Assamese language

This article is about modern Indo-Aryan language. For old Assamese language, see Kamarupi Prakrit. For the fictional character, see Athena Asamiya.

Assamese
Asamiya
The word Ôxômiya ('Assamese') in Assamese script
Pronunciation	[ɔxomia]
Native to	India
Region	Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland
Ethnicity	Assamese people
Native speakers	15 million (2011 census)
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Eastern Bengali–Assamese Assamese
Dialects	Kamrupi, Goalpariya
Writing system	Eastern Nagari (Assamese) Ahom script (historical, rare) Assamese Braille
Official status
Official language in	India (Assam)
Regulated by	Asam Sahitya Sabha (literature/rhetorical congress of Assam)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	as
ISO 639-2	asm
ISO 639-3	asm
Glottolog	assa1263
Linguasphere	59-AAF-w

Assamese (/ˌæsəˈmiːz/; also Asamiya) is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Assam, where it is an official language. It is the easternmost Indo-European language, spoken by over 15 million speakers, and serves as a lingua franca in the region.

Nefamese is an Assamese-based pidgin used in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagamese, an Assamese-based Creole language is widely used in Nagaland. The Rajbangshi dialect of Rangpur division of Bangladesh and Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts of India are linguistically closer to Assamese, though the speakers identify with the Bengali culture and the literary language. In the past, it was the court language of the Ahom kingdom from the 17th century.

Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Assamese evolved at least before 7th century CE from the middle Indo-Aryan Magadhi Prakrit, which developed from dialects similar to, but in some ways more archaic than Vedic Sanskrit.

Its sister languages include Angika, Bengali, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Chakma, Chittagonian, Hajong, Rajbangsi, Maithili, Rohingya and Sylheti. It is written in the Assamese script, an abugida system, from left to right, with a large number of typographic ligatures.

History

The proto-languages of the eastern Magadhan languages. Kamarupa Prakrit corresponds to ? proto-Kamarupa here, a hitherto un-reconstructed proto-language. The period corresponds to 1250-1550 CE, when proto-Kamata began to innovate unique features.

Silver coin issued during the reign of Rudra Singha with Assamese inscriptions.

Rô
One of the consonants of Assamese script.

Assamese originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, though the exact nature of its origin and growth is not clear yet. It is generally believed that Assamese (Assam) and the Kamatapuri lects (Cooch Bihar and Assam) derive from the Kamarupi dialect of Eastern Magadhi Prakrit by keeping to the north of the Ganges; though some authors contest a close connection of Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit. The Indo-Aryan language in Kamarupa had differentiated by the 7th-century, before it did in Bengal or Orissa. These changes were likely due to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language. The evidence of the newly differentiated language is found in the Prakritisms of the Kamarupa inscriptions.

The earliest forms of Assamese in literature are found in the ninth-century Buddhist verses called Charyapada, and in 12-14th century works of Ramai Pundit (Sunya Puran), Boru Chandidas (Krishna Kirtan), Sukur Mamud (Gopichandrar Gan), Durllava Mullik (Gobindachandrar Git) and Bhavani Das (Mainamatir Gan). In these works, Assamese features coexist with features from other Modern Indian Languages.

A fully distinguished literary form (poetry) appeared first in the fourteenth century— in the courts of the Kamata kingdom and in the courts of an eastern Kachari king where Madhav Kandali translated the Ramayana into Assamese (Saptakanda Ramayana). From the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, songs – Borgeets, dramas – Ankiya Naat and the first prose writings (by Bhattadeva) were composed. The literary language, based on the western dialects moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century, where it became the state language. This period saw the widespread development of standardized prose infused with colloquial forms in Buranjis.

According to Goswami (2003), this included "the colloquial prose of religious biographies, the archaic prose of magical charms, the conventional prose of utilitarian literature on medicine, astrology, arithmetic, dance and music, and above all the standardized prose of the Buranjis. The literary language, having become infused with the eastern idiom, became the standard literary form in the nineteenth century, when the British adopted it for state purposes. As the political and commercial center shifted to Guwahati after the mid-twentieth century, the literary form moved away from the eastern variety to take its current form.

Geographical distribution

Assamese is native to Brahmaputra Valley consisting of western and eastern Assam. It is also spoken in states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Presence of Assamese script can be found in Rakhine state of present Myanmar. Pashupati temple in Nepal also have inscription in Assamese showing its influence and prosperity in the past. There are also significant Assamese-speaking communities in Australia, Dubai, the United Kingdom, Canada, Nepal and the United States.

Official status

Assamese is the official language of Assam, and one of the 23 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. The Assam Secretariat functions in Assamese.

Phonology

The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight vowels, ten diphthongs, and twenty-three consonants (including two semivowels).

Vowels

	Front			Central			Back
	IPA	ROM	Script	IPA	ROM	Script	IPA	ROM	Script
Close	i	i	ই/ঈ				u	u	উ/ঊ
Near-close							ʊ/o	ú/o'	ও
Close-mid	e	é	এ’				o	ó	অ’
Open-mid	ɛ	e	এ				ɔ	o	অ
Open				a	a	আ

Diphthongs

	a	i	u
ɔ		ɔi
a		ai	au
i			iu
u	ua	ui
e		ei	eu
o		oi	ou

Consonants

		Labial			Alveolar			Dorsal			Glottal
		IPA	ROM	Script	IPA	ROM	Script	IPA	ROM	Script	IPA	ROM	Script
Nasal		m	m	ম	n	n	ন/ণ	ŋ	ng	ঙ/ং
Stop	voiceless	p	p	প	t	t	ত/ট	k	k	ক
	aspirated	pʰ	ph	ফ	tʰ	th	থ/ঠ	kʰ	kh	খ
	voiced	b	b	ব	d	d	দ/ড	ɡ	g	গ
	murmured	bʱ	bh	ভ	dʱ	dh	ধ/ঢ	ɡʱ	gh	ঘ
Fricative	voiceless				s	s	চ/ছ	x	x	শ/ষ/স	ɦ	h	হ
	voiced				z	z	জ/ঝ/য
Approximant	central	w	w	ৱ	ɹ	r	ৰ	j	y	য়/্য (য)
	lateral				l	l	ল

Consonant clusters

Main article: Assamese consonant clusters

Consonant clusters in Assamese include thirty-three pure consonant letters in the Assamese alphabet. Each letter represents a single sound with an inherent vowel, the short vowel /ɔ/.

The first twenty-five consonants letters are called "sparxa barna" . These "sparxa barnas" are again divided into five "bargs". Therefore, these twenty-five letters are also called "bargia barna".

Alveolar stops

The Assamese phoneme inventory is unique in the Indic group of languages in its lack of a dental-retroflex distinction among the coronal stops as well as the lack of postalveolar affricates and fricatives. Historically, the dental and retroflex series merged into alveolar stops. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of Northeast India (such as Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages). The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related eastern dialects of Bengali (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). Note that /r/ is normally realized as [ɹ] or as a retroflex approximant.

Voiceless velar fricative

Assamese and Sylheti are unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the /x/ (which, phonetically, varies between velar ([x]) and a uvular ([χ]) pronunciations, depending on the speaker and speech register), historically the MIA sibilant has lenited to /x/ and /h/ (non-initially). The derivation of the velar fricative from the coronal sibilant /s/ is evident in the name of the language in Assamese; some Assamese prefer to write ⟨Oxomiya⟩ or ⟨Ôxômiya⟩ instead of ⟨Asomiya⟩ or ⟨Asamiya⟩ to reflect the sound change. The voiceless velar fricative is absent in the West Goalpariya dialects though it is found in lesser extent in East Goalpariya and Kamrupi, otherwise used extensively further east. The change of /s/ to /h/ and then to /x/; all these have been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by Dr. Chatterjee.

Velar nasal

Assamese, Odia, and Bengali, in contrast to other Indo-Aryan languages, use the velar nasal (the English ng in sing) extensively. In many languages, while the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding velar sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically. This is another feature it shares with other languages of Northeast India, though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.

Vowel inventory

Eastern Indic languages like Assamese, Bengali, Sylheti, and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of back rounded vowels. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: কলা kôla [kɔla] ('deaf'), ক'লা kola [kola] ('black'), কোলা kûla [kʊla] ('lap'), and কুলা kula [kula] ('winnowing fan'). The near-close near-back rounded vowel /ʊ/ is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, ও is pronounced same as অ' (o') which is also correct. কোলা kola [ko'la] মোৰ mor [mo'r]

Writing system

Modern Assamese uses the Assamese script, and in the medieval times, the script came in three varieties: Bamuniya, Garhgaya, Kaitheli/Lakhari, which developed from the Kamarupi script. It very closely resembles the Mithilakshar script of the Maithili language, as well as the Bengali script. There is a strong literary tradition from early times. Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings. Assam had its own manuscript writing system on the bark of the saanchi tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written, as opposed to the pan-Indian system of Palm leaf manuscript writing. The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. Hemkosh (হেমকোষ [ɦɛmkʊx]), the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on Sanskrit, which are now the standard.

Morphology and grammar

The Assamese language has the following characteristic morphological features:

• Gender and number are not grammatically marked.
• There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
• Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.
• The agentive case is overtly marked as distinct from the accusative.
• Kinship nouns are inflected for personal pronominal possession.
• Adverbs can be derived from the verb roots.
• A passive construction may be employed idiomatically.

Negativization process

Verbs in Assamese are negativized by adding /n/ before the verb, with /n/ picking up the initial vowel of the verb. For example:

• /na laɡɛ/ 'do(es) not want' (1st, 2nd and 3rd persons)
• /ni likʰʊ̃/ 'will not write' (1st person)
• /nukutʊ̃/ 'will not nibble' (1st person)
• /nɛlɛkʰɛ/ 'does not count' (3rd person)
• /nɔkɔɹɔ/ 'do not do' (2nd person)

Classifiers

Assamese has a huge collection of classifiers, which are used extensively for different kinds of objects, acquired from Sino-Tibetan languages. A few examples of the most extensive and elaborate use of classifiers given below:

• "zɔn" is used to signify a person, male with some amount of respect
  • E.g., manuh-zɔn – "the man"
• "zɔni" (female) is used after a noun or pronoun to indicate human beings
  • E.g., manuh-zɔni – "the woman"
• "zɔni" is also used to express the non-human feminine
  • E.g., sɔɹai zɔni – "the bird", pɔɹuwa-zɔni – "the ant"
• "zɔna" and "gɔɹaki" are used to express high respect for both man and woman
  • E.g., kɔbi-zɔna – "the poet", gʊxaɪ-zɔna – "the goddess", rastrapati-gɔɹaki – "the president", tiɹʊta-gɔɹaki – "the woman"
• "tʊ" has three forms: tʊ, ta, ti
  • (a) tʊ: is used to specify something, although someone, e.g., loɹa-tʊ – "the particular boy" (impolite)
  • (b) ta: is used only after numerals, e.g., ɛta, duta, tinita – "one, two, three"
  • (c) ti: is the diminutive form, e.g., kesua-ti – "the infant, besides expressing more affection or attachment to
• "kɔsa", "mɔtʰa" and "taɹ" are used for things in bunches
  • E.g., sabi-kɔsa - "the bunch of key", saul-mɔtʰa – "a handful of rice", suli-taɹi or suli kɔsa – "the bunch of hair"
• dal, dali, are used after nouns to indicate something long but round and solid
  • E.g., bãʱ-dal - "the bamboo", katʰ-dal – "the piece of wood", bãʱ-dali – "the piece of bamboo"

Assamese Classifiers

Classifier	Referent	Examples
/zɔn/	males (adult)	manuh-zɔn (the man - honorific)
/zɔni/	females (women as well as animals)	manuh-zɔni (the woman), sɔrai-zɔni (the bird)
/zɔna/	honorific	kobi-zɔna (the poet), gʊxai-zɔna (the god/goddess)
/ɡɔɹaki/	males and females (honorific)	manuh-ɡɔɹaki (the woman), rastrɔpɔti-gɔɹaki (the president)
/tʊ/	inanimate objects or males of animals and men (impolite)	manuh-tʊ (the man - diminutive), gɔɹu-tʊ (the cow)
/ti/	inanimate objects or infants	kesua-ti (the baby)
/ta/	for counting numerals	e-ta (count one), du-ta (count two)
/kʰɔn/	flat square or rectangular objects, big or small, long or short
/kʰɔni/	terrain like rivers and mountains
/tʰupi/	small objects
/zak/	group of people, cattle; also for rain; cyclone
/sati/	breeze
/pat/	objects that are thin, flat, wide or narrow.
/paɦi/	flowers
/sɔta/	objects that are solid
/kɔsa/	mass nouns
/mɔtʰa/	bundles of objects
/mutʰi/	smaller bundles of objects
/taɹ/	broomlike objects
/ɡɔs/	wick-like objects
/ɡɔsi/	with earthen lamp or old style kerosene lamp used in Assam
/zʊpa/	objects like trees and shrubs
/kʰila/	paper and leaf-like objects
/kʰini/	uncountable mass nouns and pronouns
/dal/	inanimate flexible/stiff or oblong objects; humans (pejorative)

In Assamese, classifiers are generally used in the numeral + classifier + noun (e.g. /ezɔn manuh/ 'one man') or the noun + numeral + classifier (e.g. /manuh ezɔn/ 'one man') forms.

Nominalization

Most verbs can be converted into nouns by the addition of the suffix /ɔn/. For example, /kʰa/ ('to eat') can be converted to /kʰaɔn/ ('good eating').

Grammatical cases

Assamese has 8 grammatical cases:

Cases	Suffix	Example	Literal English translation	Normal English translation	Note
Absolutive	none	বাৰীত গৰু সোমাল। (barit goru- xümal.)	Garden-LOC cattle-ABS entered	Cattles entered into the garden.
Ergative	-এ, -ই (-e, -i)	গৰুৱে ঘাঁহ খায়। (goru-e ghãh kha-e.)	Cattle-ERG grass-ACC eat-(3rd person, habitual present)	Cattles eat grass.	The personal pronouns without a plural or other suffix are not marked.
Accusative	-(অ)ক, − (-(o)k, −)	১. শিয়ালটোৱে শহাটোক খেদি আছে। (1. xial-tü-e xoha-tü-k khedi ase.) ২. তেওঁলোকে চোৰটো পুলিচক গতালে। (2. teü̃lük-e sür-tü- pulis-ok gotale.)	1. Jackal-the-ERG hare-the-ACC chasing exist-(3rd person, present continuous). 2. They thief-the-ACC police-ACC handover-(recent past)-(3rd person).	1. The jackal is chasing the hare. 2. They handed over the thief to the police.
Genitive	-(অ)ৰ (-(o)r)	তাইৰ ঘৰ (tai-r ghor)	she-GEN house	Her house
Dative	-(অ)লৈ [dialectal: -(অ)লে]; -(অ)ক (-(o)loi [dialectal: -(o)le]; -(o)k)	১. সি পঢ়াশালিলৈ গৈ আছে। (1. xi porhaxali-loi goi ase.) ২. বাক চাবিটো দিয়া। (2. ba-k sabi-tü- dia.)	1. He school-DAT going exist-(3rd person, present continuous) 2. Eldersister-DAT key-the-ACC give-(familiar, imperative).	1. He is going to (the) school. 2. Give elder sister the key.
Terminative	-(অ)লৈকে [dialectal: -(অ)লেকে] (-(o)loi [dialectal: -(o)leke])	১. মই নহালৈকে ক’তো নেযাবা। (1. moi n-oha-loike kót-ü ne-za-b-a.) ২. ১ৰ পৰা ৭লৈকে (2. 1-or pora 7-oloike)	1. I not-coming-TERM where-even not-go-future-(3rd person) 2. 1-GEN from 7-TERM	1. Don't go anywhere until I don't come. 2. From 1 up to 7
Instrumental	-(এ)ৰে [dialectal: -(এ)দি] (-(e)re [dialectical: -(e)di])	কলমেৰে লিখিছিলা। (kolom-ere likhisila.)	pen-INS write-(2rd person, distant past).	You wrote with (a) pen.
Locative	-(অ)ত [sometimes: -এ] (-(o)t [sometimes: -e])	১. সি বহীখনত লিখিছে। (1. xi bohi-khon-ot likhise.) ২. আইতা মঙলবাৰে আহিছিল। (2. aita moŋolbar-e ahisil.)	1. He notebook-the-LOC write-(present perfect)-(3rd person). 2. Grandmother Tuesday-LOC come-(distant past)-(3rd person).	1. He has written on the notebook. 2. Grandmother came on Tuesday.

Pronouns

Number	Person	Gender	Pronouns
			Absolutive Ergative	Accusative Dative	Genitive	Locative	Dative
Singular	1st	m/f (I)	moi	mük	mür	müt	müloi
	2nd	m/f (you)	toi ᵛ tumi ᶠ apuni ᵖ	tük tümak apünak	tür tümar apünar	tüt tümat apünat	tüloi tümaloi apünaloi
	3rd	m (he) n (it, that)	i * xi **	iak tak	iar tar	iat tat	ialoi taloi
		f (she)	ei * tai **	eik taik	eir tair	eit tait	eiloi tailoi
		n & p (he/she)	eü/ekhet(-e ᵉ) * teü/tekhet(-e ᵉ) **	eük/ekhetok teük/tekhetok	eür/ekhetor teür/tekhetor	eüt/ekhetot teüt/tekhetot	eüloi/ekhetoloi teüloi/tekhetoloi
Plural	1st	m/f (we)	ami	amak	amar	amat	amaloi
	2nd	m/f (you)	tohõt(-e ᵉ) ᵛ tümalük(-e ᵉ) ᶠ apünalük(-e ᵉ) ᵖ	tohõtok tümalükok apünalükok	tohõtor tümalükor apünalükor	tohõtot tümalükot apünalükot	tohõtoloi tümalükoloi apünalükoloi
	3rd	m/f (they)	ihõt * eülük/ekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ * xihõt ** teülük/tekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ **	ihõtok xihotõk eülükok/ekhetxokolok teülükok/tekhetxokolok	ihõtor xihotõr eülükor/ekhetxokolor teülükor/tekhetxokolor	ihõtot xihotõt eülükot/ekhetxokolot teülükot/tekhetxokolot	ihõtoloi xihotõloi eülükok/ekhetxokololoi teülükoloi/tekhetxokololoi
		n (these, those)	eibür(-e ᵉ) ᵛ * eibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ * eixomuh(-e ᵉ) ᵖ * xeibür(-e ᵉ) ᵛ ** xeibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ ** xeixomuh(-e) ᵖ **	eibürok eibilakok eixomuhok xeibürok xeibilakok xeixomuhok	eibüror eibilakor eixomuhor xeibüror xeibilakor xeixomuhor	eibürot eibilakot eixomuhot xeibürot xeibilakot xeixomuhot	eibüroloi eibilakoloi eixomuholoi xeibüroloi xeibilakoloi xeixomuholoi

m=male, f=female, n=neuter., *=the person or object is near., **=the person or object is far., v =very familiar, inferior, f=familiar, p=polite, e=ergative form.

Tense

With consonant ending verb likh (write) and vowel ending verb kha (eat, drink, consume).

Stem	Likh, Kha
Gerund	Likha, khüa
Causative	Likha, khua
Conjugative	Likhi, Khai & Kha
Infinitive	Likhibo, Khabo
Goal	Likhiboloi, Khaboloi
Terminative	Likhiboloike, Khaboloike
Agentive	Likhüta ⁿᵖ/Likhüra ᵐⁱ/Likhüri ᶠⁱ, Khaüta ⁿᵖ/Khaüra ᵐⁱ/Khaüri ᶠⁱ
Converb	Likhüte, Khaüte
Progressive	Likhüte likhüte, Khaüte khaüte
Reason	Likhat, Khüat
	Likhilot, Khalot
Conditional	Likhile, Khale
Perfective	Likhi, Khai
Habitual	Likhi likhi, Khai khai

For different types of verbs.

Tense	Person	tho "put"		kha "consume"		pi "drink"		de "give"		dhu "wash"		kor "do"		randh "cook"		ah "come"
		+	-	+	-	+	-	+	-	+	-	+	-	+	-	+	-
Simple Present	1st per.	thoü	nothoü	khaü	nakhaü ~ nekhaü	piü	nipiü	diü	nidiü	dhuü	nudhuü	korü	nokorü	randhü	narandhu ~ nerandhü	ahü	nahü
	2nd per. inf.	thoö	nothoö	khao	nakhao ~ nekhao	pio	nipio	dio	nidio	dhuo	nudhuo	koro	nokoro	randho	narandho ~ nerandho	aho	naho
	2nd per. pol.	thüa	nüthüa	khüa	nükhüa	pia	nipia	dia	nidia	dhüa	nüdhüa	kora	nokora	randha	narandha ~ nerandha	aha	naha
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thoe	nothoe	khae	nakhae ~ nekhae	pie	nipie	die	nidie	dhue	nudhue	kore	nokore	randhe	narandhe ~ nerandhe	ahe	nahe
Present continuous	1st per.	thoi asü	thoi thoka nai	khai asü	khai thoka nai	pi asu	pi thoka nai	di asü	di thoka nai	dhui asü	dhui thoka nai	kori asü	kori thoka nai	randhi asü	randhi thoka nai	ahi asü	ahi thoka nai
	2nd per. inf.	thoi aso		khai aso		pi aso		di aso		dhui aso		kori aso		randhi aso		ahi aso
	2nd per. pol.	thoi asa		khai asa		pi asa		di asa		dhui asa		kori asa		randhi asa		ahi asa
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thoi ase		khai ase		pi ase		di ase		dhui ase		kori ase		randhi ase		ahi ase
Present Perfect	1st per.	thoisü	thüa nai	khaisü	khüa nai	pisü	pia nai	disü	dia nai	dhui asü	dhüa nai	korisü	kora nai	randhisü	rondha nai	ahi asü	oha nai
	2nd per. inf.	thoiso		khaiso		piso		diso		dhuiso		koriso		randhiso		ahiso
	2nd per. pol.	thoisa		khaisa		pisa		disa		dhuisa		korisa		randhisa		ahisa
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thoise		khaise		pise		dise		dhuise		korise		randhise		ahise
Recent Past	1st per.	thölü	nothölü	khalü	nakhalü ~ nekhalü	pilü	nipilü	dilü	nidilü	dhulü	nudhulü	korilü	nokorilü	randhilü	narandhilü ~ nerandhilü	ahilü	nahilü
	2nd per. inf.	thöli	nothöli	khali	nakhali ~ nekhali	pili	nipili	dili	nidili	dhuli	nudhuli	korili	nokorili	randhili	narandhili ~ nerandhili	ahilu	nahilu
	2nd per. pol.	thöla	nothöla	khala	nakhala ~ nekhala	pila	nipila	dila	nidila	dhula	nudhula	korila	nokorila	randhila	narandhila ~ nerandhila	ahila	nahila
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thöle	nothöle	khale	nakhale ~ nekhale	pile	nipile	dile	nidile	dhule	nudhule	korile	nokorile	randhile	narandhile ~ nerandhile	ahile / ahilᵗʳ	nahile / nahilᵗʳ
Distant Past	1st per.	thoisilü	nothoisilü ~ thüa nasilü	khaisilü	nakhaisilü ~ nekhaisilü ~ khüa nasilü	pisilü	nipisilü ~ pia nasilü	disilü	nidisilü ~ dia nasilü	dhuisilü	nudhuisilü ~ dhüa nasilü	korisilü	nokorisilü ~ kora nasilü	randhisilü	narandhisilü ~ nerandhisilü ~ rondha nasilü	ahisilü	nahisilü ~ oha nasilü
	2nd per. inf.	thoisili	nothoisili ~ thüa nasili	khaisili	nakhaisili ~ nekhaisili ~ khüa nasili	pisili	nipisili ~ pia nasili	disili	nidisili ~ dia nasili	dhuisili	nudhuisili ~ dhüa nasili	korisili	nokorisili ~ kora nasili	randhisili	narandhisili ~ nerandhisili ~ rondha nasili	ahisili	nahisili ~ oha nasili
	2nd per. pol.	thoisila	nothoisila ~ thüa nasila	khaisila	nakhaisila ~ nekhaisila ~ khüa nasila	pisila	nipisila ~ pia nasila	disila	nidisila ~ dia nasila	dhuisila	nudhuisila ~ dhüa nasila	korisila	nokorisila ~ kora nasila	randhisila	narandhisila ~ nerandhisila ~ rondha nasila	ahisila	nahisila ~ oha nasila
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thoisile	nothoisile ~ thüa nasile	khaisile	nakhaisile ~ nekhaisile ~ khüa nasile	pisile	nipisile ~ pia nasile	disile	nidisile ~ dia nasile	dhuisile	nudhuisile ~ dhüa nasile	korisile	nokorisile ~ kora nasile	randhisile	narandhisile ~ nerandhisile ~ rondha nasile	ahisile	nahisile ~ oha nasile
Past continuous	1st per.	thoi asilü	thoi thoka nasilü	khai asilü	khai thoka nasilü	pi asilü	pi thoka nasilü	di asilü	di thoka nasilü	dhui asilü	dhui thoka nasilü	kori asilü	kori thoka nasilü	randhi asilü	randhi thoka nasilü	ahi asilü	ahi thoka nasilü
	2nd per. inf.	thoi asili	thoi thoka nasili	khai asili	khai thoka nasili	pi asili	pi thoka nasili	di asili	di thoka nasili	dhui asili	dhui thoka nasili	kori asili	kori thoka nasili	randhi asili	randhi thoka nasili	ahi asili	ahi thoka nasili
	2nd per. pol.	thoi asila	thoi thoka nasila	khai asila	khai thoka nasila	pi asila	pi thoka nasila	di asila	di thoka nasila	dhui asila	dhui thoka nasila	kori asila	kori thoka nasila	randhi asila	randhi thoka nasila	ahi asila	ahi thoka nasila
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thoi asil(e)	thoi thoka nasil(e)	khai asil(e)	khai thoka nasil(e)	pi asil(e)	pi thoka nasil(e)	di asil(e)	di thoka nasil(e)	dhui asil(e)	dhui thoka nasil(e)	kori asil(e)	kori thoka nasil(e)	randhi asil(e)	randhi thoka nasil(e)	ahi asil{e)	ahi thoka nasil(e)
Simple Future	1st per.	thöm	nothöm	kham	nakham ~ nekham	pim	nipim	dim	nidim	dhum	nudhum	korim	nokorim	randhim	narandhim ~ nerandhim	ahim	nahim
	2nd per. inf.	thöbi	nothöbi	khabi	nakhabi ~ nekhabi	pibi	nipibi	dibi	nidibi	dhubi	nudhubi	koribi	nokoribi	randhibi	narandhibi ~ nerandhibi	ahibi	nahibi
	2nd per. pol.	thöba	nothöba	khaba	nakhaba ~ nekhaba	piba	nipiba	diba	nidiba	dhuba	nudhuba	koriba	nokoriba	randhiba	narandhiba ~ nerandhiba	ahiba	nahiba
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thöbo	nothöbo	khabo	nakhabo ~ nekhabo	pibo	nipibo	dibo	nidibo	dhubo	nudhubo	koribo	nokoribo	randhibo	narandhibo ~ nerandhibo	ahibo	nahibo
Future continuous	1st per.	thoi thakim	thoi nathakim/nethakim	khai thakim	khai nathakim/nethakim	pi thakim	pi nathakim/nethakim	di thakim	di nathakim/nethakim	dhui thakim	dhui nathakim/nethakim	kori thakim	kori nathakim/nethakim	randhi thakim	randhi nathakim/nethakim	ahi thakim	ahi nathakim/nethakim
	2nd per. inf.	thoi thakibi	thoi nathakibi/nethakibi	khai thakibi	khai nathakibi/nethakibi	pi thakibi	pi nathakibi/nethakibi	di thakibi	di nathakibi/nethakibi	dhui thakibi	dhui nathakibi/nethakibi	kori thakibi	kori nathakibi/nethakibi	randhi thakibi	randhi nathakibi/nethakibi	ahi thakibi	ahi nathakibi/nethakibi
	2nd per. pol.	thoi thakiba	thoi nathakiba/nethakiba	khai thakiba	khai nathakiba/nethakiba	pi thakiba	pi nathakiba/nethakiba	di thakiba	di nathakiba/nethakiba	dhui thakiba	dhui nathakiba/nethakiba	kori thakiba	kori nathakiba/nethakiba	randhi thakiba	randhi nathakiba/nethakiba	ahi thakiba	ahi nathakiba/nethakiba
	2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.	thoi thakibo	thoi nathakibo/nethakibo	khai thakibo	khai nathakibo/nethakibo	pi thakibo	pi nathakibo/nethakibo	di thakibo	di nathakibo/nethakibo	dhui thakibo	dhui nathakibo/nethakibo	kori thakibo	kori nathakibo/nethakibo	randhi thakibo	randhi nathakibo/nethakibo	ahi thakibo	ahi nathakibo/nethakibo

The negative forms are n + 1st vowel of the verb + the verb. Example: Moi porhü, Moi noporhü (I read, I do not read); Tumi khelila, Tumi nekhelila (You played, You didn't play). For verbs that start with a vowel, just the n- is added, without vowel lengthening. In some dialects if the 1st vowel is a in a verb that starts with consonant, ne is used, like, Moi nakhaü (I don't eat) is Moi nekhaü. In past continuous the negative form is -i thoka nasil-. In future continuous it's -i na(/e)thaki-. In present continuous and present perfect, just -i thoka nai and -a nai' respectively are used for all personal pronouns. Sometimes for plural pronouns, the -hok suffix is used, like korühok (we do), ahilahok (you guys came).

Relationship suffixes

Persons	Suffix	Example	English translation
1st person	none	Mür/Amar ma, bap, kokai, vai, ba, voni	My/Our mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
2nd person (very familiar; inferior)	-(e)r	Tür/Tohõtor mar, baper, kokaier, vaier, bar, vonier	Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
2nd person familiar	-(e)ra	Tümar/Tümalükor mara, bapera, kokaiera, vaiera, bara, voniera	Your/Your(pl) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister
2nd person formal; 3rd person	-(e)k	Apünar/Apünalükor/Tar/Tair/Xihotõr/Teür mak, bapek, kokaiek, vaiek, bak, voniek	Your/Your(pl)/His/Her/Their/His~Her(formal) mother, father, elder-brother, younger-brother, elder-sister, younger-sister

Dialects

Regional dialects

The language has quite a few regional variations. Banikanta Kakati identified two broad dialects which he named (1) Eastern and (2) Western dialects, of which the eastern dialect is homogeneous, and prevalent to the east of Guwahati, and the western dialect is heterogeneous. However, recent linguistic studies have identified four dialect groups listed below from east to west:

• Eastern group in and around Sivasagar District. Standard Assamese is based on the Eastern group.
• Central group in and around Nagaon district.
• Kamrupi group in the Kamrup region.
• Goalpariya group in the Goalpara region.

Comparison

English	Eastern	Central	Kamrupi	Western Goalpariya
Mother	Ma, Ai	Mai, Ai	Mai, Ai	Maö, Ai, Mai
Why	Kio, Kelei	Kia	Kia	Kene, Ke
Wind	Botah		Batah	Bataṣ
Money	Toka	Toka	Taka	Taka
Crab	Keküra		Kakra
And	Aru (,Akou)	Aö, Ako	Aro, Aku	Ar, Arö
Young male	Deka, Sengelia	Deka, Sengea	Sengra	Sengra
Cattle	Goru	Goo	Goru	Göru
Buffalo	Móh	Moh	Moih	Moiṣ
Bad	Bea	Bea	Boea, Büea	Bea, Boea
Plough	Nangol, Hal	Langon, Hal	Nangal, Hal
Seedlings	Kothia	Kothia	Koitha
Mud	Büka	Böka	Pek
Now	Etia	Itia		Ela
Once	Ebar	Eba	Ekbar	Ekbar
I can, I can't, I could, I couldn't	Parü, Nüarü, Parilü, Nüarilü	Paong, Noong, Paĩlong, Noĩlong	Paru, Noru, Pallu, Nollu	Parong, Naparong/Parong na, Parlung, Naparlung/Parlung na
Good person	Bhal manuh	Bhal manhu	Bhal manhu	Bhal manshi
I went home.	Moi ghoroloi goisilü.	Moe ghook goesilong.	Moi ghorük geisilu.	Mui ghor geisilung.
Will you go when I come?	Moi ahile toi zabi ne?	Moe ahili toi zabi na?	Moi aihli toi zabi na?	Mui ashile ki tui zabi?
He told us to get off the vehicle.	Xi amak garir pora namiboloi kóle.	Xi amak gai pa namiba ligi kola.	Xi amak garir para nambak logi kolak.	Oui amak gaṛi thakia namibar koil.
You should not cut the tree with the dao.	Toi gosdal dakhonere katibo nelage.	Toi gosdal daxanedi katiba nalage.	Toi gasdal dakhan di katba nalge.	Tui gasṭa daökhan dia kaṭiba nalage.
Will he go?	Xi zabo ne?	Xi zabo na?	Xi zabo na	Oui ki zabe?
If we die, you will also die.	Ami morile toiü moribi.	Ami moili toü moibi.	Ami molli toiü morbi.	Amra/Ami morle tuiö morbu.
I will tell who will be the king.	Roza kün höbo moi köm.	Raza kün hobu moe kom.	Raza kae hobo moi kom.	Raza kae hoibe mui koim.
When I was bringing the eggs, they fell on the ground.	Moi konibilak anüte matit pori göl.	Moe konibilak anöngte matit pori gol.	Moi dimagilak ante matit pori gel.	Mui dimagilak anite matit poria geil.
I brought fish for Nitu catching from the pond.	Nituloi pukhurir pora mas dhori anisü.	Nitu ligi puxui pa mas dhoi anisöng	Nituk lagi pukhrir para mas dhori ansü.	Nituk lagia pukhrir para mas dhoria ancung.
You sit. (Polite)	Apuni bohok.	Aponi bohok.	Apni bohok.	Tömra boshö.
Ram also went to his home eating rice with them.	Xihõtor logot Rameü bhat khai kamtü korile.	Tahãtü logot Ameü bhat khai kamtü koila.	Tahãtor logot Rameü bhat khai kamtü kollak	Umrar logot Ram(e)ö bhai khaea kazṭa korilek.
I don't eat these in this manner.	Moi enekoi eibür nekhaü.	Moe eneke eibhu naxang.	Moi enke eigila nakhaü.	Mui engka eigila nakhang.
When did you come?	Toi ketia ahiso?	Toe kitita ahiso?	Toi kitia aihso?	Tui kunbela ashcish?
English	Eastern	Central	Kamrupi	Goalpariya

Samples

Collected from the book, Assamese:Its formation and development. The translations are not close to literal:

English: A man had two sons. The younger son told his father, ‘I want my share of your estate now before you die.’ So his father agreed to divide his wealth between his sons. A few days later this younger son packed all his belongings and moved to a distant land, and there he wasted all his money in wild living. About the time his money ran out, a great famine swept over the land, and he began to starve. He persuaded a local farmer to hire him, and the man sent him into his fields to feed the pigs. The young man became so hungry that even the pods he was feeding the pigs looked good to him. But no one gave him anything.

Eastern Assamese (Sibsagar): Künü ezon manuhor duta putek asil, tare xorutüe bapekok kole, “Oi büpai! xompottir zi bhag moi paü tak mük diok!” Tate teü teür xompotti duiü putekor bhitorot bati dile. Olop dinor pasot xorutü puteke tar bhagot zi pale take loi dur dexoloi goi beissali kori gütei xompotti nax korile. Tar pasot xei dexot bor akal höl. Tate xi dux paboloi dhorile. Tetia xi goi xei dexor ezon manuhor asroe lole, aru xei manuhe tak gahori soraboloi potharoloi pothai dile. Tate xi gahorir khüa ebidh gosor seire pet bhoraboloi bor hepah korileü tak küneü ekü nidile.

Central Assamese: Manhu ezono duta putak asil. Tahãtüü bhitoot xoutü putake bapekok kola,

Kamrupi (Pati Darrang): Eta manhur duta putak asil, xehatör xorutui bapakök kolak, “He pite, xompöttir mör bhagöt zikhini porei, take mök di.” Tate teö nizör xompötti xehatök bhagei dilak. Tar olop dinör pasötei xeñ xoru putektüi xokolöke götei loi kömba dexok legi polei gel aru tate lompot kamöt götei urei dilak. Xi xokolö bioe koraõte xeñ dexöt bor akal hol. Xi tate bor kosto paba dhollak. Teten xi aru xeñ dexor eta manhur asroe lolak. Xeñ mantui nizör potharök legi tak bora saribak legi pothei dilak. Tate xi aru borai khawa ekbidh gasör sei di pet bhorabak legi bor hepah kollak. Kintu kawei ekö tak nedlak.

Kamrupi (Palasbari): Kunba eta manhur duta putak asil. Ekdin xortö putake bapiakok kola, “Bapa wa, apunar xompöttir moi bhagöt zeman kheni pam teman khini mök dia.” Tethane bapiake nizör xompötti duö putakok bhage dila. Keidinman pasöt xörtö putake tar bhagtö loi kunba akhan durher dekhok gel, aru tate gundami köri tar götei makha xompötti nohoa koilla. Tar pasöt xiai dekhot mosto akal hol. Tethian xi bor dukh paba dhoilla. Tar xi tarei eta manhur osarök zai asroe asroe lola. Manhtöi tak bara sarba potharöl khedala. Tate xi barai khawa ekbidh gasör seṅ khaba dhoilla. Teö tak kayö akö khaba neidla.

Kamrupi (Barpeta): Kunba eta manhör duta putek asil. Ekdin xorutu puteke bapekök kolak, “Pita, amar xompöttir moi zikhini mör bhagöt paü xikhini mök dia.” Tethen bapeke nizör xompötti tahak bhage dilak. Tare keidinmen pisöte xei xoru putektui tar gotexopake loi ekhen duhrer dekhök gusi gel, arö tate xi lompot hoi tar gotexopa xompöttike ure phellak. Tar pasöt xei dekhkhenöt mosto akal hol. Tethen xi xei dekhör eta manhör osröt zai asroe lolak. Manuhtui tak bara sarbak login patharök khedolak. Tate xi ekbidh barai khawa gasör sẽi khaba dhollak. Take dekhiö kayö tak ekö khaba nedlak.

Western Goalpariya (Salkocha): Kunö ekzon mansir duizon saöa asil. Tar sötotae bapok koil, “Baba sompöttir ze bhag mör, tak mök de.” Tat oë nizer sompötti umak batia dil. Tar olpo din pasöte öi söta saöata sök götea dur desot gel. Ore lompot beboharot or sompötti uzar koril. Oë götay khoros korar pasöt oi desot boro akal hoil. Ote oya kosto paba dhoril. Sela oë zaya öi deser ekzon mansir asroe löat öi manusi ok suar soraba patharot pothea dil. Ote suare khaöa ek rokom gaser sal dia pet bhoroba saileö ok kah kisu nadil.

Non-regional dialects

Assamese does not have caste- or occupation-based dialects. In the nineteenth century, the Eastern dialect became the standard dialect because it witnessed more literary activity and it was more uniform from east of Guwahati to Sadiya, whereas the western dialects were more heterogeneous. Since the nineteenth century, the center of literary activity (as well as of politics and commerce) has shifted to Guwahati; as a result, the standard dialect has evolved considerably away from the largely rural Eastern dialects and has become more urban and acquired western dialectal elements. Most literary activity takes place in this dialect, and is often called the likhito-bhaxa, though regional dialects are often used in novels and other creative works.

In addition to the regional variants, sub-regional, community-based dialects are also prevalent, namely:

• Standard dialect influenced by surrounding centers.
• Bhakatiya dialect highly polite, a sattra-based dialect with a different set of nominals, pronominals, and verbal forms, as well as a preference for euphemism; indirect and passive expressions. Some of these features are used in the standard dialect on very formal occasions.
• The fisherman community has a dialect that is used in the central and eastern region.
• The astrologer community of Darrang district has a dialect called thar that is coded and secretive. The ratikhowa and bhitarpanthiya secretive cult-based Vaisnava groups too have their own dialects.
• The Muslim community have their own dialectal preference, with their own kinship, custom, and religious terms, with those in east Assam having distinct phonetic features.
• The urban adolescent and youth communities (for example, Guwahati) have exotic, hybrid and local slangs.
• Ethnic speech communities that use Assamese as a second language, often use dialects that are influenced heavily by the pronunciation, intonation, stress, vocabulary and syntax of their respective first languages (Mising Eastern Assamese, Bodo Central Kamrupi, Rabha Eastern Goalpariya etc.). Two independent pidgins/creoles, associated with the Assamese language, are Nagamese (used by Naga groups) and Nefamese (used in Arunachal Pradesh).

Literature

Main article: Assamese literature

There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language. The first characteristics of this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as well-crafted. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a flourishing of Vaishnavite literature, leading up to the emergence of modern forms of literature in the late nineteenth century.

Sample text

The following is a sample text in Assamese of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

Assamese in Assamese alphabet

দফা ১: সকলো মানুহে স্বাধীনভাৱে সমান ঠাকুৰালি আৰু অধিকাৰে জন্ম লয় । সকলোৰে বিবেক আৰু জ্ঞান-বুদ্ধি আছে আৰু সকলোৱে এজনে আনজনক ভাই-ভাই হিচাপে ব্যৱহাৰ দিব লাগে ।

Assamese in phonetic Romanization 1

Dopha êk: Xôkôlû manuhê sadhinbhawê xôman thakurali aru ôdhikarê zônmô lôy. Xôkôlûrê bibêk aru ɡyan-buddhi asê aru xôkôlûê êzônê anzônôk bhai-bhai hisapê byôwôhar dibô lagê.

Assamese in phonetic Romanization 2

Dopha ek: Xokolü manuhe sadhinbhawe xoman thakurali aru odhikare zonmo loy. Xokolüre bibek aru ɡyan-buddhi ase aru xokolüe ezone anzonok bhai-bhai hisape byowohar dibo lage.

Assamese in the International Phonetic Alphabet

/dɔɸa ɛk | xɔkɔlʊ manuɦɛ sadʱinbʱaβɛ xɔman tʰakuɹali aɹu ɔdʱikaɹɛ zɔnmɔ lɔe̯ || xɔkɔlʊɹɛ bibɛk aɹu ɡɪan-buddʱi asɛ aɹu xɔkɔlʊɛ ɛzɔnɛ anzɔnɔ bʱaɪ-bʱaɪ ɦisapɛ bɛβɔɦaɹ dibɔ lagɛ/

Gloss

Clause 1: all human free-manner-in equal dignity and right was taken birth takes. Everyone's reason and conscience exist, and everyone-indeed one towards another brother as behaviour give-to should.

Translation

Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

• Indo-Aryan languages
• Languages of India
• Languages with official status in India
• List of Indian languages by total speakers
• List of languages by number of native speakers
• Kamrupi litterateurs

References

• Bara, Mahendra (1981), The Evolution of the Assamese Script, Jorhat, Assam: Asam Sahitya Sabha
• Dutta, Birendranath (1995). A Study of the Folk Culture of the Goalpara Region of Assam. Guwahati, Assam: University Publication Department, Gauhati University.
• Dutta, Birendranath (2003). "Non-Standard Forms of Assamese: Their Socio-cultural Role". In Miri, Mrinal (ed.). Linguistic Situation In North-East India (2nd ed.). Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi. pp. 101–110. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Goswami, G. C.; Tamuli, Jyotiprakash (2003), "Asamiya", in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, pp. 391–443
• Guha, Amalendu (December 1983), "The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in Medieval Assam (1228-1714)" (PDF), Social Scientist, 11 (12): 3–34, doi:10.2307/3516963, JSTOR 3516963
• Kataki, Banikanta (1941), Assamese: Its Formation and Development, Gauhati, Assam: Government of Assam
• Kommaluri, Vijayanand; Subramanian, R.; Sagar K, Anand (2005), "Issues in Morphological Analysis of North-East Indian Languages", Language in India, 5
• Masica, Colin P (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
• Medhi, Kaliram (1988), Assamese Grammar and the Origin of Assamese Language, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam
• Moral, Dipankar (1997), "North-East India as a Linguistic Area" (PDF), Mon-Khmer Studies, 27: 43–53
• Oberlies, Thomas (2007), "Chapter Five: Aśokan Prakrit and Pāli", in Cardona, George; Jain, Danesh (eds.), The Indo-Aryan Languages, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9
• Sharma, M. M. (1990), "Language and Literature", in Borthakur, H. K. (ed.), The Comprehensive History of Assam: Ancient Period, vol. I, Guwahati, Assam: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 263–284
• Toulmin, Mathew W S (2006). Reconstructing linguistic history in a dialect continuum: The Kamta, Rajbanshi, and Northern Deshi Bangla subgroup of Indo-Aryan (Ph.D.). The Australian National University. {{cite thesis}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

External links

• Assamese language at Curlie
• Assamese language at Encyclopædia Britannica
• Axamiyaa Bhaaxaar Moulik Bisar by Mr Devananda Bharali (PDF)
• Tonkori (Affinities of the Ainu language of Japan with Assamese and some other languages) by Dr Satyakam Phukan
• Roots and Strings of the Assamese language, article by Dr Satyakam Phukan
• Candrakānta abhidhāna : Asamiyi sabdara butpatti aru udaharanere Asamiya-Ingraji dui bhashara artha thaka abhidhana. second ed. Guwahati : Guwahati Bisbabidyalaya, 1962.
• A Dictionary in Assamese and English (1867) First Assamese dictionary by Miles Bronson from (books.google.com)
• Assamese computing resources at TDIL
• Assamese proverbs, published 1896