Ali

For other uses, see Ali (disambiguation).

Ali
Commander of the Faithful (Amir al-Mu'minin)
This mosque near Al Najaf, Iraq, is believed by Shias to house the tombstone of Ali
Reign	656 – 661
Predecessor	Uthman Ibn Affan
Successor	Hasan
Burial	Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq
Wives	Fatimah Fatima binte Hizam (Ummul Banin)
Issue	Hasan Husayn (See:Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib )
Names ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib
House	Ahl al-Bayt Banu Hashim
Father	Abu Talib
Mother	Fatima bint Asad

Ali ibn Abu Talib (Template:Lang-ar-at, 13_th Rajab, 24 BH – 21_st Ramadan, 40 AH; approximately, March 17 599 or 600- January 27 661) was the cousin, son-in-law and one of the Ahl al-Bayt of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, reigning over Rashidun empire from 656 to 661. Shia Muslims glorify Ali as the first infallible Imam and consider him and his descendants as the rightful successors to Muhammad. Sunnis take a different position, revering him as the fourth and final Rashidun (Rightly Guided Caliph). This disagreement resulted in the Muslim community being split into the Sunni and Shi'a branches.

Many sources, especially Shi'ite ones, record that Ali was the only person born in the sanctuary of Kaaba in the city of Mecca. His father was Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and his mother was Fatima bint Asad but he was raised in the household of Muhammad. As such, he is considered part of Muhammad's household. When Muhammad reported receiving a divine revelation, Ali accepted Islam when nine or ten years old, thus becoming the first male Muslim. Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca.

Ali migrated to Medina shortly after Muhammad. There Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter, Fatimah, to Ali in marriage. For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, leading parties of warriors on battles, and carrying messages and orders. With the exception of the Battle of Tabuk, Ali took part in all the battles fought for Islam during this time.

Ali was appointed caliph by sahaba (companions of Muhammad) in Medina after the assassination of the third caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan. He encountered defiance and civil war (First Fitna) during his reign. While praying in the mosque of Kufa, Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam assassinated Ali by striking him with a poison-coated sword. Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661 CE.

Muslims greatly respect Ali for his knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies. In addition, Ali retains his stature as the foremost authority on the tafsir (Qur'anic exegesis), fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and religious thought. Ali also holds a high position in almost all Sufi muslim orders (tariqah) which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. In this way, his influence continued throughout Islamic history.

In Mecca

Birth and childhood

Ambigram depicting Muhammad and Ali written in a single word. The 180 degree inverted form shows both words.

Main articles: Family tree of Ali and Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Ali's father Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib was the custodian of the Kaaba and a sheikh of Banu Hashim, an important branch of the powerful Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad. Ali's mother Fatima binte Asad also belonged to Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of Ismael, the son of Ibrahim.

Muhammad had a close relationship with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his grandfather Abdul Muttalib, Ali's father took him into his house. Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid.

Many sources, especially Shi'ite ones, record that Ali was the only person born inside the Kaaba in the city of Mecca, where he stayed with his mother for three days. Some sources contend that he was born beside the Kaaba. According to the tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali, meaning "the exalted one".

When Ali was five to six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, affecting the economic conditions of Ali's father, who already had a big family to support. Muhammad was then requested to become Ali's guardian.

Conversion to Islam

Main article: Identity of first male Muslim

The second period of Ali's life begins in 610 when he converted to Islam and ends with the Hijra of Muhammad to Medina in 622. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed him and professed to Islam. Ali was the first male to enter Islam. Some historians and scholars believe Ali's conversion isn't worthy enough to consider as the first male due to the fact that he was a child at the time.

The Shi'a believe that in keeping with Ali's divine mission, he converted to Islam before he had ever taken part in any of the rites of the pre-Islamic Meccan traditional religion, which Muslims regard as polytheism (see shirk) or paganism. Hence the Shi'a say of Ali that his face is honored - that is, it was never sullied by prostrations before idols. Ali, along with some members of the Banu Hashim clan, were Hanifs prior to the coming of Islam.

After conversion to Islam

For three years Muhammad invited people to Islam in secret. Then he started inviting people publicly. When, according to the Qur'an, he was commanded to invite his closer relatives to come to Islam he gathered the Banu Hashim clan in a ceremony and told them clearly that whoever would be the first to accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali, who was 13 or 14 years old at that time, stepped forth and embraced Islam. This invitation was repeated three times but only Ali answered Muhammad. Muhammad accepted Ali's submission to the faith and thus fulfilled his promise. Others laughed at them and dispersed. This event is known as Hadith Yawm Al-Dar or Yawm Al-Enzar among Muslim historians and scholars.

Muhammad then made a public declaration and the struggle between Muslims and pagans started. As the ranks of Muhammad's followers swelled, he became a threat to local tribes and the rulers of Mecca. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Kaaba. So they persecuted Muslims. Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims and boycott of Banu Hashim in Mecca.

Migration to Medina

See also: Hijra (Islam)

In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina), Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that Muhammad could escape in safety. This night is called Laylat al-mabit. According to some hadith, a verse was revealed about Ali concerning his sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says, "And among men is he who sells his nafs (self) in exchange for the pleasure of Allah"

Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping. Ali then went to Medina with his mother, Muhammad's daughter Fatima and two other women.

In Medina

During Muhammad's era

See also: Muhammad in Medina and Ali the Warrior

Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. When Muhammad was creating bonds of brotherhood among his Sahaba (companions) he selected Ali as his brother.

For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders. As one of Muhammad’s lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.

Family life

See also: Ahl al-Bayt

File:Panjetan.jpg

The calligraphy which shows Allah at center and Ahl al-Bayt around it.

In 623 the second year after Hijra, Muhammad told Ali that he had been ordered by God to give his daughter Fatimah Zahra to Ali in marriage. Muhammad said to Fatima: "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me." This family is glorified by Muhammad frequently and he declared them as his Ahl al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and hadith like Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. They were also glorified in the Qur'an in several cases such as "the verse of purification". Ali had four children born to Fatimah, the only child of Muhammad to have progeny. Their two sons (Hasan and Husain) were cited by Muhammad to be his own sons, honored numerous times in his lifetime and titled "the leaders of the youth of Jannah" (Heaven, the hereafter.)

Theirs was a simple life, in fact, so far as material comforts were concerned, it was a life of hardship and deprivation. Throughout their life together, Ali remained poor because he did not set great store by material wealth. Fatimah was the only one of her sisters who was not married to a wealthy man. To relieve their extreme poverty, Ali worked as a drawer and carrier of water and she as a grinder of corn. Even often there was no food in her house. One day she said to Ali: "I have ground until my hands are blistered." and Ali answered "I have drawn water until I have pains in my chest,"

Their marriage lasted about ten years and ended when Fatima died. Although polygyny was permitted, Ali did not marry another woman while Fatimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as the marriage between the greatest saintly figures surrounding Muhammad. After Fatimah's death, Ali married other wives and fathered many other children.

In battles

Main article: Ali the Warrior

File:The Message - Muslim Warriors.jpg

Scene of Battle of Badr from the film The Messenger of god: The Muslim army sends out its champions including Ali. Zulfiqar is in the foreground.

Zulfiqar, a fictional representation of the sword of Ali.

With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all the battles and expeditions fought for Islam. He was the standard-bearer in every battle that he partook in. He also led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands.

Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. According to Muslim traditions he killed at least twenty of the pagans and at most thirty five, but most of them agree with twenty seven ones.

Ali was also prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar. Muslim historians reported that Ali, alone, destroyed all the standard bearers. He also had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the Muslims' army escaped at the battles of Uhud and it was said "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar." He was the standard bearer and commander of the Muslim army in Battle of Khaybar. He also defended Muhammad in Battle of Hunayn in 630.

Missions for Islam

Muhammad also designated him as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Qur'an, which had been revealed to Muhammad during the previous two decades. As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, Ali helped to establish the new Islamic order. He was instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the peace treaty between Muhammad and the Quraysh in 628. Ali was so reliable and trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to carry the messages and declare the orders. In 630 he recited to a large gathering of pilgrims in Mecca a portion of the Qur'an that declared that Muhammad and the Islamic community were no longer bound by agreements made earlier with Arab polytheists. During the Conquest of Mecca in 630, Muhammad asked Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be bloodless. He ordered Ali to break all the idols worshipped by the Banu Aus, Banu Khazraj, Tayy, and those in the Kaaba to purify it after its defilement by the polytheism of the pre-Islamic era. Ali was sent to Yemen one year later to spread the teachings of Islam. Ali also was charged with settling several disputes and putting down the uprisings of various tribes.

The incident of Mubahala

Main articles: Mubahala and Hadith of Mubahela

See also: Ahl al-Bayt

According to hadith collections, in 631 an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus. After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation, Muhammad called them to Mubahala (Cursing), where each party should ask God to destroy the lying party and their families. Muhammad, to prove to them that he is a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah and his surviving grandchildren, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, and Ali ibn Abi Talib and came back to the Christians and said this is my family and covered himself and his family with a cloak. Allameh Tabatabaei explains in Tafsir al-Mizan that the word "Our selves" in this verse refers to Prophet and Ali. Then he narrates Ali al-Rida, eight Shia Imam, in discussion with Al-Ma'mun, Abbasid caliph, referred to this verse to prove the superiority of the Prophet's progeny over the rest of the ummah, Muslim community, and considered it as the proof for Ali's right for caliphate due to Allah made Ali like the self of the Prophet.

Ghadir Khumm

The Investiture of Ali, at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration).

Main articles: Hadith of the pond of Khumm and Hadith of the two weighty things

As the Prophet was returning from his last pilgrimage in 632, Muhammad made certain statements about Ali that have been interpreted in very different ways by Sunnis and Shias.

He halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm, gathered the returning pilgrims for communal prayer and began to address them:

"O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the members of my household I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.."

This quote is confirmed by both Shi’a and Sunni, but they interpret the quote differently.

Some Sunni and Shi'a sources report that then he called Ali ibn Abi Talib to his sides, took his hand and raised it up declaring

"For whoever I am a Mawla of, then Ali is his Mawla."

The Shi'ites regard these statements as constituting the investiture of Ali as the successor of Muhammad and as the first Imam; by contrast, the Sunnis take them only as an expression of Muhammad's closeness to Ali and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death. Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par excellence. On the basis of this hadith, Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.

Succession to Muhammad

Template:Succession to Muhammad

See also: Succession to Muhammad, Saqifah, and Rashidun

Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, Umar ( a prominent companion of Muhammad) nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's father in-law and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor.

Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. He had not changed his mind when he finally gave his pledge to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at at time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.

According to the Nahj al-Balagha, Ali continued to assert that the caliphate was his right and said:

"By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill...I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it... I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.

According to Sunni accounts, Muhammad died without having appointed a successor, and with a need for leadership, they gathered and voted for the position of caliph. This did not create an immediate division, however, because Ali did not fight against the elected caliphs. Shi'a accounts differ by asserting that Muhammad had designated Ali as his successor on a number of occasions, including on his death bed. Ali had many friends, followers and supporters who believed that he should have succeeded Muhammad. This did not create an immediate division, however, because Ali did not fight against the elected caliphs as he knew that there was important work he could continue doing in fulfilling his station of Imam'ate (divinely appointed guide).

The succession to Muhammad is an extremely contentious issue. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue, which forms the primary theological barrier between the two major divisions of Muslims: Sunni and Shi'a, with the latter following Ali as the successor to Muhammad. The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman Ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as the leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims, which was still a nascent community throughout the Arab world.

Inheritance

Main article: Fadak

See also: Hadith of Muhammad's inheritance

After Muhammad died his daughter, Fatimah, asked Abu Bakr to turn over their property, the lands of Fadak and Khaybar but he refused and told her that prophets didn't have any legacy and Fadak belonged to the Muslim community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's Apostle said, we do not have heirs, whatever we leave is Sadaqa." Ali together with Umm Ayman testified to the fact that Muhammad granted it to Fatimah Zahra, when Abu Bakr requested Fatima to summon witnesses for her claim. Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude until she died.

After Fatima's death Ali again claimed her inheritance during Umar's era, but was denied with the same argument. Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property.

However Shi'a sources regard this as another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers, believing that Ali himself was saddened by this.

Life after the death of Muhammad

See also: Origin and development of the Qur'an

Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph in 656. During these years Ali didn't take part in any battle or conquest. He also didn't assume any executive position. He withdrew from political affairs, especially after death of his wife, Fatima Zahra. He used his time to serve his family and worked as a farmer. He dug a lot of wells and gardens near Medina and endowed them for public usage. These well are known as "Abar Ali" (Ali's wells) today. He also made some gardens for his family and descendants.

According to Shia as well as some Sunni scholars Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, Mushaf. Before six months had elapsed after the death of Muhammad, the volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this mushaf differed from the mushaf which was gathered later during Uthman era. Due to the fact that this book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no objection or resistance against standardized mushaf. This book is inherited by his descendant, i.e. Shia Imams.

Ali and the Rashidun Caliphs

See also: Rashidun and The election of Uthman

Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah. Ali participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr but did not participate in the Ridda Wars.

He pledged allegiance to the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab and helped him as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set Hijra as the begining of the Islamic calendar‎. Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones.

Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph and one of the two major candidates. According to Ibn Abi al-Hadid's Comments on the Peak of Eloquence Ali insisted on his prominence there, but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him.

Siege of Uthman

Main article: Siege of Uthman

The third caliph Uthman Ibn Affan expressed generosity toward his kin, Banu Abd-Shams, who seemed to dominate him and his supposed arrogant mistreatment toward several of the earliest Companions such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud and Ammar ibn Yasir provoked outraged among some group of people. Dissatisfaction and resistance had openly arisen since 650-651 CE throughout most of the empire. The dissatisfaction with his regime and the governments appointed by him was not restricted to the provinces outside Arabia. When Uthman's kin, especially Marwan, gained control over him, the noble companions including most of the the members of elector council, turned against him or at least withdrew their support putting pressure on the caliph to mend his ways and reduce the influence of his assertive kin.

Finally, dissatisfaction led to rebellion in Egypt, Kufa and Basra. At the start of the rebellion, people demanded that the exiled be returned to their homes, the deprived be provided sustenance, the men of strength and integrity be appointed as governors, and so on. They requested Ali to speak to Uthman on their behalf and to admonish him for their sake. Ali told Uthman "The people are behind me and they have made me an ambassador between you and themselves." He forewarned Uthman that he should change his manner immediately or he would be killed. Ali told him "I swear to you by Allah that you should not be that Imam of the people who will be killed because it has been said that, 'An imam of this people will be killed after which killing and fighting will be made open for them till the Day of Judgment, and he will confuse their matters and spread troubles over them. As a result, they will not discern truth from wrong.'" Later, when Egyptian rebels gathered near Medina, Uthman asked Ali to speak with them. The delegates of Muhajirun led by Ali beside Ansari delegates led by Muhammad Ibn Maslamah met them and persuade them to return, by promising them in the name of the caliph, redress for all their grievances and agreeing to act as guarantors. Due to their mediation and Uthman's commitment, the rebellion settled down but then rose up again. Marwan persuaded Uthman to change his ways again. Ali warned Uthman that Marwan wants to ruin him. Gradually the relation between Uthman and Ali became worse.

When Egyptian rebels returned to Medina, outraged by the official letter ordering the punishment of their leaders, Ali as the guarantor of Uthman's promises asked him to speak with the people directly. Uthman denied any knowledge about the letter and Ali and Muhammad Ibn Maslamah attested. At this time, however, the choices offered by the rebels amounted to resignation or abdication of Uthman and selection of another caliph. Ali left them when turmoil broke out. Ali seems to have broken with Uthman in despair over his own ability to break the disastrous influence of Marwan on the caliph. Ali intervened only when informed that the rebels were preventing the delivery of water to the besieged caliph. He tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed water. There are different reports about Ali's role while rebels besieged his palace. Some historians, like Leone Caetani, accuse him as the chief culprit in the murder of the caliph, some others such as Madelung say Ali did not support Uthman while others report that Ali even sent his own sons to protect Uthman's house when he was in danger of being attacked.

There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and Uthman. Although pledging allegiance to Uthman, Ali disagreed with some of his policies. In particular, he clashed with Uthman on the question of religious law. Therefore, some historians consider Ali as one the leading members of Uthman's opposition, if not the main one. Because he could clearly be expected to be the prime beneficiary of the overthrow of Uthman. But Madelung rejects their judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have the Quraysh's support to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is even no evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions. Some other sources says Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. However Madelung narrates Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali, that

No one [among the Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your master.

Caliphate

See also: Rashidun Empire

Election as Caliph

This is the last part of Ali's life. He was the caliph between 656 and 661 CE which was one the hardest periods in Muslim history and coincided with the First Fitna.

After the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman Ibn Affan, rebels had to select a new Caliph. But this selection encountered with some difficulties. The rebels were divided into several groups comprising Muhajerin, Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and Basntes. There were three candidates Ali, Talhah and Al-Zubayr. First they referred to Ali and asked him to accept the caliphate. Also some Companions of Muhammad tried to persuade him to accept the office.

Then rebels offered the caliphate to Talhah and Al-Zubayr and some other companions but they refused it too. Therefore they threatened that, unless the people of Medina choose a caliph within one day, they would be forced to take some drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock all of the Muslims gathered in Mosque of Prophet in 18 June 656CE. (19th Dhu al-Hijjah 35AH.) to chose the caliph. Ali refused to accept caliphate by the fact that the people who pressed him hardest were the rebels, and he therefore declined at first. When the notable companions of Muhammad as well as people who live in Medina urged him, however, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge but the other narrations claim they didn't do so or even somebody force them to do so. However he and Al-Zubayr later claimed they did so reluctantly. But Ali refused this claim and say they do so voluntarily. Mudelong believe that force didn't use to urge people to give their pledge and they pledge in public in the mosque.

While the overwhelming majority of people who lived in Medina as well as rebels gave their pledge, some major figures didn't do so. Umayyads, kins of Uthman, escaped to Levant or remained in their houses and later refused Ali's legitimacy. Sa`ad ibn Abi Waqqas were absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance but both of them assured Ali that they wouldn't do anything against Ali. Another prominent figure who was in Mecca at that time and later opposed Ali, was A'isha, Muhammad's widow.

Reign as Caliph

At the beginning Ali told people that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord and he want to purge Islam of all evil from which it had come to suffer. Then warned all concerned that he would tolerate no sedition and all found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly. He advised people to behave as true Muslims.

But he soon found that he was helpless and the prisoner of the people who didn't obey him. The caliphate had come to him as the gift of the rebels and he didn't have enough force to control or punish them. While A'isha, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Umayyad especially Muawiyah I wanted to take revenge for Uthman's death and punish the rioters who had killed him. However some historians believe that they use this issue to seek their political ambitions due to they found Ali's caliphate against their own benefit.

Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel of Mughrah ibn Shobah and Ibn Abbas, who had advised him to proceed cautiously. Madelung says Ali deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediencey, ready to fight against overwhelming odds. Muawiyah, kinsman of Uthman and governor of Levant refused to submit to Ali's orders - the only governor to do this.

After the Battle of Bassorah Ali transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. Kufa was in the middle of Islamic land and had strategic position.

Ali resumed the land which had been granted by Uthman and sweared to resume whatever some elites had taken before him. He opposed the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues and favored an equal distribution of taxes and booty among the Muslims; in contrast to Umar he distributed the entire revenue of the divan among Muslims without keeping anything in reserve. When asked to pay more money to elites he said "Do you command me that I should seek support by oppressing those over whom I have been placed? By Allah, I won't do so as long as the world goes on, and as long as one star leads another in the sky. Even if it were my property, I would have distributed it equally among them, then why not when the property is that of Allah."

First Fitna

See also: First Fitna

File:Battle of Siffin1.jpg

The Battle of Siffin, illustration from a 19th century manuscript by Muhammad Rafi Bazil. There are Persian poems on the above and bottom of the picture.

The First Fitna, 656–661 CE, followed the assassination of the caliph Uthman Ibn Affan, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended, on the whole, by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war is often called the Fitna, and regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the Muhammad's wife, Aisha bint Abu Bakr. This group was known as disobedients (Nakithin) by their enemies. First they gathered in Mecca then moved to Basra with the expectation of finding the necessary forces and resources to mobilize people in what is now Iraq. The rebels occupied Basra, killing many people. When Ali asked them for obedience and a pledge of allegiance, they refused. The two parties met at the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.

Then he appointed Ibn Abbas governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kufa. Later he was challenged by Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations with him with the hope of regaining his allegiance but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantn supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor) the Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mushaf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.

The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites (schismatics), opposed this decision and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the Battle of Nahrawan. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.

This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community and Muslims were divided over who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.

Death

On the nineteenth of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam assassinated him with a strike of his poison-coated sword. Ali, wounded by the poisonous sword, lived for two days and died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa in 661 CE.

Burial

Rawze-e-Sharif, the Blue Mosque, in Mazari Sharif, Afghanistan - Where a minority of Muslims believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is buried

Many Shi'a believe that Ali didn’t want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and because of that he asked his friends and family members to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite is supposed to have been revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth Shia Imam. Most Shi'as accept that Ali was buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.

However another story, usually maintained by Afghanis, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazari Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.

Aftermath

See also: Umayyad dynasty and Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali

Upon the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just Ahl Al-Bayt of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community. At this time Muawiyah held both Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had the declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shi'a. Regular public cursing of Ali in the congregational prayers remained a vital institution which was not abolished until 60 years later by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz. Muawiyah also established the Umayyad caliphate which was a centralized monarchy.

Madelung writes:

In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.

Knowledge

See also: Nahj al-Balagha

Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. Shia and Sufis believe that Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..." Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam.

As Henry Corbin narrates, Ali himself gives this testimony:

Not a single verse of the Qur'an descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general...

In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam. According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers especially after 1500AD.

Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression. Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the following century.

Even workers in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence. Of course, Peak of Eloquence (Nahj al-Balagha) is an extract of Ali's quotations from a literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in the preface. While there are many other quotations, prayers (Du'as), sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books.

In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafr, the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali.

Works related

The compilation of sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books.

• Nahj al-Balagha (Way of Eloquence) contains eloquent sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali which is compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. It is also considered as an important intellectual, political and religious work in Islam. Masadir Nahj al-Balagha wa asaniduh written by al-Sayyid `Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatib introduces some of these sources. Also Nahj al-sa'adah fi mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah by Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and sayings have been collected. It includes the Nahj al-balaghah and other discourses which were not incorporated by ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not available to him. Apparently, except for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents of the Nahj al-balaghah have been determined. There are several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias such as Comments of Ibn Abu al-Hadid and comments of Muhammad Abduh.
• Divan-i Ali ibn Abi Talib (poems of Ali ibn Abi Talib)
• Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim (Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of Speach) which is compiled by Abd al-Wahid Amidi(d. 1116) consists of over ten thounsads short sayings of Ali
• Nuzhat al-Absar va Mahasin al-Asar, Ali's sermons which has compiled by Ali ibn Muhammad Tabari Mamtiri

Descendants

Main articles: Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Alavi

Ali had several wives and Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad, was the most beloved one. He had four children by Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other famous sons were Al-Abbas ibn Ali born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um Al-Banin) and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.

Hasan, born in 625 AD, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. In the year 50 A.H. he was poisoned and martyred by one of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.

Husayn, born in 626 AD, was the third Shia Imam. Husayn lived under the most difficult outward conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram of the year 680 he lined up before the army of caliph with his small band of follower and finally almost all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shi'a Muslims. In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed. al-Tabari has mentioned their name in his history. Al-Abbas, the holder of Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam. Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The death of the last one is doubtful. Some historians have added the names of Ali's others sons who were killed in Karbala, including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn al-Asqar.

His daughter Zaynab who was in Karbala was captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers.

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.

Views

Muslim view

Main article: Ali in Muslim culture

File:Imam Ali.jpg

19th century Iranian painting depicting Imam Ali.

Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali. Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and foremost Ulema (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names.

Sunni

Main article: Sunni view of Ali

The Sunni Muslims regard Ali as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Rashidun and one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Ali is held with the utmost respect along with Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman Ibn Affan.

Shia

Main article: Shi'a view of Ali

The Shias regards Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad. According to them, Muhammad in his life time suggested on various occasions, that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his demise like Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Twelve Successors and so on.

According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only rules over the community in justice but also interprets the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was free from error and sin (infallible) and he was appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad. Ali is known as "perfect man" (Al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint.

Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah" or other Ziyaratnames.

Sufi

Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis, whether Sunni or Shi'ite, believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible. Imam Ali represents the essence of the teachings of the School of Islamic Sufism.

Sufis have glorified Ali in their works.. For example Rumi says in Masnavi:

The man spat in Ali's pure face, the pride

of every saint and prophet far and wide

The moon itself prostrates before this face...

Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after Hamd and Naat in their Qawwali.

As a deity

Main article: Ghulat

Some groups believed that Ali was a deity in his own right or he wa God incarnate. They are known collectively as 'Nusairi' and are described as ghulat (exaggerators) by the vast majority of scholars, both Shia and Sunni. These groups have, in traditional Islamic thought, left Islam due to their exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits and thus setting. Ali himself is recorded as having clearly forbidden those who sought to worship him in his own lifetime from doing so.

Non-Muslim view

Main article: Non-Muslim view of Ali

Some of the non-Muslim scholars such as Edward Gibbon and Sir William Muir have praised Ali while some others, such as Lammens, have held a negative view of Ali.

Historiography of Ali's life

See also: Historiography of early Islam

The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Shia Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.

There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Shia partisan positions; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aysha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. According to him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures

Until the rise of the Abbasid Dynasty, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work of this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays which is written by Sulaym ibn Qays(d.694-714), a companion of Ali. When paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs were written during 750 and 950 AD. According to Robinson, at least twenty-one separate monographs have been composed on the Battle of Siffin. Abi Mikhnaf (d. 774) is one of the most renowned writers of this period who tried to gather all of the reports. 9th and 10th century historians collected, selected and arranged the available narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist anymore except for a few which have been used in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.932).

Shia of Iraq actively participated in writing monographs but most of those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th century AD are about biographies of The Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve Imams. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important works in this field is Kitab al-Irshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Ali. There are also some books known as Manāqib which describe Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography.

See also

• Alawism
• Alevi
• Fatimid
• Imam
• Ismaili
• List of Muslim reports
• Wali

References

Books

• Al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih Bukhari, Book 4, 5, 8.
• Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 0940368439.
• Ali ibn al-Athir. In his Biography, vol 2.
• Ali ibn al-Athir. The Complete History (Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh), vol 3.
• Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued by R. Stephen Humphreys. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791401545. (volume XV.)
• Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued by I. K. A. Howard. SUNY Press. ISBN 0395652375. (volume XIX.)
• Al-Waqidi. Al-maghazi (The Invasions) Part 1. Oxford Printing.
• Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 8126119403.
• Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, MI. Alibris. ISBN 8126171834.
• Corbin, Henry (1993 (original French 1964)). History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard. London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0710304161. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
• Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791470334.
• Halm, Halm (2004). Shi'ism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748618880.
• Holt, P. M. (1977). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Ibn Hisham, Abdul Malik (1955). Al Seerah Al Nabaweyah (Biography of the Prophet). Mustafa Al Babi Al Halabi (Egypt).(In Arabic)
• Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi ad-Din Ahmad. Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah.(In Arabic)
• Khatab, Amal (1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN 1-897940-39-4.
• Landolt, Hermann (2005). Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1850434700. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
• Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.
• Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1417955368.
• Majlisi, Mohammad Baqer. Bihar al-Anwar V.97.(In Arabic)
• Motahhari, Morteza. Ensane Kamel (Perfect Man), translated by Aladdin Pazargadi, edited by Shah Tariq Kamal. Foreign Department Of Bonyad Be'that.
• Motahhari, Morteza (1997). Glimpses of the Nahj Al-Balaghah, translated by Ali Quli Qara'i. Islamic Culture and Relations Organizati. 978-9644720710.
• Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim, Book 19, 31.
• Ordoni, Abu Muhammad (1992). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. ISBN B000BWQ7N6. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Peters, F. E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691114617.
• Robinson, Chase F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521629365.
• Redha, Mohammad (1999). Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth Caliph, 1/1 Volume). Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah. ISBN 2-7451-2532-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Rumi, Jalal ad-Din Muhammad (2004). The Masnavi, Book One , translated by Jawid A. Mojaddedi. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804383.
• Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006). Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam Ali. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1845115260.
• Stearns, Peter N. (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0395652375. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); line feed character in |coauthors= at position 16 (help)
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1987). The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims. Zahra. ISBN 0710302657.
• Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. Tafsir al-Mizan.
• Qommi, Abbas. The Prayer's AlManac, English version of Mafatih al-Jinan. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Watt, William Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press.
• Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. ISBN 0745639984.

Encyclopedia

• Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1568590504. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
• Ahmed, M. Mukarram (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 8126123397. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

Further reading

• Abdul Rauf, Muhammad (1996). Imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: The First Intellectual Muslim Thinker, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Al Saadawi Publications. ISBN 1881963497.
• Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1987 to 1996). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes. SUNY Press. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link) volumes 6-17 are relevant.
• Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, MI. Alibris. ISBN 8126171834.
• Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. 1570622116.
• Gordagh, George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 0-941724-24-7.(in Arabic)
• Ibn Ishaq (2002). The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0196360331. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Ibn Qutaybah. Al-Imama wa al-Siyasa. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthor= (help)(In Arabic)
• Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (1997). The Book of the Major Classes (scattered volumes of English translation as issued by Kitab Bhavan). Ta-Ha Publishers, London. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthor= (help)
• Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might , translation by I.K.A. Howard. Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 0950698660.
• Lakhani, M. Ali. (2007). The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. 1933316268. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Motahhari, Murtaza (1981). Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. World Organization for Islamic Services, Tehran.
• Rizvi , Sa'id Akhtar (1956). Imamate: The Vicegerency of the Prophet.

External links

• Ali ibn Abi Talib by I. K. Poonawala and E. Kohlberg in Encyclopedia Iranica
• Ali, article on Enyclopaedia Britannica Online

Some of the Ali's most famous sermons and letters

• Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib Nahjul Balagha
• Order to Maalik al-Ashtar, governor of Egypt (UN Legal Committee, member states voted that the document should be considered as one of the sources of International Law.) The United Nation and Imam Ali’s Constitution
• A advice ti his son Hasan ib Ali (This letter contains ethical advisement)
• 185 Sermon about the Oneness of Allah

Sunni biography

• Biography from USC's MSA website
• Ali ibn Abi Talib

Shi'a biography

• The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali b. Abu Talib by Shaykh Mufid in Kitab al-Irshad
• The Commander of the Faithful: ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
• The Last Will of Ali ibn Abi Talib
• Alavi Bohras - The Walaayat and Love for Maulaa 'Ali