Islam

For other uses, including people named "Islam," see Islam (disambiguation).

Islam (Arabic: ) is a monotheistic religion originating with the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. It is the second-largest religion in the world today, with an estimated 1.4 billion adherents, spread across the globe, known as Muslims. The word "Islam" means "submission", referring to the total surrender of one's self to God (Arabic: [[Allah|الله, Allāh]]), and the word Muslim means "one who submits (to God)".

Muslims believe that God revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad and that Muhammad is God's final prophet. The Qur'an and the traditions of Muhammad in the Sunnah are regarded as the fundamental sources of Islam. Muslims do not regard Muhammad as the founder of a new religion, but as the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Jesus, Moses, Noah, and other prophets. They hold that part of the messages of these prophets became distorted over time either in interpretation, in text, or both. Like Judaism, and Christianity, Islam is an Abrahamic religion.

Today Islam is the predominant religion in North Africa, West Africa the Horn of Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and parts of the Indian subcontinent. Large communities can also be found in China, the Balkan Peninsula and Russia. Only about 20 percent of Muslims originate from Arab countries. Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries, such as France, which has the largest Muslim population in Western Europe and the United Kingdom.

Etymology and meaning

The word islām is "the infinitive of the fourth form of the Arabic triconsonantal root s-l-m meaning 'to submit,' 'to surrender'"; therefore Islam effectively means "submission to God". Followers of Islam are expected to submit to God by worshiping him, following his commands, and avoiding polytheism. The word islam is also based upon the Arabic word for peace (salam) and could be applicible to the religion of Islam if it is taken to mean that "true peace resides in submission to God".

The word islām takes on a number of different meanings in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), the quality of Islam as an internal conviction is stressed, for example: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam." Other verses establish the connection between islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"), and assert that only the surrender of one's self to God can render unto him the worship which is his due: "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion." The final category of verses describe Islam as an action (of returning to God), more than simply a verbal affirmation.

Beliefs

Main article: Aqidah

Muslims believe that God revealed his final message to humanity through the Islamic prophet Muhammad via the angel Gabriel. They consider Muhammad to have been God's final prophet, the "Seal of the Prophets", and the Qur'an to be the revelations he received in his 23 years of preaching. Muslims hold that all of God's messengers since Adam preached the message of Islam — submission to the will of the one God. To Muslims, Islam is the eternal religion, described in the Qur'an as "the primordial nature upon which God created mankind". Furthermore, the Qur'an states that the proper name Muslim was given by Abraham.

As a historical phenomenon, however, Islam was originated in Arabia in early 7th century. Islamic texts depict Judaism and Christianity as prophetic successor traditions to the teachings of Abraham. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians "People of the Book", and distinguishes them from polytheists. However, Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted as indicated in the Qur'an — either in interpretation, in text, or both.

Islamic belief has six main components — belief in God; his revelations; his angels; his messengers; the "Day of Judgement"; and the divine decree.

God

Main articles: Allah, God, Islamic concept of God, and Tawhid

The fundamental concept in Islam is the oneness of God (tawhīd): monotheism which is simple and uncompounded, not composed or made up of parts. The oneness of God is the first of Islam's five pillars, expressed by the Shahadah (testification). By declaring the Shahadah, a Muslim attests to the belief that there are no gods but God, and that Muhammad is God's messenger.

In Arabic, God is called Allāh. Etymologically, this name is thought to be derived from a contraction of the Arabic words al- (the) and Template:ArabDIN (deity, masculine form) — Template:ArabDIN meaning "the God". The word Allāh is also used by Arab speaking Christian and Jewish people to refer to God. According to F. E. Peters: "The Qur'an insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews. The Quran's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham." However, Muslims reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, seeing it as akin to polytheism. God is described in a chapter (sura) of the Qu'ran as: "...God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him".

Qur'an

The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi.

Main article: Qur'an

The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the literal word of God, and is the central religious text of Islam. It has also been called, in English, the Koran and, archaically, the Alcoran. The word Qur'an means "recitation". Although the Qur'an is often referred to as a "book", when Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the Angel Gabriel on numerous occasions between the years 610 and his death on July 6 632. Modern Western academics generally hold that the Qur'an of today is not very different from the words Muslims believe to have been revealed to Muhammad, as the search for other variants has not yielded any differences of great significance.

The Qur'an occupies a status of primacy in Islamic jurisprudence, and Muslims consider it a definitive source of guidance in to live in accordance to the will of God. To interpret the Qu'ran, Muslims use a form of exegesis known as tafsir.

Muslims believe that the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic. Translations, they maintain, are the result of human effort, and are necessarily deficient. This deficiency arises from differences in human languages, the human fallibility of translators, and not least because the inspired style found in the original would be lost. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself. Almost all modern, printed versions of the Qur'an are parallel text ones, with a vernacular translation facing the original Arabic text.

Muhammad

Main article: Muhammad

See also: Historicity of Muhammad

Muhammad (c. 570 – July 6 632), (also Mohammed, Mohamet, and other variants), was an Arab religious and political leader who propagated the religion of Islam. Muslims consider him the greatest prophet of God, and the last recipient of divine revelation. He is viewed not as the founder of a new religion, but as the last in a series of prophets, the restorer of the original monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham and others which had become corrupted. For the last 23 years of his life, beginning at age 40, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his followers.

File:Mohammad Rasul Allah.jpg

Arabic calligraphy reading "Muhammad, Messenger of Allah".

During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca (which included his relatives and tribal associates), imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some people converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were subsequently persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 13 years of preaching in Mecca, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the hijra (emigration) to the city of Medina. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad soon established his political and religious authority. By 629, he was powerful enough to return to Mecca and assert control in the bloodless Conquest of Mecca.

By the time of his death in 632, Muhammad had succeeded in bringing the Arabian peninsula under his rule. Despite his exalted status in Muslim thought, Muslims believe that Muhammad was merely human.

Sunnah

Main article: Sunnah

Sunnah literally means "trodden path" and it refers in common usage to the normative example of Muhammad. This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, his response to the words and actions of others, and his personal characteristics. By the time of the classical Muslim jurist, ash-Shafi'i (d. 820), the Sunnah had come to play an significant role in Islamic law, and Muslims were encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah also became a key exponent in clarifying understanding of the Qur'an. The authentic hadith are considered by Muslims to be an authoritative source of revelation, second only to the Qur'an, because they represent divine guidance as implemented by Muhammad.

Angels

Main article: Angels in Islam

Belief in angels is central to the religion of Islam, beginning with the belief that the Qur'an was dictated to Muhammad by the chief of all angels, Gabriel. They are seen as the ministers of God, and in some cases the agents of revelation. According to Islamic belief, angels were created from light, and do not possess free will. They are completely devoted to the worship of God and are tasked by him with certain duties, such as recording every human being's actions, placing a soul in a newborn child, maintaining aspects of the Earth's environment, and taking the soul at the time of death. Angels are described in the Qur'an as "messengers with wings — two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..." Angels sometimes but not usually assume human form, and can intercede on man's behalf.

Resurrection and judgment

Main article: Qiyama

A fundamental tenet of Islam is belief in the "Day of Resurrection", yawm al-Qiyāmah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour"). The trials and tribulations preceding and during Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of Islamic scholars such as al-Ghazali, Ibn Kathir, and al-Bukhari. Muslims believe that God will hold every human, Muslim and non-Muslim, accountable for his or her deeds at a preordained time unknown to man. Traditions say Muhammad will be the first to be brought back to life. The Qur'an emphasizes Bodily resurrection, a sharp break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death (although certain Islamic philosophers like Ibn Sina have interpreted the relevant verses symbolically). Resurrection will be followed by the gathering of mankind, culminating in their judgment by God.

The Qur'an states that some sins can condemn someone to hell. These include lying, dishonesty, corruption, ignoring God or God's revelations, denying the resurrection, refusing to feed the poor, indulging in opulence and ostentation, and oppressing or economically exploiting others. Muslims view paradise as a place of joy and bliss, but despite the Qur'an's descriptions of the physical pleasures to come, there are clear references to an even greater joy — acceptance by God (ridwan). There is also a strong mystical tradition in Islam that places these heavenly delights in the context of the ecstatic awareness of God.

Divine decree

Main article: Qadr (doctrine)

Another fundamental tenet of Islam is the belief in divine preordainment (al-qadaa wa'l-qadr), meaning that God has full knowledge and decree over all that occurs. This is explained by Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..." Muslims believe that nothing in the world can happen, good or evil, unless it has been preordained and permitted by God. Man possesses free will in the sense that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and thus retains responsibility over his actions. Muslims also believe that although God has decreed all things, the evils and calamities that are decreed are done so as a trial, or because they may lead to a later benefit not yet apparent due to mankind's lack of comprehension. Therefore, divine preordainment does not suggest absence of God's indignation against evil and disbelief. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfuz, the "Preserved Tablet".

Five Pillars of Islam

Main article: Five Pillars of Islam

The Five Pillars of Islam is the term given to "the five duties incumbent on every Muslim". These duties are shahadah (profession of faith), salah (ritual prayer), zakat (alms tax), sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).

Shahadah

File:White shahadah on black.svg

Flag of early Muslims used on the battlefield (named Al-Raya الراية), with the Shahadah in white script.

The basic creed or tenet of Islam is found in the shahādatān ("twin testimonies"): Template:ArabDIN, or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." As the most important pillar, this testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Ideally, it is the first words a newborn will hear, and children are taught to recite and understand the shahadah as soon as they are able to understand it. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.

Salah

File:Mosque.Qibla.01.jpg

Muslims performing salah (prayer).

The second pillar of Islam is salah, the requirement to pray five times a day at fixed times. Each salah is performed facing towards the Kaaba in Mecca. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God; it is seen as a personal communication with God, expressing gratitude and worship. According to the Qur'an, the benefit of prayer "restrains [one] from shameful and evil deeds". Salah is compulsory but some flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on the circumstances. For example in the case of sickness or lack of space, a worshiper can offer salah while sitting, or even lying down, and the prayer can be shortened when traveling.

The salah must be performed in the Arabic language to the best of each worshiper's ability, although any extra prayers (du'a) said afterwards need not be in Arabic. The lines of prayer are to be recited by heart (although beginners may use written aids), and the worshiper's body and clothing, as well as the place of prayer, must be cleansed. All prayers should be conducted within the prescribed time period (waqt) and with the appropriate number of units (raka'ah). While the prayers may be made at any point within the waqt, it is considered best to begin them as soon as possible after the call to prayer is heard.

Zakat

Zakat, or alms-giving, is the practice of charitable giving by Muslims based on accumulated wealth, and is obligatory for all who are able to do so. It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to ease economic hardship for others and eliminate inequality. Zakat consists of spending a fixed portion of one's wealth for the benefit of the poor or needy, including slaves, debtors, travelers, and others. A Muslim may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity (sadaqah), in order to achieve additional divine reward.

There are two main types of zakat. First, there is the zakat on traffic, which is a fixed amount based on the cost of food that is paid during the month of Ramadan by the head of a family for himself and his dependents. Second, there is the zakat on wealth, which covers money made in business, savings, income, and so on. In current usage zakat is treated as a 2.5% levy on most valuables and savings held for a full lunar year, as long as the total value is more than a basic minimum known as nisab (3 ounces or 87.48 g of gold). As of 16 October 2006, nisab is approximately US $1,750 or an equivalent amount in any other currency.

Sawm

Muslims traditionally break their fasts in Ramadan with dates (like those offered by this date seller in Kuwait City), as was the practice (Sunnah) of Muhammad.

Three types of fasting (Sawm) are recognized by the Qur'an: Ritual fasting (^{[Quran 2:183]}), fasting as compensation or repentance (^{[Quran 2:196]}), and ascetic fasting (^{[Quran 33:35]}).

Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must abstain from food, drink, and sexual intercourse from dawn to dusk during this month, and are to be especially mindful of other sins. The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness to God, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, to atone for their past sins, and to remind them of the needy. During Ramadan, Muslims are also expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, harsh language, and gossip; in other words, they are expected to try to get along with each other better than normal. In addition, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to be avoided.

Fasting during Ramadan is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would be excessively problematic. These include pre-pubescent children, those with a medical condition such as diabetes, elderly people, and pregnant or breastfeeding women. Observing fasts is not allowed for menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast are those in combat and travelers who intended to spend fewer than five days away from home. Missing fasts usually must be made up soon afterwards, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance.

Hajj

The hajj to the Kaaba in Mecca is an important practice in Islam.

The Hajj is a pilgrimage that occurs during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. When the pilgrim is around ten kilometers from Mecca, he must dress in Ihram clothing, which consists of two white sheets. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the Black Stone, running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina, among others.

The pilgrim, or the hajji, is honored in his or her community. For some, this is an incentive to perform the Hajj. Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine his or her intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-improvement.

Islamic law

File:Masjid Nabawi. Medina, Saudi Arabia.jpg

Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina is also the site of Muhammad's tomb.

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh

The Sharia (literally: "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law, determined by traditional Islamic scholarship. In Islam, Sharia is viewed as the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from broad topics of governance and foreign relations all the way down to issues of daily living. Islamic laws that are covered expressly in the Qur'an are referred to as hudud laws, which specify the punishments for a number of common crimes. The Qur'an and Sunnah also detail laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, the prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars, the ulema, have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these broad rules and their interpretation.

Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined in Islamic thought as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). To early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the basic principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundmental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.

Community

Mosques

Main article: Mosque

File:Mecca skyline.jpg

The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca as it exists today.

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims. Muslims often refer to the mosque by its Arabic name, masjid. The word "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jami), which has more community and social activities and amenities. The primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer. Nevertheless, mosques are also important to the Muslim community as meeting place and a place of study. They have evolved significantly from the open-air spaces that were the Quba Mosque and Masjid al-Nabawi in the seventh century. Today, most mosques have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls, demonstrating Islamic architecture.

Etiquette

Main article: Adab (behavior)

There are numerous practices which fall into the category of Adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, using only the right hand for eating and drinking, greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), and saying Alhamdulillah ("praise be to God") when sneezing, among others. Hygienic practices include clipping the mustache, shaving the pubic and underarm hair, cutting nails, and cleaning the nostrils and the mouth. Islamic etiquette also prescribes specific ways of cleaning the body after elimination, and requires abstention from sexual relations during menstruation and the puerperal discharge. Furthermore, Muslims are also required to perform a ceremonial bath (ghusl) following menstruation, childbirth, or sexual intercourse. Male offspring are also circumcised, in accordance with Islamic practice. Islamic burial rituals include the funeral prayer of the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burial in a grave.

Dietary laws

Main article: Islamic dietary laws

Muslims, like Jews, are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pig products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. Excepting fish, all consumed meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.

Islamic calendar

Main article: Islamic calendar

File:Eid Prayers at the Badshahi Mosque.jpeg

Eid prayers on the holiday of Eid al-Fitr at the Badshahi Mosque, Pakistan. The days of Eid are important occasions on the Islamic calendar.

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the hijra in 622 CE, because it was regarded as a turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the beginning of the Islamic calendar, 1 AH (Anno Hegira), was reportedly done by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar, with nineteen ordinary years of 354 days and eleven leap years of 355 days in a thirty-year cycle. It is synchronized only with lunations and not with the solar year. Therefore, Islamic dates cannot be converted to CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years.

Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important festivals in the Islamic calendar are Eid Al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1^st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid Al-Adha (Arabic: عيد الأضحى) on the 10^th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Jihad

Main article: Jihad

Jihad is literally struggle in the way of God and is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, although it occupies no official status as such. Within the realms of Islamic jurisprudence, jihad usually refers to military exertion against non-Muslim combatants. In broader usage and interpretation, the term has accrued both violent and non-violent meanings. It can refer to striving to live a moral and virtuous life, to spreading and defending Islam, and to fighting injustice and oppression, among other usages.

The primary aim of jihad is not the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam by force, but rather the expansion and defense of the Islamic state. Muslim scholars condemned secular wars as an evil rooted in humanity's vengeful nature. In the classical manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, the rules associated with armed warfare are covered at great length. Such rules include not killing women, children and non-combatants, as well as not damaging cultivated or residential areas. More recently, modern Muslims have tried to re-interpret the Islamic sources, stressing that jihad is essentially defensive warfare aimed at protecting Muslims and Islam. Although some Islamic scholars disagree about how jihad should be pursued, there is consensus among them that the concept of jihad will always include armed struggle against persecution and oppression. Some Muslims believe that Muhammad regarded the inner struggle for faith a "Greater Jihad" than even fighting by force in the way of God.

History

Main article: History of Islam

Further information: [[:Caliph and Islamic Golden Age]]

Early years and the Rashidun caliphate

Islam began in Arabia in the 7th century under the leadership of Muhammad, who united the many tribes of Arabia under Islamic law. With Muhammad's death in 632, there was a moment of confusion about who would succeed to leadership of the Muslim community. With a dispute flaring between the Medinese Ansar and the Meccan Muhajirun as to who would undertake this task, Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr: Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph, literally "successor", leader of the community of Islam.

Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge the recent defeat by Byzantine (also known as Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although a more potent threat soon surfaced in the form of a number of Arab tribes who were in revolt after having learned of the death of Muhammad. Some of these tribes refused to pay the Zakat tax to the new caliph, whilst other tribes touted individuals claiming to be prophets. Abu Bakr swiftly declared war upon, and subdued these tribes, in the episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".

Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, and after him, Uthman ibn al-Affan, and then Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as the "khulafa rashidūn" ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded greatly. The decades of warring between the neighboring Persian and Byzantine empires had rendered both sides weakened and exhausted. Not only that, it had also caused them to underestimate the strength of the growing new power, and the Arabs' superior military horsemanship. This, coupled with the precipitation of internal strife within Byzantium and its exposure to a string of barbarian invasions, made conditions extremely favorable for the Muslims. Exploitation of these weaknesses enabled the Muslims to conquer the lands of Syria and Palestine (634—640), Egypt (639—642); and, towards the east, the lands of Iraq (641), Armenia and Iran (642), and even as far as Transoxiana and Chinese Turkestan.

Emergence of hereditary caliphates

Main articles: Ummayad and Abbasid

Despite the military successes of the Muslims at this time, the political atmosphere was not without controversy. With Umar assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with gradually increasing opposition. He was subsequently accused of nepotism, favoritism and of introducing reprehensible religious innovations, though in reality the motivations for such charges were economic. Like Umar, Uthman too was then assassinated, in 656. Ali then assumed the position of caliph, although tensions soon escalated into what became the first civil war (the "First Fitna") when numerous companions of Muhammad, including Uthman's relative Muawiyah (who was assigned by Uthman as governor of Syria) and Muhammad's wife Aisha, sought to avenge the slaying of Uthman. Ali's forces defeated the latter at the Battle of the Camel, but the encounter with Muawiyah proved indecisive, with both sides agreeing to arbitration. Ali retained his position as caliph but had been unable to bring Mu'awiyah's territory under his command. When Ali was fatally stabbed by a Kharijite dissenter in 661, Mu'awiyah was ordained as the caliph, marking the start of the hereditary Ummayad caliphate. Under his rule, Mu'awiyah was able to conquer much of North Africa, mainly through the efforts of Muslim general Uqba ibn Nafi.

The territory of the Caliphate in the year 750.

There was much contention surrounding Mu'awiyah's assignment of his son Yazid as successor upon the eve of his death in 680, drawing protest from Husayn bin Ali, grandson of Muhammad, and Ibn az-Zubayr, a companion of Muhammad. Both led separate and ultimately unsuccessful revolts, and Ummayad attempts to pacify them became known as the "Second Fitna". Thereafter, the Ummayad dynasty continued rulership for a further seventy years (with caliph Umar II's tenure especially notable), and were able to conquer the Maghrib (699—705), as well as Spain and the Narbonnese Gaul at a similar date.

The gains of the Ummayad empire were consolidated upon when the Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, with the conquest of the Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily. The new ruling party had been instated on the wave of dissatisfaction propagated against the Ummayads, cultured mainly by the Abbasid revolutionary, Abu Muslim. Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age." This was also the case for commerce, industry, the arts and sciences, which prospered especially under the rule of Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754—775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786—809), and al-Ma'mun (ruled 809—813).

Fragmentation

Interior of the Mezquita (in Cordoba, Spain), a Roman Catholic cathedral which was formerly a mosque, the construction of which began in 784 under Abd ar-Rahman I, who fled Damascus during the Abbasid revolution.

Baghdad was made the new capital of the caliphate (moved from the previous capital, Damascus) due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania. It was at this time, however, that the caliphate showed signs of fracture and the uprising of regional dynasties. Although the Ummayad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family member, Abd ar-Rahman I, was able to flee to Spain and establish an independent caliphate there, in 756. In the Maghreb region, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise the authority of the central caliphate. Aghlabid rule was short lived, as they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a new capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as Cairo). Similar was the case in Persia, where the Turkic Ghaznavids managed to snatch power from the Abbasids. Whatever temporal power of the Abbasids remained had eventually been consumed by the Seljuq Turks (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia), in 1055.

During this time, expansion continued, sometimes by military warfare, sometimes by peaceful proselytism. The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193—1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had been conquered. In sub-Saharan West Africa, it was just after the year 1000 that Islam was established. Muslim rulers are known to have been in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence later, in the 13th century.

The Crusades and the Mongol invasions

Main articles: Crusades, Mongol invasions, and Mamluks

Artistic depiction of the Battle of Hattin in 1187, where Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin's Ayyubid forces.

Islamic conquest into Christian Europe spread as far as southern France. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Christian Europe, at the behest of the Pope, launched a series of Crusades and captured Jerusalem. The Muslim general Saladin, however, regained Jerusalem at the Battle of Hattin in 1187, also having defeated the Shiite Fatimids earlier in 1171 upon which the Ayyubid dynasty had been conceived.

The wave of Mongol invasions, which had initially commenced in the early 13th century under the leadership of Genghis Khan, marked a violent end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol Empire had spread rapidly throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237. With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, sights were set upon the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made the head of the Mongol army assigned with the task of subduing Baghdad. This was achieved at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258, which saw the Abbasids overrun by the superior Mongol army. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and subsequently destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell shortly afterwards, in 1260. Any prospective conquest of Egypt was temporarily delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time.

With Mongol conquest in the east, the Ayyubid dynasty ruling over Egypt had been surpassed by the slave-soldier Mamluks in 1250. This had been done through the marriage between Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub, with Mamluk general Aybak. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After the assassination of Aybak, and the succession of Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and decisively routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. This signalled an adverse shift in fortunes for the Mongols, who were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Homs a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether. With this, the Mamluks were also able to conquer the last of the crusader territories.

Rise of the Ottomans

Main article: Ottoman Empire

Interior of the Ulu Camii, a mosque constructed under the Ottoman sultan Beyazid I in Bursa (1396), showing the multiple domes and pillars decorated with Islamic calligraphy.

The Seljuk Turks fell apart rapidly in the second half of the 13th century, especially after the Mongol invasions in Anatolia. This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (Söğüt) in 1281, succeeding his father Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I led it to a series of consecutive victories over the Byzantine Empire. By 1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor, Orhan I. Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were firmly established in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a swiftly growing empire.

Further growth was brought to a sudden halt, as Bayezid I had been captured by Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, upon which a turbulent period known as the Ottoman Interregnum ensued. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of the territories recently conquered by the Ottomans regained independent status, potential ruin for the Ottoman Empire became apparent. However, the empire quickly recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his other ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself the new Ottoman sultan in 1413.

At around this time the naval fleet of the Ottomans developed considerably, such that they were able to challenge Venice, traditionally a naval power. Focus was also directed towards reconquering the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444—1446; 1451—1481), the Ottomans felt strong enough to lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A decisive factor in this siege was the use of firearms and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans (adapted from Europe and improved upon), against which the Byzantines were unable to compete. The Byzantine fortress finally succumbed to the Ottoman invasion in 1453, 54 days into the siege. Mehmed II, entering the city victorious, renamed it to Istanbul. With its capital conceded to the Ottomans, the rest of the Byzantine Empire quickly disintegrated. The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend heavily upon the exploitation of gunpowder.

Early modern period

Main articles: Pasai, Demak Sultanate, Malacca Sultanate, Safavid dynasty, and Mughal Empire

Islam reached the islands of Southeast Asia through Indian Muslim traders near the end of the 13th century. Samudera Pasai and Peureulak (located at Aceh, Indonesia) is the first Southeast Asian port kingdom that convert to Islam circa 13th century. By the mid-15th century, Islam had spread from Sumatra to the nearby Malay peninsula Malacca and other islands from Java, Brunei to Ternate. In 15th century Demak Sultanate set the first Islamic rule on Java on the expense of weakening Hindu Majapahit empire. The conversion of the Malaccan ruler to Islam marked the start of the Malacca Sultanate. Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief. Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under the naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, Aceh Sultanate and Brunei established themself as the centre of Islam in Southeast Asia. Brunei sultanate remains intact even to this day. Throughout areas under its territorial dominance, Islam cemented itself within the cultures under the Muslim empire, resulting in the gradual conversion of the non-Muslim populations to Islam. Such was not entirely the case in Spain, where a series of confrontations with the Christian kingdoms ended in the fall of Granada in 1492.

Map of the dynamics in territorial possession on the Safavid frontiers during the 16th century.

In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I, upon the defeat of the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan Selim I quickly sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories into the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus against the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had previously fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, with their empire rivalling the Ottomans'. Suleiman I also advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 — reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520—1566) signified the height of the Ottoman Empire, after which it fell into gradual decline.

Meanwhile, the Delhi sultanate in the Indian subcontinent had been destroyed by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526, marking the start of the Mughal Empire — its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later, and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought a degree of instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, through which a string of defeats had been dealt to Humayun, significantly weakened the Mughals. Just a year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansion and administrative reforms.

Formation of modern nation-states

By the end of the 19th century, all three Islamic areas of influence had declined due to internal conflict and were later destroyed by Western cultural influence and military ambitions. Following World War I, the remnants of the Ottoman Empire were parceled out as European protectorates or spheres of influence. Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Israel, Lebanon, Montenegro, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Turkey, other Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of Black sea. Alongside Arab nationalism the political movement known as Islamism was established. Oil reserves were discovered in Muslim-majority countries such as Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States. After the second world war the state of Israel was established and a long conflict with Arab nations ensued. The world economy has become dependent on oil and this has enriched some Muslim-majority countries (such as Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States) but continuing conflict has prevented other countries from benefitting fully from this natural resource.

Islamic civilization

Main article: Muslim world

Islam is not only a faith, but also a civilization. Throughout history, Muslims and those living in Muslim lands have contributed enormously to art, science, medicine, philosophy, and literature. Today, there are over a billion Muslims across the globe, and many different movements within contemporary Islam.

Arts and sciences

See also: Islamic art, Islamic science, and Islamic philosophy

Islamic calligraphy on a plaque in the Great Mosque of Xi'an, China.

Islamic civilization has produced many great accomplishments in art, which includes the fields of architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics. Islamic art frequently makes use of the arabesque, a design technique that involves the placement of repeated geometrical forms. Arabic calligraphy is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Qur'anic verses. Islamic architecture demonstrates a great number of techniques, like the use of domes in famous structures like the Dome of the Rock and the Taj Mahal.

Muslim scientists made significant advances in mathematics and astronomy. The mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, from whose name the word algorithm derives, helped develop the field of algebra (which is named after his book, kitab al-jabr). In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking and gunpowder from China many centuries before it was known in the West. Muslim physicians contributed much to the field of medicine, and specifically to the the subjects of anatomy, physiology, and surgery.

Islamic philosophy can be defined as "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture". The Persian scholar Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037) had more than 450 books attributed to him. His writings addressed many different subjects (most notably philosophy and medicine), and were enormously influential in the European world. Islamic culture has also produced many great poets. Many of the most notable were Persian, and wrote in the Persian language. Rumi, a 13th-century Sufi poet, jurist, and theologian, is particularly well-known. Other Persian poets include Sa'di, Hafiz, Rumi and Omar Khayyam.

Demographics

Distribution of Muslims per country. Green represents a Sunni majority and blue represents a Shi'a majority.

See also: Islam by country and Demographics of Islam

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population today range between 900 million and 1.4 billion people. Only 18% of Muslims live in the Arab world; 20% are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, about 30% in the South Asian region of Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, and the world's largest single national Muslim community is in Indonesia. There are also significant Muslim populations in China, Europe, Central Asia, and Russia.

Modern movements

Main articles: Liberal Islam and Islamism

Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". Many modern Muslims oppose the social restrictions on women enforced by some Islamic countries such as arranged marriages by male relatives, veiling, and limitations on movement. Heinz Halm states that these practices are rooted in patriarchal traditions of Near Eastern societies rather than in Islamic law.

The term Islamism describes a set of political ideologies derived from Islamic fundamentalism. This movement, which was driven by the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan, advocates a totalitarian and theocratic alternative to secular political ideologies. In such a society, Islam would provide the answer to every question of importance, both public and private. Ziauddin Sardar thinks that although Islamic fundamentalism is the most "talked-about" and politicized aspect of contemporary Islam, it is eventually doomed to failure "largely because as a modern, concocted political dogma, it goes against the history and tradition of Islam".

Islamist terrorism refers to acts of terrorism claimed by its supporters and practitioners to further the goals of Islam. It has heavily increased in prevalence in recent decades, and has become a contentious political issue in many nations. The validity of the Islamic justifications given for these acts is contested by many Muslims.

Denominations

Main article: Divisions of Islam

There are a number of Islamic religious denominations that are essentially similar in belief, but which nonetheless have significant theological and legal differences. The major schools of thought are Sunni and Shi'a; Sufism is generally considered to be a mystical inflection of Islam rather than a distinct school. According to most sources, present estimates indicate that approximately 85% of the world's Muslims are Sunni and approximately 15% are Shi'a. There are a number of other Islamic sects which constitute a minority of Muslims today.

Sunni

Sunni Muslims constitute the largest group in Islam. In Arabic, as-Sunnah literally means "principle" or "path". The Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) is the main pillar of Sunni doctrine, as recorded in the Qur'an and the hadith. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs (leaders) of the Muslim community were the rightful successors to Muhammad. They hold that since God did not specify the leaders of the Muslim community after Muhammad, the leaders had to be elected. Sunnis recognize four major legal traditions, or madhhabs: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim might choose any one that he or she finds agreeable, but other Islamic sects are believed to have departed from the majority by introducing innovations (bidah). There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions. The more recent Salafi movement, adherents of which often refuse to categorize themselves under any single legal tradition, sees itself as restorationist and claims to derive its teachings from the original sources of Islam.

Shi'a

Shi'a Muslims, the second-largest branch of Islam, differ from the Sunni in rejecting the authority of the first three caliphs. Specifically, they believe that the Muslims had no right to elect the leader of the Khilafah. They also disagree about the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith, and have their own legal tradition which is called Ja'fari jurisprudence. Shi'a Muslims accept the Five Pillars of Islam, but their practices differ from the Sunni in many major and minor details.

The concept of Imamah, or leadership, plays a central role in Shi'a doctrine. Shi'a Muslims view the Muslim community as primarily a spiritual community. They preferred to use the word "Imam" rather than "Caliph", believing that the leader of the Muslim community should be a spiritual leader first and a governor second. They hold that leadership in a caliphate should not be elected, but should instead consist of divinely appointed descendants of Muhammad through Ali and his progeny. They believe that their first Imam, Ali ibn Abi Talib, was explicitly appointed by Muhammad by divine command.

See also: Historic background of the Sunni-Shi'a split

Sufism

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam followed by some Muslims within both the Sunni and Shi'a sects. Attempting to focus on the more spiritual aspects of Islam, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Sufism and Islamic law are generally considered to be complementary, though it has been criticized by some Muslims for the introduction of innovative beliefs and actions against the letter of Islamic law. Most Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a.

Others

Another sect which dates back to the early days of Islam is that of the Kharijites. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites, which was itself divided into numerous sub-sects, is the Ibadi sect. Ibadism is distinguished from Shi'ism by its belief that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his faith and not on the basis of descent, and from the Sunni in its rejection of Uthman and Ali and strong emphasis on the need to depose unjust rulers. Ibadi Islam is noted for its strictness, but, unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadis do not regard major sins as automatically rendering a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman.

Islam and other religions

A view of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, a holy site in both Islam and Judaism that has been a source of controversy.

Main article: Islam and other religions

The Qur'an contains both injunctions to respect other religions, and to fight and subdue unbelievers during war. The Qur'an claims that "it was restoring the pure monotheism of Abraham which had been corrupted in various, not clearly specified, ways by Jews and Christians". This charge against Jews and Christians may originally have been a just a claim of false interpretation, but in later Islam it was taken as an accusation of textual corruption against the Bible. Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands had the status of dhimmi, and were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy." They were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute (jizya) and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. Dhimmis were subject to certain legal restrictions such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. The enforcement of the laws of the dhimma was widespread in the Muslim world until the mid-nineteenth century, when the Ottoman empire significantly relaxed the restrictions placed on its non-Muslim residents.

The Yazidi, Druze, Bábí, Bahá'í, Berghouata and Ha-Mim religions either emerged out of Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam. Although influenced by traditional beliefs in the regions where they emerged, they consider themselves to be distinct religions with separate laws and institutions. (Berghouata and Ha-Mim no longer have any followers.) Sikhism's holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, contains some writings by Muslim figures, as well as by Sikh and Hindu saints.

Criticism of Islam

Main article: Criticism of Islam

See also: Criticism of Muhammad

The earliest surviving written criticisms of Islam are to be found in the writings of Christians like John of Damascus (born c. 676), who claimed, among other things, that an Arian monk influenced Muhammad. In the medieval period, Muslims like the poet Al-Ma'arri adopted a critical approach to their own religion. The Jewish philosopher Maimonides contrasted Islamic views of morality to the Jewish approach that he himself elaborated. Medieval Christian ecclesiastical writers emphatically denied the validity of Islamic beliefs, portraying Muhammad as possessed by Satan. In the 19th century, the Orientalist scholar William Muir wrote harshly about the Qu'ran. Modern critique of Islam includes the issue of Islam's tolerance (or intolerance) of criticism itself, and the treatment accorded apostates in Islamic law. Other criticism focuses on the life of Muhammad, the authenticity and morality of the Qu'ran, as well as the status of women in Islamic law and practice. Notable contemporary critics include Robert Spencer, Daniel Pipes, Ibn Warraq, and Bat Ye'or.

Responses to the critics have come from many corners. According to Islamic studies professor Montgomery Watt, a number of the criticisms directed against Islam and Muhammad surfaced while Islam was considered the enemy of Christendom, and was thus demonized. Norman Daniel adds that such Christian polemic formed the backbone of academic study of Islam, resulting in the prevalence of myths about Islam in the West. According to Islamic studies scholar Carl Ernst, in recent years Islam has often been viewed with considerable negativity in the West, views that are partially the product of Islamophobia. Muslim scholars like Muhammad Mohar Ali argue against the criticism directed against Islam, the Qur'an, and Muhammad, responding to theories such as claims of discrepancies in the Qur'an or of Judeo-Christian influences on Muhammad. Other notable Muslim apologists include Fazlur Rahman, Syed Ameer Ali, Ahmed Deedat, and Yusuf Estes.

See also

Further information: [[:List of Islamic and Muslim-related topics]]

• Islamic architecture
• Islamic economics
• Islamic ethics
• Islamic law
• Islamic literature
• Islamic studies
• Islam and modernity

• List of converts to Islam
• List of Muslims
• List of former Muslims
• Muslim World
• Islamism
• Muslim history

• Religion
• Timeline of Islamic history
• Islamization
• Caliph
• Criticism of Islam

• Animal welfare in Islam
• Children's rights in Islam
• Prisoners rights in Islam
• Islamofascism

References

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Encyclopedias

• William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0974309101. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007. ISBN 978-1593392932. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Paul Lagasse, Lora Goldman, Archie Hobson, Susan R. Norton, ed. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1593392369. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007. ISBN 978-1593392932. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• George Thomas Kurian, Graham T. T. Molitor, ed. (1995). Encyclopedia of the Future. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028972053. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028656038. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
• Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004123564. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0028657332. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415941808. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Peter N. Stearns, ed. (2000). The Encyclopedia of World History Online (6th ed.). Bartleby. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• The New Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005. ISBN 978-1593392369. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISSN 978-0759101906. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Edward Craig, ed. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415073103. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Erwin Fahlbusch, William Geoffrey Bromiley, ed. (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

Further reading

• Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0684825076.
• Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661-750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240727.
• Khan, Muhammad Muhsin (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960740799. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-9652240408. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
• Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004038132.
• Lewis, Bernard (1993). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0812692174.
• Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195090611.
• Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195102833.
• Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440710.
• Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1591440345.
• Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New Edition ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253216274. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
• Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
• Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0720610383.

External links

Academic resources

• University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts
• Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions)
• Islam and Western Ideologies
• Unit on Islam from the NITLE Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource
• Resources on the Qur'an, History and Polemics
• Golden age of Arab and Islamic Culture

Directories

• Islam in Western Europe, the United Kingdom, Germany and South Asia
• Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Islam (a list of links of Islam)
• Islam (Bookshelf) at Project Gutenberg
• The Islam Page

Islam and the arts, and other media

• BBC Islam Focus
• Islamic Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
• Muslim Heritage (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
• Islamic Architecture (IAORG) illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.
• Islamic Philosophy (Journal of Islamic Philosophy, University of Michigan)
• Islamic Civilization