Cinema of India
Cinema of India constitutes of films produced across India, including the cinematic culture of Mumbai along with the cinematic traditions of provinces such as Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.[1] Indian films came to be followed throughout Southeast Asia and the Middle East—where modest dressing and subdued sexuality of these films was found to be acceptable to the sensibilities of the audience belonging to these regions.[2] As cinema as a medium gained popularity in the country as many as 1,000 films in various languages of India were produced annually.[2] Expatriates in countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States continued to give rise to an international audiences to Hindi-language films, some of which—according to the Encyclopædia Britannica (2009) entry on Bollywood—continued to carry 'formulaic story lines, expertly choreographed fight scenes, spectacular song-and-dance routines, emotion-charged melodrama, and larger-than-life heroes.'[3]
Overview
In the 21st century Indian cinema, along with American and Chinese film industries, became a global enterprise.[4] Enhanced technology paved the way for upgradation from established cinematic norms of delivering product, radically altering the manner in which content reached the target audience.[4] Indian cinema found markets in over 90 countries where films from India are screened.[5] The country also participated in international film festivals.[5] Indian filmmakers such as Shekhar Kapur, Mira Nair, Deepa Mehta etc. found success overseas.[6] The Indian government extended film delegations to foreign countries such as the United States of America and Japan while the country's Film Producers Guild sent similar missions through Europe.[7]
India is the world's largest producer of films, producing close to a thousand films annually.[2][8] About 300 of the total films produced are in Hindi while the remaining are in other languages.[8] However, Hindi films account for about half of the total revenue generated by cinema in India.[8] The provision of 100% foreign direct investment has made the Indian film market attractive for foreign enterprises such as 20th Century Fox, Sony Pictures, and AOL Time Warner.[9] Prominent Indian enterprises such as Zee, UTV and Adlabs also participated in producing and distributing films.[9] Tax incentives to multiplexes have aided the multiplex boom in India.[9] By 2003 as many as 30 film production companies had been listed in the National Stock Exchange of India, making the commercial presence of the medium felt.[9]
The Indian diaspora constitutes of millions of Indians overseas for which films are made available both through mediums such as DVDs and by screening of films in their country of residence wherever commercially feasible.[10] These earnings, accounting for some 12% of the revenue generated by a mainstream film, contribute substantially to the overall revenue of Indian cinema, the net worth of which was found to be 1.3 billion US Dollars in 2000.[11] Facilities for film production in the country included Ramoji Film City, which, according to Shanti Kumar 'claims to be the largest' film production center in the world.[12] Music in Indian cinema is another substantial revenue generator, with the music rights alone accounting for 4-5% of the net revenues generated by a film in India.[11]
History
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Following the screening of the Lumière moving pictures in Paris (1895) cinema became a sensation across Europe and by July 1896 the Lumière films had been in show in Bombay (presently Mumbai).[13] The first full-length motion picture in India was produced by Dadasaheb Phalke, a scholar on India's languages and culture, who bought together elements from Sanskrit epics to produce his Raja Harishchandra.[14] The first Indian chain of cinema theaters was owned by the Calcutta entrepreneur Jamshedji Framji Madan, who oversaw production of 10 films annually and distributed them throughout the Indian subcontinent.[14]
During the early twentieth century cinema as a medium gained popularity across India's population and its many economic sections.[13] Tickets were made affordable to the common man at a low price and for the financially capable additional comforts meant additional admission ticket price.[13] Audiences thronged to cinema halls as this affordable medium of entertainment was available for as low as an anna (25 paisa) in Bombay.[13] The content of Indian commercial cinema was increasingly tailored to appeal to these masses.[13] Young Indian producers began to incorporate elements of India's social life and culture into cinema.[15] Others bought with them ideas from across the world.[15] This was also the time when global audiences and markets became aware of India's film industry.[15]
Ardeshir Irani released Alam Ara, the first Indian talking film, on March 14, 1931.[14] Following the inception of 'talkies' in India some film stars were highly sought after and earned comfortable incomes through acting.[14] As sound technology advanced the 1930s saw the rise of music in Indian cinema with musicals such as Indra Sabha and Devi Devyani marking the beginning of song-and-dance in India's films.[14] Studios emerged across major cities such as Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai as film making became an established craft by 1935, exemplified by the success of Devdas, which had managed to enthrall audiences nationwide.[16] Bombay Talkies came up in 1934 and Prabhat Studios in Pune had begun production of films meant for the Marathi language audience.[16] Filmmaker R. S. D. Choudhury produced Wrath (1930), banned by the British Raj in India as it depicted actors as Indian leaders, an expression censored during the days of the Indian independence movement.[14]
The Indian Masala film—a slang used for commercial films with song, dance, romance etc.—came up following the second world war.[16] South Indian cinema gained prominence throughout India with the release of S.S. Vasan's Chandralekha.[16] During the 1940s cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India's cinema halls and cinema came to viewed as an instrument of cultural revival.[16] The partition of India following its independence divided the nation's assets and a number of studios went to the newly formed Pakistan.[16] The strife of partition would become an enduring subject for film making during the decades that followed.[16]
Following independence the cinema of India was inquired by the S.K. Patil Commission.[17] S.K. Patil, head of the commission, viewed cinema in India as a 'combination of art, industry, and showmanship' while noting its commercial value.[17] Patil further recommended setting up of a Film Finance Corporation under the Ministry of Finance.[18] This advice was later taken up in 1960 and the institution came into being to provide financial support to talented filmmakers throughout India.[18] The Indian government had established a Films Division by 1949 which eventually became one of the largest documentary film producers in the world with an annual production of over 200 short documentaries annually, each released in 18 languages with 9000 prints for permanent film theaters across the country.[19]
The Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA), an art movement with a communist inclination, began to take shape through the 1940s and the 1950s.[17] A number of realistic IPTA plays, such as Bijon Bhattacharya's Nabanna in 1944 (based on the tragedy of the Bengal famine of 1943), prepared the ground for the solidification of realism in Indian cinema, exemplified by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas's Dharti Ke Lal (Children of the Earth) in 1946.[17] The IPTA movement continued to emphasize on reality and went on to produce Mother India and Pyaasa, among of India's most recognizable cinematic productions.[20]
Pather Panchali (1955), the first part of the The Apu Trilogy (1955-1959) by Satyajit Ray, marked his entry in Indian cinema.[21] Indira Gandhi's intervention during her reign as the Information and Broadcasting Minister of India during the 1960s further led to production of offbeat cinematic expression, known as 'Parallel Cinema', being supported by the official Film Finance Corporation.[18] Some filmmakers such as Shyam Benegal continued to produce realistic cinema throughout the 1970s.[22] However, the 'art film' bent of the Film Finance Corporation came under criticism during a Committee on Public Undertakings investigation in 1976, which accused the body of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema.[23] The 1970s did, nevertheless, see the rise of commercial cinema in form of enduring films such as Sholay, which solidified Amitabh Bachchan's position as a lead actor.[23] The devotional classic Jai Santoshi Ma was also released in 1975.[23] Commercial cinema further grew throughout the 80s and the 90s with release of films such as Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak, Tezaab, Baazigar, and Darr.[23] The 90s also saw a surge in the national popularity of Tamil cinema as films directed by Mani Ratnam captured India's imagination.[23] The South Indian industry not only released cinema with national appeal but also featured multicultural music, which found appreciation among the Indian audience.[24]
Bollywood
The Hindi film industry—also known as Bollywood—initially explored issues of caste and culture in films such as Achut Kanya (1936) and Sujata (1959).[25] International visibility came to the industry with Raj Kapoor's Awara.[26] Bollywood grew during the 1990s with the release of as many as 215 films in 1991.[10] With Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, Bollywood registered its commercial presence in the western world.[10]
In 1995 the Indian economy began showing sustainable annual growth, and Bollywood, as a commercial enterprise, grew at a growth rate of 15% annually.[10] With growth in commercial appeal the earnings of known Bollywood stars such as Shah Rukh Khan reached 30 million rupees per film by the year 2000.[11] Female stars such as Madhuri Dixit, too, earned as much as 12.5 million rupees for a film.[10] Many actors signed contracts for simultaneous work in 3-4 films.[11] Institutions such as the Industrial Development Bank of India also came forward to finance Bollywood films.[11] A number of magazines such as Stardust, Filmfare, Cineblitz etc. became popular.[27]
Regional industries
The regional film industry of India comprises of several smaller industries, each catering largely to a specific language audience.[28] However, a significant degree of regional interaction is seen between the various regions as filmmakers and actors from one region often contribute to films meant for another region.[28]
| Cinema | Description |
|---|---|
| Bengali cinema | The Bengali cinematic tradition has had reputable filmmakers such as Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, and Mrinal Sen among its most acclaimed.[29] Recent Bengali films that have captured national attention include Rituparno Ghosh's Choker bali, starring Aishwarya Rai.[30] Bengali film making also includes science fiction films and films that focus on social issues.[31] In 1993 the Bengali industry's net output was 57 films.[28] |
| Kannada cinema | Kannada cinema borrowed heavily from Kannada literature and even from cinema in other Indian languages.[32] Kannada cinema gained prominence as a regional medium in the 1970s but has somewhat faded since then.[32] It continues to have successful proponents in the likes of Girish Kasaravalli.[32] In 1993 the Kannada industry's net output was 78 films.[28] |
| Malayalam cinema | The Malayalam films find audiences in India's Kerala state, which has the high literacy rates and an established tradition of theater.[33] Malayalam film industry has a tradition in artistic cinema, exemplified by the works of Adoor Gopalakrishnan and G. Aravindan as well as a tradition in commercial cinema with stars such as Mammooty and Mohanlal acting in films which draw the masses.[34] In 1993 the Malayalam industry's net output was 71 films.[28] |
| Marathi cinema | Some of the earliest Indian filmmakers, such as Dadasaheb Phalke belonged to the state of Maharashtra, which is where Marathi cinema finds its audience.[35] Marathi cinema is marked by escapist trends which tend to cater to the common moviegoers and provide affordable entertainment.[35] Art cinema finds proponents in Jabbar Patel, Amol Palekar etc.[36] In 1993 the Marathi industry's net output was 35 films.[28] However, this number declined to 25 in 1994 and finally to as low as 10 films per year in 1996.[36] |
| Tamil cinema | Tamil cinema has been popular in the Tamil Nadu state of India and has, since the release of Chandralekha (1948), seen success beyond India's South.[32] Tamil cinema has been a force in the local politics of the Tamil Nadu state with some of the industry's personalities, such as M.G. Ramachandran, M. Karunanidhi, and Jayalalitha, having held political offices.[37] With the establishment of the Madras film Institute the quality of Tamil cinema improved during the 1980s and it further gained international exposure with the works of filmmakers like Mani Ratnam[38] and the music of A. R. Rahman. In 1993 the Tamil industry's net output was 168 films.[28] Tamil stars such as Kamal Hassan have been successful nationally while others like Rajnikanth have had a global following.[38] |
| Telugu cinema | Telugu cinema has had stars such as N.T. Rama Rao who attracted audience throughout the state of Andhra Pradesh.[39] Cinema was initiated later in Andhra Pradesh compared to other parts of the country.[39] A recurring theme in Telugu films was family melodrama.[39] |
| Other | Assamese cinema, Oriya cinema, Punjabi cinema, and Bhojpuri cinema. |
Film music
Music in Indian cinema is a substantial revenue generator, with the music rights alone accounting for 4-5% of the net revenues generated by a film in India.[11] The major film music companies of India are Saregama, Sony Music etc.[11] Commercially, film music accounts for 48% India's net music sales.[11] A film in India may have many choreographed songs spread throughout its length.[40]
The demands of a multicultural, increasingly globalized Indian audience often led to a mixing of various local and international musical traditions.[40] Local dance and music nevertheless remain a time tested and recurring theme in India and have made their way outside of India's borders with its diaspora.[40] Playback singers such as Lata Mangeshkar drew large crowds with national and international film music stage shows.[40] The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 21st saw extensive interaction between artists from India and the western world.[41] Artists from Indian diaspora blended the traditions of their heritage to those of their country to give rise rise to popular contemporary music.[41]
Global discourse
Indians during the colonial rule bought film equipment from Europe.[15] The British funded wartime propaganda films during the second world war, some of which showed the Indian army pitted against the axis powers, specifically the Empire of Japan, which had managed to infiltrate into India.[42] One such story was Burma Rani, which depicted civilian resistance offered to Japanese occupation by the British and Indians present in Myanmar.[42] Pre-independence businessmen such as J. F. Madan and Abdulally Esoofally traded in global cinema.[14] Indian cinema's early contacts with other regions became visible with its films making early inroads into Russia, Middle East, and South East Asia.[43] Indian films also appeared in international fora and festivals.[43] Many Asian and 'Third World' countries increasingly came to find Indian cinema as more suited to their sensibilities than western cinema.[43] Jigna Desai holds that by the 21st century Indian cinema had managed to become 'deterritorialized', spreading over to the many parts of the world where Indian diaspora was present in significant numbers, and becoming an alternative to other international cinema.[44]
Awards
| Award | Since | Awarded by |
|---|---|---|
| National Film Awards | 1954 | Directorate of Film Festivals, Government of India |
| Filmfare Awards | 1954 | Filmfare |
| Star Screen Awards | 1995 | STAR TV (Asia) |
| Zee Cine Awards | 1998 | Zee Entertainment Enterprises |
Other awards include the International Indian Film Academy Awards, Bollywood Movie Awards, and the Global Indian Film Awards.
Notes
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 141
- ^ a b c Watson (2009)
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2009), Bollywood.
- ^ a b Khanna, 155
- ^ a b Khanna, 158
- ^ Khanna, 158-159
- ^ Khanna, 159
- ^ a b c Khanna, "The Business of Hindi Films", 140
- ^ a b c d Khanna, 156
- ^ a b c d e Potts, 74
- ^ a b c d e f g h Potts, 75
- ^ A city within a city, Ramoji Film City (RFC) claims to be the largest, most comprehensive, and most professionally planned film production center in the world....With more than seven thousand five hundred employees working in twenty-nine departments, RFC has the capacity to accommodate the production of twenty international films at any one time and cater to at least forty Indian films simultaneously - Kumar, 132.
- ^ a b c d e Burra & Rao, 252
- ^ a b c d e f g Burra & Rao, 253
- ^ a b c d Burra & Rao, 252-253
- ^ a b c d e f g Burra & Rao, 254
- ^ a b c d Rajadhyaksa, 679
- ^ a b c Rajadhyaksa, 684
- ^ Rajadhyaksa, 681-683
- ^ Rajadhyaksa, 681
- ^ Rajadhyaksa, 683
- ^ Rajadhyaksa, 685
- ^ a b c d e Rajadhyaksa, 688
- ^ Rajadhyaksa, 688-689
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 10-11
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 10
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 11
- ^ a b c d e f g Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 129
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 138
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 139
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 138-140
- ^ a b c d Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 132
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 134
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 133-134
- ^ a b Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 136
- ^ a b Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 137
- ^ Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 132-133
- ^ a b Gokulsing & Dissanayake, 133
- ^ a b c Burra & Rao, 256
- ^ a b c d Thompson, 74
- ^ a b Zumkhawala-Cook, 312
- ^ a b Velayutham, 174
- ^ a b c Desai, 38
- ^ Desai, 37
References
- Burra, Rani Day & Rao, Maithili (2006), "Cinema", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1), Thomson Gale, ISBN 0684313502.
- Desai, Jigna (2004), Beyond Bollywood: The Cultural Politics of South Asian Diasporic Film, Routledge, ISBN 0415966841.
- Gokulsing, K. M. & Dissanayake, W. (2004), Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change (2nd Edition), Trentham Books, ISBN 1858563291.
- Khanna, Amit (2003), "The Business of Hindi Films", Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema: historical record, the business and its future, narrative forms, analysis of the medium, milestones, biographies, Encyclopaedia Britannica (India) Private Limited, ISBN 8179910660.
- Khanna, Amit (2003), "The Future of Hindi Film Business", Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema: historical record, the business and its future, narrative forms, analysis of the medium, milestones, biographies, Encyclopaedia Britannica (India) Private Limited, ISBN 8179910660.
- Kumar, Shanti (2008), "Bollywood and Beyond: The Transnational Economy of Film Production in Ramoji Film City, Hyderabad", Global Bollywood: Travels of Hindi Song and Dance, University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 9780816645787.
- Potts, Michel W. (2006), "Film Industry", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), Thomson Gale, ISBN 0684313510.
- Rajadhyaksa, Ashish (1996), "India: Filming the Nation", The Oxford History of World Cinema, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198112572.
- Thompson, Gordon (2006), "Filmigit", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), Thomson Gale, ISBN 0684313510.
- Velayutham, Selvaraj (2008), "The diaspora and the global circulation of Tamil cinema", Tamil Cinema: The cultural politics of India’s other film industry, Routledge, ISBN 9780415396806.
- Watson, James L. (2009), Globalization, Encyclopedia Britannica.
- Zumkhawala-Cook, Richard (2008), "Bollywood Gets Funky: American Hip-Hop, Basement Bhangra, and the Racial Politics of Music", Global Bollywood: Travels of Hindi Song and Dance, University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 9780816645787.
See also
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