/or coercion."<ref>http://www.globalslaveryindex.org/</ref> In Central Europe results showed low to medium degree of slavery. The position of countries in the degree of slavery is as following:
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (54th=)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (54th=)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (59th)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (61st=)
*{{flag|Poland}} (61st=)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (61st=)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (67th)
*{{flag|Romania}} (125th)
*{{flag|Germany}} (136th)
*{{flag|Austria}} (150th=)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (150th=)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (150th=)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (not ranked)

===Human trafficking===
{{Main|Human trafficking}}
[[File:Trafficking-in-persons-map-2011.png|thumb|300px|Findings of the legislative framework in place in different countries to prevent/reduce human trafficking. The findings are from the 2011 (old map) [[United States Department of State|Department of State]] [[Trafficking in Persons Report]]]]
The issue of human trafficking is relatively rare in Central Europe, according to the [[Trafficking in Persons Report]] (2013):<ref name=TIPreport2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2013/|title=Trafficking in Persons Report 2013|publisher=U.S. Department of State|year=2013}}</ref>
*classified as 'Tier 1' countries:<ref>TIER 1: Countries whose governments fully comply with the Trafficking Victims Protection Act’s (TVPA) minimum standards.</ref>
**{{flag|Austria}}
**{{flag|Czech Republic}}
**{{flag|Germany}}
**{{flag|Luxembourg}}
**{{flag|Poland}}
**{{flag|Slovakia}}
**{{flag|Slovenia}}
*classified as 'Tier 2' countries:<ref>TIER 2: Countries whose governments do not fully comply with the TVPA’s minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards.</ref>
**{{flag|Croatia}}
**{{flag|Hungary}}
**{{flag|Romania}}
**{{flag|Serbia}}
**{{flag|Switzerland}}
{{flag|Liechtenstein}} was not mentioned in the report.

[[File:Trafficking of Females.svg|thumb|300px|A world map showing the legislative situation in different countries to prevent female trafficking {{as of|2009|lc=on}} according to ''WomanStats Project'' in 2009.(old map)
*Gray - No data
*Green - Trafficking is illegal and rare
*Yellow - Trafficking is illegal but problems still exist
*Purple - Trafficking is illegal but still practiced
*Blue - Trafficking is limitedly illegal and is practiced
*Red - Trafficking is not illegal and is commonly practiced.<ref>
[http://womanstats.org/mapEntrez.htm WomanStats Maps], Woman Stats Project.</ref>]]
Human trafficking concerns Central European women, despite illegality of it. In 2011 trafficking was:<ref>http://womanstats.org/CodebookCurrent.htm#TRAFF</ref><ref>http://womanstats.org/substatics/Trafficking%20of%20Women_2011tif_wmlogo3.png</ref>
*'illegal and rare' in:
**{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
**{{flag|Poland}}
*'illegal but there are performance lapses' in:
**{{flag|Austria}}
**{{flag|Croatia}}
**{{flag|Czech Republic}}
**{{flag|Luxembourg}}
**{{flag|Slovenia}}.
*'illegal but is still practiced' in:
**{{flag|Germany}}
**{{flag|Hungary}}
**{{flag|Romania}}
**{{flag|Slovakia}}
**{{flag|Switzerland}}
**{{flag|Serbia}}

===Women===
{{Main|Women's rights}}
Women's suffrage came to most countries of Central Europe very early (when compared to the rest of the world). In Poland, prior to the [[Partition of Poland|Partition]] in 1795, tax-paying females were allowed to take part in political life:
*{{flag|Poland}} (tax-paying women before 1795, and all women since Poland's independence in 1918)
*{{flag|Germany}} (1918)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (1918)
*{{flag|Austria}} (1919)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (1919)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (1920)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (1920)
*{{flag|Romania}} (1938)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (1945)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (1945)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (1945)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (1971)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (1984)
In spite of the advancement, there are almost no Central European women in the list of the most influential women<ref>http://www.forbes.com/power-women/#page:1_sort:0_direction:asc_search:</ref> nor the most influential people<ref>http://time100.time.com/2013/04/18/time-100/slide/all/</ref>. Some of the prominent Central European women include: [[Angela Merkel]] (chancellor), [[Anna Walentynowicz]] (free union and anti-communism actvist), [[Herta Müller]], [[Elfriede Jelinek]] (writer), [[Božena Němcová]] (writer), [[Maria Konopnicka]] (writer) and [[Narcyza Żmichowska]] (a writer and a precursor of feminism in Poland)


==Education==
==Education==
[[File:Literacy rate world.svg|thumb|300px|right|Global adult literacy.]]
[[File:Literacy rate world.svg|thumb|300px|right|Global adult literacy.]]
{{Main|Education in Europe}}
Education is compulsory in Central European countries, generally from the age of 6 (i.e. Germany, Hungary, Slovenia) or 7 (Poland), until the age of 15 (Slovenia), 16 (Germany) or 18 (Poland). Most Central European countries have banned the [[corporal punishment]] of children in [[School corporal punishment|schools]]

===Adult Lieracy===
Central European countries are very literate. All of them have the [[List of countries by literacy rate|literacy rate]] of 96% or over (for both sexes):
Central European countries are very literate. All of them have the [[List of countries by literacy rate|literacy rate]] of 96% or over (for both sexes):
{| class="sortable wikitable"
{| class="sortable wikitable"
Line 214: Line 497:


===Languages===
===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Europe}}
Languages taught as the first language in Central Europe are: German, Polish, Romanian, Czech, Hungarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Croatian, Slovak, and [[Lëtzebuergesch]]. The most popular language taught at schools in Central Europe as foreign languages are: English, French and German.<ref name="ec.europa.eu">http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf</ref>
Languages taught as the first language in Central Europe are: German, Polish, Romanian, Czech, Hungarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Croatian, Slovak and Letzemburgish. All of them (except for Hungarian) are [[Indo-European languages]] and use the [[Latin script]](except for Serbia). The most popular language taught at schools in Central Europe as foreign languages are: English, French and German.<ref name="ec.europa.eu">http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf</ref>
[[File:EF English Proficiency Index.svg|300px|thumb|right|Results of the EF EPI.]]
[[File:EF English Proficiency Index.svg|300px|thumb|right|Results of the EF EPI.]]
Proficiency in English is ranked as high or moderate, according to the [[EF English Proficiency Index]]:<ref>http://www.ef.co.uk/epi/</ref>
The level of proficiency in the English language is ranked es high or moderate, according to the [[EF English Proficiency Index]]:<ref>http://www.ef.co.uk/epi/</ref>
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (position 6)
*{{flag|Austria}} (position 6)
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 8)
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 8)
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (position 9)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (position 9)
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}} (position 10)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (position 10)
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 14)
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 14)
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position 16)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position 16)
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}} (position 18)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (position 18)
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 20)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 20)
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}} (not ranked)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (not ranked)
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (not ranked)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (not ranked)
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (not ranked)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (not ranked)
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} (not ranked)
*{{flag|Romania}} (not ranked)
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (not ranked)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (not ranked)


Nevertheless, other languages are also popular (spoken by over 5% as a second language):<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/>
Nevertheless, other languages are also popular (spoken by over 5% as a second language):<ref name="ec.europa.eu"/>
Line 242: Line 526:
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] in Luxembourg (5%) and Romania (5%)
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] in Luxembourg (5%) and Romania (5%)


===Scholastic performance===
===Scholastic Performance===
Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]]. In the last study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.<ref>http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf</ref>
Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]]. In the last study ([[PISA 2012]]), countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.<ref>http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results-overview.pdf</ref>


In maths:
In Maths:
[[File:PISA-Maths-2012.svg|300px|right|thumb|The results for the 2012 "Maths" section on a world map.]]
[[File:PISA-Maths-2012.svg|300px|right|thumb|The results for the 2012 "Maths" section on a world map.]]
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (position 8) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (position 8) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position 9) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position 9) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 14) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 14) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 16) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 16) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (position 18) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Austria}} (position 18) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}} (position 21) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (position 21) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 24) - similar to the OECD average
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 24) - similar to the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (position 29) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (position 29) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}} (position 35) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (position 35) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (position 39) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Hungary}} (position 39) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}} (position 40) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Croatia}} (position 40) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (position 43) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Serbia}} (position 43) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} (position 45) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Romania}} (position 45) - below the OECD average


In the sciences:
In Science:
[[File:PISA-Science-2012.svg|300px|right|thumb|The results for the 2012 "Science" section on a world map.]]
[[File:PISA-Science-2012.svg|300px|right|thumb|The results for the 2012 "Science" section on a world map.]]
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 9) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 9) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (position 10) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (position 10) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 12) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 12) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position 19) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position 19) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}} (position 20) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (position 20) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 22) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 22) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (position 23) - similar to the OECD average
*{{flag|Austria}} (position 23) - similar to the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (position 33) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Hungary}} (position 33) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (position 34) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (position 34) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}} (position 35) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Croatia}} (position 35) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}} (position 40) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (position 40) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (position 46) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Serbia}} (position 46) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} (position 49) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Romania}} (position 49) - below the OECD average


In reading:
In Reading:
[[File:PISA-Reading-2012.svg|300px|right|thumb|The results for the 2012 "Reading" section on a world map.]]
[[File:PISA-Reading-2012.svg|300px|right|thumb|The results for the 2012 "Reading" section on a world map.]]
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 10) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 10) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (position 11) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (position 11) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position 17) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position 17) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 19) - above the OECD average
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 19) - above the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 26) - similar to the OECD average
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 26) - similar to the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (position 27) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Austria}} (position 27) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (position 30) - blow the OECD average
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (position 30) - blow the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (position 33) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Hungary}} (position 33) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}} (position 35) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Croatia}} (position 35) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}} (position 38) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (position 38) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (position 45) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Serbia}} (position 45) - below the OECD average
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} (position 50) - below the OECD average
*{{flag|Romania}} (position 50) - below the OECD average


===Higher education===
===Higher education===
{{Main|Higher education in Europe}}


====Universities====
====Universities====
{{Main|Universities in Europe}}
Central Europe's oldest universities by their dates of foundation include:
Oldest Universities in Central Europe include (by their dates of foundation):
*{{flagicon|Czech Republic}} [[Charles University in Prague]], Czech Republic (1348)
*{{flagicon|Poland}} [[Jagiellonian University]] in Kraków, Poland (1364)
*{{flagicon|Czech Republic}} [[Charles University in Prague]], Czech Republic (1348), world's 18th oldest
*{{flagicon|Austria}} [[University of Vienna]] in Vienna, Austria (1365)
*{{flagicon|Poland}} [[Jagiellonian University]] in Kraków, Poland (1364) - 20th oldest
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Heidelberg University]] in Heidelberg, Germany (1386)
*{{flagicon|Austria}} [[University of Vienna]] in Vienna, Austria (1365) - 21st oldest
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[University of Leipzig]] in Leipzig, Germany (1409)
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Heidelberg University]] in Heidelberg, Germany (1386) - 22nd oldest
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[University of Leipzig]] in Leipzig, Germany (1409) - 25th oldest


====Central European University====
====Central European University====
[[File:CEU students main building.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The entrance of the Central European University and some of its students]]
[[File:CEU students main building.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The entrance of the Central European University and some of its students]]
The [[Central European University]] (CEU) is a graduate-level, English-language university promoting a distinctively Central European perspective. It was established in 1991 by the Hungarian philanthropist [[George Soros]], who has provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe.<ref>http://chronicle.com/article/For-President-of-Central/65338/</ref> CEU has more than 1500 students from 100 countries and 300 faculty members from more than 30 countries.
The [[Central European University]] (CEU) is a graduate-level, English-language university promoting a distinctively Central European perspective. It was established in 1991 by a Hungarian philanthropist [[George Soros]], who has provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe
.<ref>http://chronicle.com/article/For-President-of-Central/65338/</ref> CEU has more than 1500 students from 100 countries and 300 faculty members from more than 30 countries.


====Regional exchange program====
====Regional exchange program====
[[Central European Exchange Program for University Studies]] (CEEPUS) is an international exchange program for students and teachers teaching or studying in participating countries. Its current members include:<ref>http://www.ceepus.info/default.aspx?CMSPage=65</ref>
[[Central European Exchange Program for University Studies]] (CEEPUS) is an international exchange program for students and teachers teaching or studying in participating countries. Its current members include:<ref>http://www.ceepus.info/default.aspx?CMSPage=65</ref>
*{{flagcountry|Albania}}
*{{flag|Albania}}
*{{flagcountry|Austria}}
*{{flag|Austria}}
*{{flagcountry|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
*{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
*{{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
*{{flag|Bulgaria}}
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}}
*{{flag|Croatia}}
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}}
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}}
*{{flag|Hungary}}
*{{flagcountry|Kosovo}}
*{{flag|Kosovo}}
*{{flagcountry|Macedonia}}
*{{flag|Macedonia}}
*{{flagcountry|Moldova}}
*{{flag|Moldova}}
*{{flagcountry|Montenegro}}
*{{flag|Montenegro}}
*{{flagcountry|Poland}}
*{{flag|Poland}}
*{{flagcountry|Romania}}
*{{flag|Romania}}
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}}
*{{flag|Serbia}}
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}}
*{{flag|Slovakia}}
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}}
*{{flag|Slovenia}}


==Sport==
==Sport==
{{Main|Sport in Europe}}
There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:
There is a number of specifically Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:
*[[Central European Tour Miskolc GP]] (Hungary)*
*[[Central European Tour Miskolc GP]] (Hungary)*
*[[Central European Tour Budapest GP]] (Hungary)
*[[Central European Tour Budapest GP]] (Hungary)
Line 332: Line 620:
*[[Central European Football League]] (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey)
*[[Central European Football League]] (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey)
*[[Central European International Cup]] (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927-1960)
*[[Central European International Cup]] (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927-1960)
The most popular sports in Central Europe are football and winter sports.


==Culture==
==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Europe}}
===Literature===
Central European literature topics include everyday life, such as struggle with social issues ([[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], [[Gerhart Hauptmann]], [[Władysław Reymont]], [[Thomas Mann]]) bureaucracy and absurd<ref>http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5029&context=journal_articles</ref>([[Franz Kafka]], [[Witold Gombrowicz]]), as well as the region's past: World War I ([[Carl Spitteler]], [[Jaroslav Hašek]], [[Robert Musil]]), World War II, especially the Holocaust<ref>http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/blog/michael-stein/non-existence-central-european-literature</ref>([[Heinrich Böll]], [[Leon Kruczkowski]], [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]], [[Tadeusz Borowski]]), anti-Communism ([[Jaroslav Seifert]], [[Czesław Miłosz]])([[Imre Kertész]], [[Elfriede Jelinek]]), expulsions ([[Günter Grass]]) and life under the communism ([[Herta Müller]], [[Wisława Szymborska]]).<ref>http://www.chp.cz/curriculum/readings-central-european-literature-meeting-points-diverging-lines</ref>


===Cuisine===
===Cuisine===
{{Main|Central European cuisine|European cuisine}}
[[Central European cuisine]] has evolved through centuries due to social and political change. Most countries share many dishes. The most popular dishes typical to Central Europe are sausages and cheeses, where the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE ([[Kujawy]], Poland).<ref>http://www.nature.com/news/art-of-cheese-making-is-7-500-years-old-1.12020</ref> Other foods widely associated with Central Europe are [[goulash]] and [[beer]]. [[List of countries by beer consumption per capita]] is led by the [[Czech Republic]], followed by Germany and Austria. Poland comes 9th, Slovenia 12th, Croatia 15th, and Romania 16th.
[[Central European cuisine]] has evolved through centuries due to social and political change. Most countries share many dishes. The most popular dishes typical to Central Europe are sausages and cheeses, where the earliest evidence of cheese-making in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE ([[Kujawy]], Poland).<ref>http://www.nature.com/news/art-of-cheese-making-is-7-500-years-old-1.12020</ref> Other foods widely associated with Central Europe are [[goulash]] and [[beer]]. [[List of countries by beer consumption per capita]] is led by the [[Czech Republic]], followed by Germany and Austria. Poland comes 9th, Slovenia 12th, Croatia 15th and Romania 16th.


===Architecture===
===Art and Architecture===
{{Main|Art of Europe|Architecture of Europe}}
Central European architecture has been shaped by major European styles including but not limited to: [[Brick Gothic]], [[Rococo]], [[Secession|Secession (art)]] and [[Modern architecture]]. Four Central European countries are amongst countries with highers number of [[World Heritage Site]]s:
Central European architecture has been shaped by major European styles including but not limited to: [[Brick Gothic]], [[Rococo]], [[Secession|Secession (art)]] and [[Modern architecture]]. Four Central European countries are amongst countries with highers number of [[World Heritage Site]]s:
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 4th=, 38 sites)
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 4th=, 38 sites)
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 17th=, 15 sites)
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 17th=, 15 sites)
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 19th, 12 sites)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 19th, 12 sites)
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position 20th=, 11 sites)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position 20th=, 11 sites)


===Beliefs===
===Beliefs===
{{Main|Religion in Europe}}
Central Europe has been a centre of Protestantism in the past, however it has been mostly eradicated by the [[Counterreformation]].<ref>http://go.hrw.com/hrw.nd/gohrw_rls1/pKeywordResults?ST9%20Eur%20Religions%201600</ref><ref>http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/262/268312/art/figures/KISH_13_309.gif</ref><ref>http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/europe_religion_1560.htm</ref> Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Slovenia), historically Catholic (the Czech Republic), Protestant or mixed Catholic and Protestant (Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). Serbia is mostly Orthodox and Romania is mostly Orthodox with significant Protestant and Catholic.
Central Europe has been a centre of Protestantism in the past, however it has been mostly eradicated by the [[Counterreformation]].<ref>http://go.hrw.com/hrw.nd/gohrw_rls1/pKeywordResults?ST9%20Eur%20Religions%201600</ref><ref>http://wps.ablongman.com/wps/media/objects/262/268312/art/figures/KISH_13_309.gif</ref><ref>http://www.emersonkent.com/map_archive/europe_religion_1560.htm</ref> Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Slovenia), historically Protestant, later Catholic (the Czech Republic), Protestant or mixed Catholic and Protestant (Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). Serbia is mostly Orthodox and Romania is mostly Orthodox with significant Protestant and Catholic.
In some of these countries, there is a number of atheists, undeclared and non-religious people:
In some of these countries, there is a number of atheists, undeclared and non-religious people:
the Czech Republic (non-religious 34.2% and undeclared 45.2%)
the Czech Republic (non-religious 34.2% and undeclared 45.2%)
Germany (non-religious 38%), Slovenia (atheist 30.2%), Luxembourg (25% non-religious), Switzerland (20.1%), Hungary (27.2% undeclared, 16.7% "non-religious" and 1.5% atheists), Slovakia (atheists and non-religious 13.4%, "not specified" 10.6%) Austria (19.7% of "other or none"), Liechtenstein (10.6% with no religion), Serbia (theist 2.2% and undeclared 3.1%) and Poland (3% of non-believers/agnostics and 1% of undeclared), Croatia (4%).
Germany (non-religious 38%), Slovenia (atheist 30.2%), Luxembourg (25% non-religious), Switzerland (20.1%), Hungary (27.2% undeclared, 16.7% "non-religious" and 1.5% atheists), Slovakia (atheists and non-religious 13.4%, "not specified" 10.6%) Austria (19.7% of "other or none"), Liechtenstein (10.6% with no religion), Serbia (theist 2.2% and undeclared 3.1%) and Poland (3% of non-believers/agnostics and 1% of undeclared), Croatia (4%).


==Geography==
==Physical geography==
{{Main|Geography of Europe}}
[[Image:Extreme points of Europe.png|thumb|Current measurements of extreme points of Europe and its centres.]]
According to various calculations of the midpoint of Europe, Central Europe is geographically located west to the [[geographical midpoint of Europe|midpoint of the continent]]. Nevertheless, the [[International Geographical Union]] during the conference in Prague in 1994<ref>http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/9411020243/international-geographical-union-regional-conference</ref> has established Central European countries as:
*{{flag|Austria}}
*{{flag|Czech Republic}}
*{{flag|Germany}}
*{{flag|Hungary}}
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
*{{flag|Poland}}
*{{flag|Slovakia}}
*{{flag|Slovenia}}
*{{flag|Switzerland}}


===Central European Flora region===
=== Between the Alps and the Baltics ===
[[File:Floristic regions in Europe (english).png|thumb|300px|right|The European floristic regions]]
The Central European [[Phytochorion|Flora region]] stretches from Central France (Massif Central) to Central [[Romania]] ([[Carpathians]]) and Southern [[Scandinavia]].<ref>[[:de:Wolfgang Frey|Wolfgang Frey]] and [[:de:Rainer Lösch|Rainer Lösch]]; Lehrbuch der Geobotanik. Pflanze und Vegetation in Raum und Zeit. Elsevier, Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, München 2004 ISBN 3-8274-1193-9</ref>

===Physical geography===

==== Between the Alps and the Baltics ====
Geography strongly defines Central Europe's borders with its neighbouring regions to the North and South, namely [[Northern Europe]] (or [[Scandinavia]]) across the [[Baltic Sea]], the [[Apennine peninsula]] (or [[Italy]]) across the [[Alps]] and the [[Balkan peninsula]] across the Soča-Krka-Sava-Danube line. The borders to [[Western Europe]] and [[Eastern Europe]] are geographically less defined and for this reason the [[cultural]] and historical boundaries migrate more easily West-East than South-North. The [[Rhine]] river which runs South-North through Western Germany is an exception.{{or|date=November 2013}}
Geography strongly defines Central Europe's borders with its neighbouring regions to the North and South, namely [[Northern Europe]] (or [[Scandinavia]]) across the [[Baltic Sea]], the [[Apennine peninsula]] (or [[Italy]]) across the [[Alps]] and the [[Balkan peninsula]] across the Soča-Krka-Sava-Danube line. The borders to [[Western Europe]] and [[Eastern Europe]] are geographically less defined and for this reason the [[cultural]] and historical boundaries migrate more easily West-East than South-North. The [[Rhine]] river which runs South-North through Western Germany is an exception.{{or|date=November 2013}}
[[File:Mapcarpat2.png|thumb|right|[[Carpathian mountains|Carpathian]] countries (north to south): [[Austria|AT]], [[Czech Republic|CZ]], [[Poland|PL]], [[Slovakia|SK]], [[Hungary|HU]], [[Ukraine|UA]], [[Romania|RO]], [[Serbia|SRB]]]]
[[File:Mapcarpat2.png|thumb|right|[[Carpathian mountains|Carpathian]] countries (north to south): [[Austria|AT]], [[Czech Republic|CZ]], [[Poland|PL]], [[Slovakia|SK]], [[Hungary|HU]], [[Ukraine|UA]], [[Romania|RO]], [[Serbia|SRB]]]]


===Pannonian Plain and Carpathian Mountains===
====Pannonian Plain and Carpathian Mountains====
[[File:Carpathian Basin-Pannonian Basin.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Pannonian Plain]], between the [[Alps]] (west), the [[Carpathians]] (north and east), and the [[Sava]]/[[Danube]] (south)]]
[[File:Carpathian Basin-Pannonian Basin.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Pannonian Plain]], between the [[Alps]] (west), the [[Carpathians]] (north and east), and the [[Sava]]/[[Danube]] (south)]]


Southwards, the [[Pannonian Plain]] is bounded by the rivers [[Sava]] and [[Danube]]- and their respective floodplains.<ref>[http://www.icpdr.org/icpdr-files/14017 Danube Facts and Figures. Bosnia and Herzegovina (April 2007)] (PDF file)</ref> The [[Pannonian Plain]] stretches over the following countries: [[Austria]], [[Croatia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Slovenia]], and touches borders of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ([[Republika Srpska]]) and [[Ukraine]] ("peri- Pannonian states").
Southwards, the [[Pannonian Plain]] is bounded by the rivers [[Sava]] and [[Danube]]- and their respective floodplains.<ref>[http://www.icpdr.org/icpdr-files/14017 Danube Facts and Figures. Bosnia and Herzegovina (April 2007)] (PDF file)</ref> The [[Pannonian Plain]] stretches over the following countries: [[Austria]], [[Croatia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Slovenia]], and touches borders of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ([[Republika Srpska]]) and [[Ukraine]] ("peri- Pannonian states").


===Dinaric Alps===
====Dinaric Alps====
As southeastern division of the [[Eastern Alps]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/163795/Dinaric-Alps |title=Dinaric Alps (mountains, Europe)|accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> the [[Dinaric Alps]] extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the [[Adriatic Sea]] (northwest-southeast), from the [[Julian Alps]] in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north-south. According to the Freie Universitaet Berlin, this [[Dinaric Alps|mountain chain]] is classified as [[Alps|South Central European]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Juliane Dittrich |url=http://www.grin.com/e-book/37159/die-alpen-hoehenstufen-und-vegetation |title=Die Alpen – Höhenstufen und Vegetation – Hauptseminararbeit |publisher=GRIN |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref>
As southeastern division of the [[Eastern Alps]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/163795/Dinaric-Alps |title=Dinaric Alps (mountains, Europe)|accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> the [[Dinaric Alps]] extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the [[Adriatic Sea]] (northwest-southeast), from the [[Julian Alps]] in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north-south. According to the Freie Universitaet Berlin<ref>{{cite web|author=Juliane Dittrich |url=http://www.grin.com/e-book/37159/die-alpen-hoehenstufen-und-vegetation |title=Die Alpen – Höhenstufen und Vegetation – Hauptseminararbeit |publisher=GRIN |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> this [[Dinaric Alps|mountain chain]] is classified as [[Alps|South Central European]].


==Politics==
==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Europe}}
Central European countries are generally involved in a number of organisations such as NATO, the EU, or OECD. Two of them, Germany and Poland, were listed by the Foundation for National Security Research among the most powerful nations, as 7th and 23rd, respectively.<ref>[http://www.fnsr.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4173 National Power Index 2012]</ref> Switzerland is known for its [[direct democracy]] and long-standing [[neutrality]]. Since recently, Serbia is also a neutral country.<ref>http://serbianna.com/news/archives/6575</ref> Most countries in Central Europe are unitary (Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia), but a significant number of people lives in federal countries (Austria, Germany and Switzerland).


===Organisations===
===Organisations===
Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:
Central Europe is a birthplace of the following regional organisations:
* [[Visegrad group]]
* [[Visegrad group]]
* [[Centrope]]
* [[Centrope]]
Line 389: Line 704:
Authoritarian regimes:<br/> {{legend|#d62800|3.00-3.99}} {{legend|#950000|2.00-2.99}} {{legend|#4e0101|0.00-1.99}}
Authoritarian regimes:<br/> {{legend|#d62800|3.00-3.99}} {{legend|#950000|2.00-2.99}} {{legend|#4e0101|0.00-1.99}}
Insufficient information, no rating: {{legend|#BFBFBF|}}{{div col end}}]]
Insufficient information, no rating: {{legend|#BFBFBF|}}{{div col end}}]]
Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarian rule, particularly Nazism (Germany, Austria, other occupied countries) and Communism, most of Central Europe have been occupied and later allied with the USSR, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g., [[Polish people's referendum, 1946|Polish people's referendum in 1946]]) or force. Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index:<ref>https://portoncv.gov.cv/dhub/porton.por_global.open_file?p_doc_id=1034</ref>
Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarian rule, particularly Nazism (Germany, Austria, other occupied countries) and Communism, most of Central Europe have been occupied and later allied with the USSR, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g. [[Polish people's referendum, 1946]]) or force. Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index:<ref>https://portoncv.gov.cv/dhub/porton.por_global.open_file?p_doc_id=1034</ref>
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position )
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position )
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (position 11)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (position 11)
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (position 12)
*{{flag|Austria}} (position 12)
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 14)
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 14)
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 17)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 17)
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}} (position 28)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (position 28)
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}} (position 40)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (position 40)
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 44)
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 44)
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (position 49)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (position 49)
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}} (position 50)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (position 50)
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} (position 59)
*{{flag|Romania}} (position 59)
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (position 66)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (position 66)
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (not listed)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (not listed)
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (not listed)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (not listed)


===Global Peace Index===
===Global Peace Index===
[[File:Global Peace Index Map 2012.png|thumb|right|300px|Global Peace Index Scores.]]
[[File:Global Peace Index.svg|thumb|right|300px|Global Peace Index Scores.]]
In spite of turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%:<ref>http://www.visionofhumanity.org/</ref>
In spite of turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%:<ref>http://www.visionofhumanity.org/</ref>
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (position 4)
*{{flag|Austria}} (position 4)
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position 5)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position 5)
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}} (position 13)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (position 13)
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 14)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 14)
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 15)
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 15)
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (position 23)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (position 23)
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 25)
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 25)
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}} (position 28)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (position 28)
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} (position 30)
*{{flag|Romania}} (position 30)
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}} (position 33)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (position 33)
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (position 62)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (position 62)
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (not listed)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (not listed)
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (not listed)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (not listed)


==Media==
==Media==
{{Main|Media}}


===Freedom of Press Index===
===Freedom of Press Index===

[[File:RWB-PressFreedomIndex2013-WorldMap.svg|300px|thumb|right|
[[File:RWB-PressFreedomIndex2013-WorldMap.svg|300px|thumb|right|
<center>
<center>
Line 446: Line 761:
]]
]]
Central European media are considered as free. Some of the top scoring countries are in Central Europe:
Central European media are considered as free. Some of the top scoring countries are in Central Europe:
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (position 4)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (position 4)
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (position 7)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (position 7)
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (position 12)
*{{flag|Austria}} (position 12)
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (position 12)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (position 12)
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (position 16)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (position 16)
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (position 17)
*{{flag|Germany}} (position 17)
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (position 22)
*{{flag|Poland}} (position 22)
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}} (position 23)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (position 23)
*{{flagcountry|Slovenia}} (position 35)
*{{flag|Slovenia}} (position 35)
*{{flagcountry|Romania}} (position 42)
*{{flag|Romania}} (position 42)
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (position 56)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (position 56)
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (position 63)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (position 63)
*{{flagcountry|Croatia}} (position 64)
*{{flag|Croatia}} (position 64)

==Central European flora region==
[[File:Floristic regions in Europe (english).png|thumb|300px|right|The European floristic regions]]
The Central European [[Phytochorion|flora region]] stretches from Central France (the [[Massif Central]]) to Central [[Romania]] ([[Carpathians]]) and Southern [[Scandinavia]].<ref>[[:de:Wolfgang Frey|Wolfgang Frey]] and [[:de:Rainer Lösch|Rainer Lösch]]; Lehrbuch der Geobotanik. Pflanze und Vegetation in Raum und Zeit. Elsevier, Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, München 2004 ISBN 3-8274-1193-9</ref>


==Central European Time==
[[File:Time zones of Europe.svg|thumb|right|300px|Central European Time Zone (dark red)]]
[[File:Time zones of Europe.svg|thumb|right|300px|Central European Time Zone (dark red)]]

==Central European Time==
The time zone used in most parts of the European Union, is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is commonly called [[Central European Time]], because it has been first adopted in central Europe (by year):
The time zone used in most parts of the European Union, is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is commonly called [[Central European Time]], because it has been first adopted in central Europe (by year):
*{{flagcountry|Hungary}} (1890)
*{{flag|Hungary}} (1890)
*{{flagcountry|Slovakia}} (1890)
*{{flag|Slovakia}} (1890)
*{{flagcountry|Czech Republic}} (1891)
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} (1891)
*{{flagcountry|Germany}} (1893)
*{{flag|Germany}} (1893)
*{{flagcountry|Austria}} (1893)
*{{flag|Austria}} (1893)
*{{flagcountry|Poland}} (1893*<ref>Since Poland was partitioned since 1922 (official adoption), the dates of introduction in Germany (1893) and Austria (1893) should be understood as de facto adoption</ref>)
*{{flag|Poland}} (1893*<ref>Since Poland was partitioned since 1922 (official adoption), the dates of introduction in Germany (1893) and Austria (1893) should be understood as de facto adoption</ref>)
*{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (1894)
*{{flag|Switzerland}} (1894)
*{{flagcountry|Liechtenstein}} (1894)
*{{flag|Liechtenstein}} (1894)
*{{flagcountry|Luxembourg}} (1904-1918, 1940-onwards<ref>Introduced during the German occupation</ref>)
*{{flag|Luxembourg}} (1904-1918, 1940-onwards<ref>Introduced during the German occupation</ref>)
*{{flagcountry|Serbia}} (at least since 1983)
*{{flag|Serbia}} (at least since 1983)


== Demographics ==
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Europe}}
[[File:Countries by population density.svg|300px|thumb|Population density (people per km<sup>2</sup>) by country, 2006]]
[[File:Countries by population density.svg|300px|thumb|Population density (people per km<sup>2</sup>) by country, 2006]]
Central Europe is one of continent’s most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the largest European country by population (that is entirely placed in Europe). Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe (“the core countries”) number around 165 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.<ref name=Eurostat>{{cite web |title=Demography report 2010|work=[[Eurostat]]|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KE-ET-10-001/EN/KE-ET-10-001-EN.PDF|accessdate=2012-05-12}}</ref> Other populations include: Poland with around 39 million residents, Czech republic at 10.5 million, Hungary - 10 million, Austria with 8.5 million, Switzerland with its 8 million inhabitants, Slovakia at 5.5 million, Croatia at 4,3 million, Slovenia at 2 million and [[Liechtenstein]] at 0,03 million.
Central Europe is one of continent’s most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the largest European country by population (that is entirely placed in Europe). Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe (“the core countries”) number around 165 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.<ref name=Eurostat>{{cite web |title=Demography report 2010|work=[[Eurostat]]|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KE-ET-10-001/EN/KE-ET-10-001-EN.PDF|accessdate=2012-05-12}}</ref> Other populations include: Poland with around 39 million residents, Czech republic at 10.5 million, Hungary - 10 million, Austria with 8.5 million, Switzerland with its 8 million inhabitants, Slovakia at 5.5 million, Croatia at 4,3 million, Slovenia at 2 million and [[Liechtenstein]] at 0,03 million.


If the countries which are occasionally included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole—Romania (7–19 million people), Serbia (3.6–7 million), [[Lithuania]] (3.5 million), [[Latvia]] (2.5 million), [[Estonia]] (1.5 million)—it would contribute to the rise of between 20–37.5 million, depending on whether regional or integral approach was used.<ref name=Eurostat>{{cite web|title=Total population, Candidate countries and potential candidates
If the countries which are occasionally included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole - Romania (7 - 19 million people), Serbia (3,6 – 7 million), [[Lithuania]] (3.5 million), [[Latvia]] (2.5 million), [[Estonia]] (1.5 million) – it would contribute to the rise of between 20 - 37.5 million, depending on whether regional or integral approach was used.<ref name=Eurostat>{{cite web|title=Total population, Candidate countries and potential candidates
|work=[[Eurostat]]|http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tgs00027&plugin=1}}</ref>
|work=[[Eurostat]]|http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tgs00027&plugin=1}}</ref>
If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, it would surpass the 200 million people figure.
If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, it would surpass the 200 million people figure.
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=== Middle Ages ===
=== Middle Ages ===
{{Main|Middle Ages}}

As elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were considered the Roman Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe that remained Orthodox Christian, was the area of Byzantine cultural influence, and after the schism will develop cultural unity and protection against the Catholic and Protestant (Western) world, within the framework of Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.<ref>[http://rediscover.manuscriptorium.com/files/rediscover/RO_Text_Catalogue_ENG_0.doc The shape of Europe. The spirit of unity through culture in the eve of Modern Europe].</ref>
As elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were considered the Roman Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe that remained Orthodox Christian, was the area of Byzantine cultural influence, and after the schism will develop cultural unity and protection against the Catholic and Protestant (Western) world, within the framework of Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.<ref>[http://rediscover.manuscriptorium.com/files/rediscover/RO_Text_Catalogue_ENG_0.doc The shape of Europe. The spirit of unity through culture in the eve of Modern Europe].</ref>


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Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/52992/robert-legvold/central-europe-enemies-neighbors-friends|title=Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends|last=Legvold|first=Robert|date=May/June 1997|work=[[Foreign Affairs]]|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|accessdate=2009-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/InternationalStudies/?view=usa&ci=9780195148251&view=usa|title=Selected as "Editor's Choice" of the History Book Club |work=[[Oxford University Press]] |accessdate=2009-05-20}}</ref> in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher [[Maria Bucur]] this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=1030|title=The Myths and Memories We Teach By|last=Bucur|first=Maria|date=June 1997|work=[[Indiana University]]|publisher=HABSBURG|accessdate=2011-12-23}}</ref>
Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/52992/robert-legvold/central-europe-enemies-neighbors-friends|title=Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends|last=Legvold|first=Robert|date=May/June 1997|work=[[Foreign Affairs]]|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|accessdate=2009-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/InternationalStudies/?view=usa&ci=9780195148251&view=usa|title=Selected as "Editor's Choice" of the History Book Club |work=[[Oxford University Press]] |accessdate=2009-05-20}}</ref> in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher [[Maria Bucur]] this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=1030|title=The Myths and Memories We Teach By|last=Bucur|first=Maria|date=June 1997|work=[[Indiana University]]|publisher=HABSBURG|accessdate=2011-12-23}}</ref>


[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]] defines Central Europe as: Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, and Hungary.<ref name=Columbia>{{cite web |encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]] |title=Europe |accessdate=2009-05-01 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year=2009}}</ref> [[The World Factbook]]<ref name=Fact/> [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} and [[Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]] use the same definition adding Slovenia too. [[Encarta Encyclopedia]] does not clearly define the region, but places the same countries into Central Europe in its individual articles on countries, adding Slovenia in "south central Europe".<ref name=Encarta>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Slovenia|work=[[Encarta]]|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571128/Slovenia.html|accessdate=2009-05-01|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwafS3Ax|archivedate=31 October 2009|deadurl=yes}}</ref> The United Nations doesn't acknowledge a regional division of Central Europe, identifying four geographic region of Europe (North, South, East and West).<ref name="unstats.un.org"/>
[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]] defines Central Europe as: Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, and Hungary.<ref name=Columbia>{{cite web |encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]] |title=Europe |accessdate=2009-05-01 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year=2009}}</ref> [[The World Factbook]]<ref name=Fact/> [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} and [[Brockhaus Enzyklopädie]] use the same definition adding Slovenia too. [[Encarta Encyclopedia]] does not clearly define the region, but places the same countries into Central Europe in its individual articles on countries, adding Slovenia in "south central Europe".<ref name=Encarta>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Slovenia|work=[[Encarta]]|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571128/Slovenia.html|accessdate=2009-05-01|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwafS3Ax|archivedate=31 October 2009|deadurl=yes}}</ref> While the [[United Nations Statistical Division]] doesn't acknowledge a regional division of Central Europe, identifying four geographic region of Europe (North, South, East and West).,<ref name="unstats.un.org"/> the [[United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names]] does recognise Central Europe and in 2006 it included Central Europe with an extensive description in its proposed "Subdivision of Europe into Larger Regions by Cultural Criteria
".<ref>http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/23-gegn/wp/gegn23wp48.pdf</ref><ref>http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/divisions.html#</ref>


The German Encyclopaedia ''Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon'' ({{lang-en|Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia}}), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the [[Schelde]] to [[Vistula River|Vistula]] and from the [[Danube]] to the [[Moravian Gate]]. Usually the countries considered to be Central European are Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary; in the broader sense Romania too, northern Serbia, occasionally also the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
The German Encyclopaedia ''Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon'' ({{lang-en|Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia}}), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the [[Schelde]] to [[Vistula River|Vistula]] and from the [[Danube]] to the [[Moravian Gate]]. Usually the countries considered to be Central European are Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary; in the broader sense Romania too, northern Serbia, occasionally also the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
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*[http://mapofeurope.com Map of Europe]
*[http://mapofeurope.com Map of Europe]
*[http://www.europemaps.info/ Maps of Europe and European countries]
*[http://www.europemaps.info/ Maps of Europe and European countries]
*[http://www.cepolicy.org/ Central European Policy Institute]
*[http://www.central2013.eu/ Central2013.eu]
*[http://www.central2013.eu/ Central2013.eu]
*[http://www.databasece.com/en/macro-summary Central Europe Economy]
*[http://www.databasece.com/en/macro-summary Central European Economy]
*[http://www.unhcr-centraleurope.org/ UNHCR Regional representation for Central Europe]
*[http://www.unep.org/roe/WesternandCentralEurope/tabid/54057/Default.aspx UNEP Regional Office for Western and Central Europe]


{{Regions of the world}}
{{Regions of the world}}

Revision as of 19:37, 8 February 2014

Central Europe according to The World Factbook (2009)[1] Encyclopedia Britannica and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (1998).
Central Europe according to German Mitteleuropa, considering all political and cultural criteria.[2]
Central Europe according to P. Jones (Leibniz Institute for Regional Geography). Many Central European countries and regions were parts of the German and the Austro-Hungarian empires, or the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; thus they also have historical and cultural connections.

Central Europe or alternatively Middle Europe is a region of the European continent lying between the variously defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. The term and widespread interest in the region came back with the regeneration and gentrification of the region since 1989,[3] the end of the Cold War, which had divided Europe politically into the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc, splitting Central Europe in half for 45 years.[4][5]

The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common identity, is somewhat elusive.[6][7][8] However, scholars assert that a distinct "Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists."[9][10] It is based on "similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural characteristics",[9][11] and it is identified as having been "one of the world's richest sources of creative talent" between the 17th and 20th centuries.[12] Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide".[13] Germany's Constant Committee for Geographical Names defines Central Europe both as a distinct cultural area and a political region.[14][15] George Schöpflin and others argue that Central Europe is defined by being "a part of Western Christianity",[16] while Samuel P. Huntington places the region firmly within Western culture.[17]

From the 1989 (decade) on, with initiatives like the CEI (1989), V4 (1993) or Centrope (2003), Central Europe is going through a phase of "strategic awakening",[18] . While the region's economy shows high disparities with regard to income,[19] all Central European countries are listed by the Human Development Index as "very high development" countries.[20]

Countries

The comprehension of the concept of Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy,[21] though the Visegrád Group constituents are generally included as de facto C.E. countries.[22]

Countries classified as Central European

According to the majority of sources (see section Current views on Central Europe for some) the region includes:

Countries (regions) occasionally included in Central Europe

Some sources also add neighbouring countries for historical (the former Austro-Hungarian and German Empires, and modern Baltic states), based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:

The Baltic states, geographically located in Northern Europe, have been considered part of Central Europe in the German tradition of the term, Mittleuropa.

Benelux countries are generally considered a part of Western Europe, rather than Central Europe. Nevertheless, they are occasionally mentioned i the Central European context due to cultural, historical and linguistic ties.

Smaller parts of the following states may sometimes be included:

General data

Economy

Industrialisation reached Central Europe early: Luxembourg and Germany by 1860, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland by 1870, Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia by 1880.[41] Depending on a definition of, most of these countries are considered developed. Countries with 'Very high' score in HDI, OECD membership, IMF's 'Advanced Economies', DAC membership and WB's 'High income economies':

'Very high' score in HDI, OECD membership, DAC membership and WB's 'High income economies':

'Very high' score in HDI, DAC membership and WB's 'High income economies':

Countries with 'Very high' score in HDI and OECD membership:

'Very high' score in HDI:

'High' score in HDI:

Gross Domestic Product

Nominal

Countries by GDP (nominal) according to the CIA World Factbook.[42]

Central European countries are generally wealthy in terms of nominal GDP (in millions, 2012):[43]

Purchasing Power Parity

Countries in Central Europe have generally much different GDP purchasing power parity when compared to the nominal GDP (in trillions, World Bank, 2012):[44]

Nominal per capita

Countries by 2012 GDP (nominal) per capita.[46]
  over $102,400
  $51,200–102,400
  $25,600–51,200
  $12,800–25,600
  $6,400–12,800
  $3,200–6,400
  $1,600–3,200
  $800–1,600
  $400–800
  below $400
  unavailable

Gross domestic product (nominal) in GDP varies in central Europe from middle to high (UN, 2012):[47]

PPP per capita

Countries by 2011 GDP (PPP) per capita, based on World Bank figures; if no IMF/World Bank figure was available for a country, the CIA figure was used.

Gross Domestic Power demonstrates that some Central European countries tend to have either much lower or higher rate of GDP in purchasing power parity (World Bank, 2012):[48]

Gini coefficient

Map of Wealth Inequality, 2013

Central Europe is generally characterised by a low wealth inequality. The countries with lowest GINI inequality rate: Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Luxembourg, Romania, Hungary, Poland and Germany. The rate in Switzerland is 4th highest in the world.

Currencies

Main article: List of currencies in Europe

Currently, the members of the Eurozone include: Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, Slovakia and Slovenia. Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania use their currencies but are obliged to adopt the Euro:

Liechtenstein, Serbia and Switzerland use their own currencies:

  • Serbian dinar (RSD or РСД: RSD/РСД [unofficially din or дин] = 100 para)
  • Swiss franc (Liechtenstein and Switzerland) (CHF: 1 CHF = 100 Rap[pen]/centime/ centesimo)

Human Development Index

World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2013.
  Very High
  Low
  High
  Data unavailable
  Medium

Countries in descending order of the Human Development Index (2013 data):[20]

Globalisation

Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization Index.

The index of globalization of Central European countries (2013 data)[50]

Innovation

In the Bloomberg Innovation Index ranking 50 most innovative countries[51], most countries in Central Europe were mentioned:[52]

Prosperity Index

Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average to a high level of prosperity in Central Europe:[53]

Corruption

Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2013.
     90–100      60–69      30–39      0–9
     80–89      50–59      20–29      No information
     70–79      40–49      10–19

Most countries in Central Europe score tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index:[54]

According to the Bribe Payers Index, released annually since 1995 by the Berlin-based NGO Transparency International, Switzerland and Germany (the only two Central European countries examined in the study) were ranked respectively 2nd and 4th in 2011.[55]

Infrastructure

Industrialisation reached Central Europe very early. That caused construction of rail and other types of infrastructure.

Rail

Rail network density.

The use of began with the opening of the steam-hauled Bavarian Ludwig Railway between Nuremberg and Fürth on 7 December 1835. This event opened a wide introduction of the technology in the part of Europe. The rail infrastructure is Central Europe is very dense. Railway density, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1000 km2, is much higher in the Czech Republic (198.6), Poland (121.0), Slovenia (108.0), Germany (105.5), Hungary (98.7), Romania (85.9), Slovakia (73.9), Croatia (72.5) and Serbia (43.1), then the average in Europe and the rest of the world.[56][57]

Branches

Map and Scatterplot of Countries by Economic Complexity

This list orders countries by their economic complexity index (ECI), as it was defined and calculated by Ricardo Hausmann, Cesar Hidalgo and other contributors based mainly at the Harvard-MIT Observatory of Economic Complexity.

Compared to most of Europe, the economies of Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Hungary, the Slovak Republic, Poland, Croatia and Romania tend to demonstrate high complexity.[58] The ranking includes:

Agriculture

Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. The Czech Republic is world's 4th largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Germany is the world's largest hops producer, 3rd producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, 5th largest potato producer. Hungary is world's 5th hops and 7th largest triticale producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, second largest producer of raspberry, currant and rye, 3rd largest, 5th apple and buckwheat producer, 7th largest potatoes producer. Slovenia is world's 6th hops producer.

Tourism

Switzerland, Germany, Austria and Luxembourg are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.[59]

Outsourcing destination

Kraków, Prague, Budapest, Brno, Warsaw, Bucharest, Bratislava, Kyiv, Ljubljana, Wroclaw and Lviv are amongst Tholons top 100 outsourcing destinations.[60] Poland is currently a major destination for outsourcing business services.[61]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Europe

Central European countries generally have a good record on human rights, with a long-standing history. Golden Bull of 1222 of Hungary defines the first time the rights of citizens (however, limited to gentry), the General Charter of Jewish Liberties (Statute of Kalisz) introduced numerous right for the Jews in Poland, leading to an autonomous "nation within a nation", and Warsaw Confederation confirmed the religious freedom of all residents of Poland In 1781, Serfdom is abolished in the Habsburg countries through the emperor Leopold II. Countries in Central Europe have either medium of low risk of human rights risk.[62]

Children

Main article: Children's rights
  Countries that have explicitly abolished all forms of corporal punishment of children.

Corporal punishment is either prohibited or considered a criminal offence in most of Central Europe's countries, in all settings (school and home):[63]

  •  Poland (in schools since 1783 and unlawful since 1964,[64] since 2010 criminalised in all of its forms)[65]
  •  Liechtenstein (in the home 1811, illegal since 1985, explicitly criminalised in all forms since 2008)[66]
  •  Luxembourg (since 1845 prohibited in schools and since 2008 in all its forms)[67]
  •  Romania (in schools prohibited since 1948 and unlawful since 1991, since 2004 forbidden in all its forms)[68]
  •  Austria (in schools banned since 1974, since 1989 in all of its forms)[69]
  •  Germany (in schools banned gradually in the period 1975-1983, since 2000 in all of its forms)[70]
  •  Hungary (in schools prohibited since 1993, since 2004 illegal in all its forms)[71]
  •  Croatia (since 1999 prohibited in schools and since 2003 in the home)[72][73]
  •  Slovenia (in schools prohibited since 1996 and in the home since 2008)[74]

Laws partially banning or outlawing corporal punishments have been introduced in the following countries:

Civil rights

Main article: Civil rights

All countries in Central Europe are ranked 'free', according to the Freedom in the World reports.

Death penalty

Capital punishment, as an irrevocable punishment prone to miscarriage of justice and degrading treatment of a human being, has been formally abolished in all countries of Central Europe for all offences by 2006.

LGBT

Main article: LGBT rights by country or territory

LGBT people in Central Europe may face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents. All of the countries of the region have signed the LGBT rights Declaration, rights of heterosexual citizens are unavailable to LGBT people. None of Central European countries is on the list of countries with state-sponsored homophobia.[80] Some of the prominent living people in Central Europe are gay: Ulrike Lunacek (Austria), Guido Westerwelle (Germany), Xavier Bettel (Luxembourg) and Robert Biedroń (Poland). Homosexuality is legal in all countries of Central Europe (since):

Transgender rights are very well-developed in some countries of Central Europe.[82] A transgender Pole Anna Grodzka has become an MP in the 2011 Polish parliamentary elections.

There has been cases of hate crime assaults on transgender people or harassment.[83] In the period between 2008 and 2012, 2 transgender people have been murdered in Germany, 1 person in Poland and 1 in Serbia.[84]

Slavery

Modern incidence of slavery, as a percentage of the population, by country. Estimates from the Walk Free Foundation. Estimates by sources with broader definitions of slavery will be higher.

The issue of slavery was specifically addressed in:

According to the Walk Free Foundation, modern slavery, defined as: "the possession and control of a person in such a way as to significantly deprive that person of his or her individual liberty, with the intent of exploiting that person through their use, management, profit, transfer or disposal. Usually this exercise will be achieved through means such as violence or threats of violence, deception and/or coercion."[88] In Central Europe results showed low to medium degree of slavery. The position of countries in the degree of slavery is as following:

Human trafficking

Main article: Human trafficking
Findings of the legislative framework in place in different countries to prevent/reduce human trafficking. The findings are from the 2011 (old map) Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report

The issue of human trafficking is relatively rare in Central Europe, according to the Trafficking in Persons Report (2013):[89]

 Liechtenstein was not mentioned in the report.

A world map showing the legislative situation in different countries to prevent female trafficking as of 2009 according to WomanStats Project in 2009.(old map) *Gray - No data *Green - Trafficking is illegal and rare *Yellow - Trafficking is illegal but problems still exist *Purple - Trafficking is illegal but still practiced *Blue - Trafficking is limitedly illegal and is practiced *Red - Trafficking is not illegal and is commonly practiced.[92]

Human trafficking concerns Central European women, despite illegality of it. In 2011 trafficking was:[93][94]

Women

Main article: Women's rights

Women's suffrage came to most countries of Central Europe very early (when compared to the rest of the world). In Poland, prior to the Partition in 1795, tax-paying females were allowed to take part in political life:

In spite of the advancement, there are almost no Central European women in the list of the most influential women[95] nor the most influential people[96]. Some of the prominent Central European women include: Angela Merkel (chancellor), Anna Walentynowicz (free union and anti-communism actvist), Herta Müller, Elfriede Jelinek (writer), Božena Němcová (writer), Maria Konopnicka (writer) and Narcyza Żmichowska (a writer and a precursor of feminism in Poland)

Education

Global adult literacy.
Main article: Education in Europe

Education is compulsory in Central European countries, generally from the age of 6 (i.e. Germany, Hungary, Slovenia) or 7 (Poland), until the age of 15 (Slovenia), 16 (Germany) or 18 (Poland). Most Central European countries have banned the corporal punishment of children in schools

Adult Lieracy

Central European countries are very literate. All of them have the literacy rate of 96% or over (for both sexes):

Country Literacy rate (all) Male Literacy Female Literacy Criteria
-9e99 -9e99 !a -9e99
 World 84.1% 88.6% 79.7% age 15 and over can read and write (2010 est.)
 Liechtenstein 100% 100% 100% age 10 and over can read and write
 Luxembourg 100% 100% 100% age 15 and over can read and write (2000 est.)
 Poland 99.7% 99.9% 99.6% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
 Slovenia 99.7% 99.7% 99.7% (2010 est.)
 Slovakia 99.6% 99.7% 99.6% age 15 and over can read and write (2004)
 Czech Republic 99% 99% 99% (2011 est.)
 Germany 99% 99% 99% age 15 and over can read and write (2003 est.)
 Hungary 99% 99.2% 98.9% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
  Switzerland 99% 99% 99% age 15 and over can read and write (2003 est.)
 Croatia 98.9% 99.5% 98.3% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
 Austria 98% N/A N/A age 15 and over can read and write
 Serbia 98% 99.2% 96.9% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)
 Romania 97.7% 98.3% 97.1% age 15 and over can read and write (2011 est.)

Languages

Main article: Languages of Europe

Languages taught as the first language in Central Europe are: German, Polish, Romanian, Czech, Hungarian, Serbian, Slovenian, Croatian, Slovak and Letzemburgish. All of them (except for Hungarian) are Indo-European languages and use the Latin script(except for Serbia). The most popular language taught at schools in Central Europe as foreign languages are: English, French and German.[97]

Results of the EF EPI.

The level of proficiency in the English language is ranked es high or moderate, according to the EF English Proficiency Index:[98]

Nevertheless, other languages are also popular (spoken by over 5% as a second language):[97]

  • Croatian in Slovenia (61%)
  • Czech in Slovakia (47%)
  • French in Luxembourg (80%), Romania (17%), Germany (14%) and Austria (11%)
  • German in Luxembourg (69%), Slovenia (42%), Slovenia (22%), Poland (20%), Hungary (18%), the Czech Republic (15%), Germany (10%) and Romania (5%)
  • Italian in Slovenia (12%), Austria (9%), Romania (7%) and Luxembourg (6%)
  • Russian in Poland (28%), Slovakia (17%), Czech Republic (13%) and Germany (6%)
  • Polish in Slovakia (5%)
  • Slovak in the Czech Republic (16%)
  • Spanish in Luxembourg (5%) and Romania (5%)

Scholastic Performance

Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment. In the last study (PISA 2012), countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.[99]

In Maths:

The results for the 2012 "Maths" section on a world map.
  •  Liechtenstein (position 8) - above the OECD average
  •   Switzerland (position 9) - above the OECD average
  •  Poland (position 14) - above the OECD average
  •  Germany (position 16) - above the OECD average
  •  Austria (position 18) - above the OECD average
  •  Slovenia (position 21) - above the OECD average
  •  Czech Republic (position 24) - similar to the OECD average
  •  Luxembourg (position 29) - below the OECD average
  •  Slovakia (position 35) - below the OECD average
  •  Hungary (position 39) - below the OECD average
  •  Croatia (position 40) - below the OECD average
  •  Serbia (position 43) - below the OECD average
  •  Romania (position 45) - below the OECD average

In Science:

The results for the 2012 "Science" section on a world map.
  •  Poland (position 9) - above the OECD average
  •  Liechtenstein (position 10) - above the OECD average
  •  Germany (position 12) - above the OECD average
  •   Switzerland (position 19) - above the OECD average
  •  Slovenia (position 20) - above the OECD average
  •  Czech Republic (position 22) - above the OECD average
  •  Austria (position 23) - similar to the OECD average
  •  Hungary (position 33) - below the OECD average
  •  Luxembourg (position 34) - below the OECD average
  •  Croatia (position 35) - below the OECD average
  •  Slovakia (position 40) - below the OECD average
  •  Serbia (position 46) - below the OECD average
  •  Romania (position 49) - below the OECD average

In Reading:

The results for the 2012 "Reading" section on a world map.
  •  Poland (position 10) - above the OECD average
  •  Liechtenstein (position 11) - above the OECD average
  •   Switzerland (position 17) - above the OECD average
  •  Germany (position 19) - above the OECD average
  •  Czech Republic (position 26) - similar to the OECD average
  •  Austria (position 27) - below the OECD average
  •  Luxembourg (position 30) - blow the OECD average
  •  Hungary (position 33) - below the OECD average
  •  Croatia (position 35) - below the OECD average
  •  Slovenia (position 38) - below the OECD average
  •  Serbia (position 45) - below the OECD average
  •  Romania (position 50) - below the OECD average

Higher education

Main article: Higher education in Europe

Universities

Main article: Universities in Europe

Oldest Universities in Central Europe include (by their dates of foundation):

Central European University

The entrance of the Central European University and some of its students

The Central European University (CEU) is a graduate-level, English-language university promoting a distinctively Central European perspective. It was established in 1991 by a Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who has provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe .[100] CEU has more than 1500 students from 100 countries and 300 faculty members from more than 30 countries.

Regional exchange program

Central European Exchange Program for University Studies (CEEPUS) is an international exchange program for students and teachers teaching or studying in participating countries. Its current members include:[101]

Sport

Main article: Sport in Europe

There is a number of specifically Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:

The most popular sports in Central Europe are football and winter sports.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Europe

Literature

Central European literature topics include everyday life, such as struggle with social issues (Henryk Sienkiewicz, Gerhart Hauptmann, Władysław Reymont, Thomas Mann) bureaucracy and absurd[102](Franz Kafka, Witold Gombrowicz), as well as the region's past: World War I (Carl Spitteler, Jaroslav Hašek, Robert Musil), World War II, especially the Holocaust[103](Heinrich Böll, Leon Kruczkowski, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Tadeusz Borowski), anti-Communism (Jaroslav Seifert, Czesław Miłosz)(Imre Kertész, Elfriede Jelinek), expulsions (Günter Grass) and life under the communism (Herta Müller, Wisława Szymborska).[104]

Cuisine

Main articles: Central European cuisine and European cuisine

Central European cuisine has evolved through centuries due to social and political change. Most countries share many dishes. The most popular dishes typical to Central Europe are sausages and cheeses, where the earliest evidence of cheese-making in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kujawy, Poland).[105] Other foods widely associated with Central Europe are goulash and beer. List of countries by beer consumption per capita is led by the Czech Republic, followed by Germany and Austria. Poland comes 9th, Slovenia 12th, Croatia 15th and Romania 16th.

Art and Architecture

Main articles: Art of Europe and Architecture of Europe

Central European architecture has been shaped by major European styles including but not limited to: Brick Gothic, Rococo, Secession (art) and Modern architecture. Four Central European countries are amongst countries with highers number of World Heritage Sites:

Beliefs

Main article: Religion in Europe

Central Europe has been a centre of Protestantism in the past, however it has been mostly eradicated by the Counterreformation.[106][107][108] Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Slovenia), historically Protestant, later Catholic (the Czech Republic), Protestant or mixed Catholic and Protestant (Germany, Hungary and Switzerland). Serbia is mostly Orthodox and Romania is mostly Orthodox with significant Protestant and Catholic. In some of these countries, there is a number of atheists, undeclared and non-religious people: the Czech Republic (non-religious 34.2% and undeclared 45.2%) Germany (non-religious 38%), Slovenia (atheist 30.2%), Luxembourg (25% non-religious), Switzerland (20.1%), Hungary (27.2% undeclared, 16.7% "non-religious" and 1.5% atheists), Slovakia (atheists and non-religious 13.4%, "not specified" 10.6%) Austria (19.7% of "other or none"), Liechtenstein (10.6% with no religion), Serbia (theist 2.2% and undeclared 3.1%) and Poland (3% of non-believers/agnostics and 1% of undeclared), Croatia (4%).

Geography

Main article: Geography of Europe
Current measurements of extreme points of Europe and its centres.

According to various calculations of the midpoint of Europe, Central Europe is geographically located west to the midpoint of the continent. Nevertheless, the International Geographical Union during the conference in Prague in 1994[109] has established Central European countries as:

Central European Flora region

The European floristic regions

The Central European Flora region stretches from Central France (Massif Central) to Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.[110]

Physical geography

Between the Alps and the Baltics

Geography strongly defines Central Europe's borders with its neighbouring regions to the North and South, namely Northern Europe (or Scandinavia) across the Baltic Sea, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy) across the Alps and the Balkan peninsula across the Soča-Krka-Sava-Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined and for this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily West-East than South-North. The Rhine river which runs South-North through Western Germany is an exception.[original research?]

Carpathian countries (north to south): AT, CZ, PL, SK, HU, UA, RO, SRB

Pannonian Plain and Carpathian Mountains

The Pannonian Plain, between the Alps (west), the Carpathians (north and east), and the Sava/Danube (south)

Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers Sava and Danube- and their respective floodplains.[111] The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Republika Srpska) and Ukraine ("peri- Pannonian states").

Dinaric Alps

As southeastern division of the Eastern Alps,[112] the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north-south. According to the Freie Universitaet Berlin[113] this mountain chain is classified as South Central European.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Europe

Central European countries are generally involved in a number of organisations such as NATO, the EU, or OECD. Two of them, Germany and Poland, were listed by the Foundation for National Security Research among the most powerful nations, as 7th and 23rd, respectively.[114] Switzerland is known for its direct democracy and long-standing neutrality. Since recently, Serbia is also a neutral country.[115] Most countries in Central Europe are unitary (Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia), but a significant number of people lives in federal countries (Austria, Germany and Switzerland).

Organisations

Central Europe is a birthplace of the following regional organisations:

  • Central European Initiative
    Central European Initiative
  • Visegrád Group
    Visegrád Group
  • CEFTA founding states
    CEFTA founding states
  • CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU
    CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU
  • Current CEFTA members
    Current CEFTA members

Democracy Index

The Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy index map for 2012, with greener colours representing more democratic countries.
Full democracies:
  9.00-10.00
  8.00-8.99
Flawed democracies:
  7.00-7.99
  6.00-6.99
Hybrid regimes:
  5.00-5.99
  4.00-4.99
Authoritarian regimes:
  3.00-3.99
  2.00-2.99
  0.00-1.99
Insufficient information, no rating:
  

Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarian rule, particularly Nazism (Germany, Austria, other occupied countries) and Communism, most of Central Europe have been occupied and later allied with the USSR, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g. Polish people's referendum, 1946) or force. Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index:[116]

Global Peace Index

Global Peace Index Scores.

In spite of turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%:[117]

Media

Main article: Media

Freedom of Press Index

2013 Press Freedom Index[118]
  Very serious situation
  Difficult situation
  Noticeable problems
  Satisfactory situation
  Good situation
  Not classified / No data

Central European media are considered as free. Some of the top scoring countries are in Central Europe:

Central European Time

Central European Time Zone (dark red)

The time zone used in most parts of the European Union, is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. It is commonly called Central European Time, because it has been first adopted in central Europe (by year):

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Europe
Population density (people per km2) by country, 2006

Central Europe is one of continent’s most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the largest European country by population (that is entirely placed in Europe). Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe (“the core countries”) number around 165 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.[121] Other populations include: Poland with around 39 million residents, Czech republic at 10.5 million, Hungary - 10 million, Austria with 8.5 million, Switzerland with its 8 million inhabitants, Slovakia at 5.5 million, Croatia at 4,3 million, Slovenia at 2 million and Liechtenstein at 0,03 million.

If the countries which are occasionally included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole - Romania (7 - 19 million people), Serbia (3,6 – 7 million), Lithuania (3.5 million), Latvia (2.5 million), Estonia (1.5 million) – it would contribute to the rise of between 20 - 37.5 million, depending on whether regional or integral approach was used.[121] If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, it would surpass the 200 million people figure.

  • Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997)   The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book[122]   countries for which there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[123]
    Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997)
      The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book[122]
      countries for which there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[123]
  • According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group[22][124]
    According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group[22][124]
  • Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011)[125]   Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)   Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term.
    Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011)[125]
      Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)
      Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term.
  • Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009)[126]   Central European countries   Slovenia in "south central Europe"
    Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009)[126]
      Central European countries
      Slovenia in "south central Europe"
  • The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):   Countries usually considered Central European   Central European countries in the broader sense of the term   Countries occasionally considered to be Central European
    The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):
      Countries usually considered Central European
      Central European countries in the broader sense of the term
      Countries occasionally considered to be Central European
  • Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998))
    Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998))
  • Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)[127]
    Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)[127]
  • The map of Central Europe according to the University of Texas at Austin and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte[128]
    The map of Central Europe according to the University of Texas at Austin and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte[128]

The concept

Middle Ages

Main article: Middle Ages

As elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were considered the Roman Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe that remained Orthodox Christian, was the area of Byzantine cultural influence, and after the schism will develop cultural unity and protection against the Catholic and Protestant (Western) world, within the framework of Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.[129]

According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in close connection with Western European development. He explained that between the 11th and 15th centuries not only Christianization and its cultural consequences were implemented, but well-defined social features emerged in Central Europe based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe. These phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments.[130]

In 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary.[131] They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, inspiring their late successors to launch a successful Central European initiative.[131]

In the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights.

Before World War I

Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom.[132]

A view of Central Europe dating from the time before the First World War (1902):[133]
  Central European countries and regions: Germany and Austria-Hungary (without Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia)
  Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and Eastern Europe: Romania

The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century,[134] but its real life began in the 20th century and immediately became an object of intensive interest. However, the very first concept mixed science, politics and economy – it was strictly connected with intensively growing German economy and its aspirations to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans.[135] An example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903.[136]

On 21 January 1904 – Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria–Hungary (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The “bible” of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa[137] in which he called for an economic federation to be established after the war. Naumann's idea was that the federation would have at its center Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire but would also include all European nations outside the Anglo-French alliance, on one side, and Russia, on the other.[138] The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I and the dissolution of Austria–Hungary. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.

Interwar period

Interwar Central Europe, according to the French geographer Emmanuel de Martonne (1927)
Interwar Central Europe according to National Gallery of Art

According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included: Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania. Italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe.[139]

The interwar period (1918–1939) brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have (re)appeared on the map of Europe: Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic and national problems of "new" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium (Międzymorze) ideas succeeded.

The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German states (Germany, Austria), non-German territories being an area of intended German penetration and domination – German leadership position was to be the natural result of economic dominance.[134] After the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At that time the scientists took interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933 Congress continued the discussions.

Little Entente defence union, The Versailles System and CE, Oxford journals[140]

Hungarian scholar Magda Adam wrote in her study Versailles System and Central Europe (2006): "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down".[140]

The avant-garde movements of Central Europe were an essential part of modernism’s evolution, reaching its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia from 1910 to 1930.[141] The manifestos and magazines of Western European radical art circles are well known to Western scholars and are being taught at primary universities of their kind in the western world.

Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain

Following World War II, large parts of Europe that were culturally and historically Western became part of the Eastern bloc. Czech author Milan Kundera (emigrant to France) thus wrote in 1984 about the "Tragedy of Central Europe" in the New York Review of Books.[142] Consequently, the English term Central Europe was increasingly applied only to the westernmost former Warsaw Pact countries (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary) to specify them as communist states that were culturally tied to Western Europe.[143] This usage continued after the end of the Warsaw Pact when these countries started to undergo transition.

The post-World War II period brought blocking of the research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.[144] At the end of the communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially anti-communist opposition, came back to their research.[145]

According to Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon,[146] Central Europe is a part of Europe composed by the surface of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states- Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia) as well as northeastern France.

  • Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[147]
    Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[147]
  • Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
    Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)
  • Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)
    Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)

Mitteleuropa, the German term

German Mitteleuropa (by political and cultural criteria) covering Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Baltic states and parts of Ukraine, Russia, Romania, Serbia, France and Italy.

The German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe[148]) is an ambiguous German concept.[148] It is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under German(ic)-Slavic cultural hegemony until World War I (encompassing Austria–Hungary and Germany in their pre-war formations but usually excluding the Baltic countries north of East Prussia).[citation needed] According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus.[149] Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.[150]

In Germany the connotation is also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line[citation needed] which were lost as the result of World War II, annexed by People's Republic of Poland and the Soviet Union, and ethnically cleansed of Germans by communist authorities and forces (see expulsion of Germans after World War II) due to Yalta Conference and Potsdam Conference decisions. In this view Bohemia and Moravia, with its dual Western Slavic and Germanic heritage, combined with the historic element of the "Sudetenland", is a core region illustrating the problems and features of the entire Central European region.
The term Mitteleuropa conjures up negative historical associations, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region.[151] Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century.[152] German-speaking Jews from turn of the 20th century Vienna, Budapest and Prague became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi version of "Mitteleuropa" destroyed this kind of culture.[152] Some German speakers are sensitive enough to the pejorative connotations of the term Mitteleuropa to use Zentraleuropa instead.[148] Adolf Hitler was obsessed by the idea of Lebensraum and many non-German Central Europeans identify Mitteleuropa with the instruments he employed to acquire it: war, deportations, genocide.[153]

Current views on Central Europe

Rather than a physical entity, Central Europe is a concept of shared history which contrasts with that of the surrounding regions. The issue of how to name and define the Central European region is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author.

Main propositions, gathered by Jerzy Kłoczowski, include:[154]

According to Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád, Hungary and attended by the Polish, Hungarian and Czechoslovak presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.[124]

Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways.[122] According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[122] He says there's no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether the Baltic states, Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, and Bulgaria are parts of Central Europe or not.[123]

Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Eastern and Southeast Europe:[156]

  • Multinational empires were a characteristic of Central Europe.[158] Hungary and Poland, small and medium-size states today, were empires during their early histories.[158] The historical Kingdom of Hungary was until 1918 three times larger than Hungary is today,[158] while Poland was the largest state in Europe in the 16th century.[158] Both these kingdoms housed a wide variety of different peoples.[158]

He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamical historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, Lithuania, a fair share of Belarus and western Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but 250 years ago they were in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[158]
Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews[159][160] in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).[161]

The Columbia Encyclopedia defines Central Europe as: Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, and Hungary.[162] The World Factbook[1] Encyclopedia Britannica[citation needed] and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie use the same definition adding Slovenia too. Encarta Encyclopedia does not clearly define the region, but places the same countries into Central Europe in its individual articles on countries, adding Slovenia in "south central Europe".[126] While the United Nations Statistical Division doesn't acknowledge a regional division of Central Europe, identifying four geographic region of Europe (North, South, East and West).,[163] the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names does recognise Central Europe and in 2006 it included Central Europe with an extensive description in its proposed "Subdivision of Europe into Larger Regions by Cultural Criteria ".[164][165]

The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (English: Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate. Usually the countries considered to be Central European are Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary; in the broader sense Romania too, northern Serbia, occasionally also the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.

The concept of Central Europe, and that of a common identity, is somewhat elusive and contested.[163][166][6][167] However, some scholars assert that a distinct "Central European culture, as controversial and debated the notion may be, exists."[9][10] This viewpoint is based on "similarities emanating from historical, social and cultural characteristics",[9][11] and it is identified as having been "one of the world's richest sources of creative talent" between the 17th and 20th centuries.[12] Cross Currents: A Yearbook of Central European Culture characterizes Central Europe "as an abandoned West or a place where East and West collide".[13] Germany's Permanent Committee on Geographical Names defines Central Europe both as a distinct cultural area and a political region.[14][15] George Schöpflin and others argue that Central Europe is defined by being "a part of Western Christianity",[16] and Samuel P. Huntington places the region firmly within Western culture.[17]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Central Europe.

References

  1. ^ a b "The World Factbook: Field listing – Location". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2009.
  2. ^ a b Lonnie Johnson, Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends, Oxford University Pres
  3. ^ "Central Europe — The future of the Visegrad group". The Economist. 14 April 2005. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
  4. ^ "Regions, Regionalism, Eastern Europe by Steven Cassedy". New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Charles Scribner's Sons. 2005. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
  5. ^ Lecture 14: The Origins of the Cold War. Historyguide.org. Retrieved on 2011-10-29.
  6. ^ a b Agh 1998, pp. 2–8
  7. ^ "Central European Identity in Politics — Jiří Pehe" (in Czech). Conference on Central European Identity, Central European Foundation, Bratislava. 2002. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
  8. ^ "Europe of Cultures: Cultural Identity of Central Europe". Europe House Zagreb, Culturelink Network/IRMO. 24 November 1996. Retrieved 31 January 2010.
  9. ^ a b c d Comparative Central European culture. Purdue University Press. 2002. ISBN 9781557532404. Retrieved 31 January 2010. Cite error: The named reference "books.google.com" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  10. ^ a b "An Introduction to Central Europe: History, Culture, and Politics – Preparatory Course for Study Abroad Undergraduate Students at CEU" (PDF). Central European University. Budapest. Fall 2006.
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Bibliography

Further reading

  • Jacques Rupnik, "In Search of Central Europe: Ten Years Later", in Gardner, Hall, with Schaeffer, Elinore & Kobtzeff, Oleg, (ed.), Central and South-central Europe in Transition, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2000 (translated form French by Oleg Kobtzeff)
  • Article 'Mapping Central Europe' in hidden europe, 5, pp. 14–15 (November 2005)
  • "Journal of East Central Europe": http://www.ece.ceu.hu
Look up central europe in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to East/Central Europe.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Central Europe.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Central Europe.
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