Foreign relations of the United Kingdom

The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are conducted by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, headed by the Foreign Secretary. The prime minister and numerous other agencies play a role in setting policy, and many institutions and businesses have a voice and a role.

The United Kingdom was the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries, most notably during the so-called "Pax Britannica"—a period of unrivaled supremacy and unprecedented international peace during the mid-to-late 1800s. The country continued to be widely considered a superpower until the Suez crisis of 1956 and the dismantling of the British Empire left the UK's dominant role in global affairs to be gradually diminished. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom remains a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a founding member of the G7, G20, NATO, AUKUS, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and the Commonwealth of Nations, the latter being a legacy of the British Empire. The UK had been a member state of the European Union (and a member of its predecessors) since 1973. However, due to the outcome of a 2016 membership referendum, proceedings to withdraw from the EU began in 2017 and concluded when the UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020, and the transition period on 31 December 2020 with an EU trade agreement. Since the vote and the conclusion of trade talks with the EU, policymakers have begun pursuing new trade agreements with other global partners.

History

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom

Further information: Timeline of British diplomatic history and History of the United Kingdom

The Battle of Nivelle - a Peninsular War battle between the French and the British armies in France in 1813

Following the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain (which united England and Scotland) in 1707, British foreign relations largely continued those of the Kingdom of England. British foreign policy initially focused on achieving a balance of power within Europe, with no one country achieving dominance over the affairs of the continent. This policy remained a major justification for Britain's wars against Napoleon, and for British involvement in the First and Second World Wars. Secondly Britain continued the expansion of its colonial "First British Empire" by migration and investment.

France was the chief enemy until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. It had a much larger population and a more powerful army, but a weaker navy. The British were generally successful in their many wars. The notable exception, the American War of Independence (1775–1783), saw Britain, without any major allies, defeated by the American colonials who had the support of France, the Netherlands and (indirectly) Spain. A favoured British diplomatic strategy involved subsidising the armies of continental allies (such as Prussia), thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat, eventually with a full complement of bases across the globe. British dominance of the seas was vital to the formation and maintaining of the British Empire, which was achieved through the support of a navy larger than the next two largest navies combined, prior to 1920. The British generally stood alone until the early 20th century, when it became friendly with the U.S. and made alliances with Japan, France and Russia and Germany former antagonist now ally.

1814–1914

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § 1814-1914

Further information: International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919) and Foreign policy of William Ewart Gladstone

Map of the British Empire (as of 1910). At its height, it was the largest empire in history.

The 100 years were generally peaceful--a sort of Pax Britannica enforced by the Royal Navy. There were two important wars, both limited in scope. The Crimean War (1853–1856) saw the defeat of Russia and its threat to the Ottoman Empire. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) saw the defeat of the two Boer republics in South Africa and Boxer Rebellion happen the same year. London became the world's financial centre, and commercial enterprise expanded across the globe. The "Second British Empire" was built with a base in Asia (especially India) and Africa.

First World War

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § First World War

Further information: Causes of World War I and Treaty of Versailles

1920s

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § 1920s

After 1918 Britain was a "troubled giant" that was less of a dominant diplomatic force in the 1920s than before. It often had to give way to the United States, which frequently exercised its financial superiority. The main themes of British foreign policy included a leading role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920, where Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge on Germany. He was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany further, as in the Locarno Treaties of 1925. Furthermore, Britain obtained "mandates" that allowed it and its dominions to govern most of the former German and Ottoman colonies.

Britain became an active member of the new League of Nations, but its list of major achievements was slight.

Disarmament was high on the agenda, and Britain played a major role following the United States in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in working toward naval disarmament of the major powers. By 1933 disarmament agreements had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany.

Britain was partially successful in negotiating better terms with United States regarding the large war loans which Britain was obliged to repay. Britain supported the international solution to German reparations through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. After the Dawes Plan had helped stabilize Germany's currency and lowered its annual payments, Germany was able to pay its annual reparations using money borrowed from New York banks, and Britain used the money received to pay Washington. The Great Depression starting in 1929 put enormous pressure on the British economy. Britain revived Imperial Preference, which meant low tariffs within the British Empire and higher barriers to trade with outside countries. The flow of money from New York dried up, and the system of reparations and payment of debt died in 1931.

In domestic British politics, the emerging Labour Party had a distinctive and suspicious foreign policy based on pacifism. Its leaders believed that peace was impossible because of capitalism, secret diplomacy, and the trade in armaments. Labour stressed material factors that ignored the psychological memories of the Great War and the highly emotional tensions regarding nationalism and the boundaries of countries. Nevertheless, party leader Ramsay MacDonald devoted much of his attention to European policies.

1930s

Main article: History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom § 1930s

Further information: Appeasement and Neville Chamberlain's European Policy

Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, and Mussolini pictured before signing the 1938 Munich Agreement, which gave the Sudetenland to Nazi Germany.

Vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the First World War inclined many Britons—and their leaders in all parties—to pacifism in the interwar era. This led directly to the appeasement of dictators (notably of Mussolini and of Hitler) in order to avoid their threats of war.

The challenge came from those dictators, first from Benito Mussolini, Duce of Italy, then from Adolf Hitler, Führer of a much more powerful Nazi Germany. The League of Nations proved disappointing to its supporters; it failed to resolve any of the threats posed by the dictators. British policy involved "appeasing" them in the hopes they would be satiated. By 1938 it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's most powerful military. The final act of appeasement came when Britain and France sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Hitler's demands at the Munich Agreement of September 1938. Instead of satiation, Hitler menaced Poland, and at last Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain dropped appeasement and stood firm in promising to defend Poland (31 March 1939). Hitler however cut a deal with Joseph Stalin to divide Eastern Europe (23 August 1939); when Germany did invade Poland in September 1939, Britain and France declared war, and the British Commonwealth followed London's lead.

Second World War

Further information: Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II and Diplomatic history of World War II

Having signed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in August 1939, Britain and France declared war against Germany in September 1939 in response to Germany's invasion of Poland. This declaration included the Crown colonies and India, which Britain directly controlled. The dominions were independent in foreign policy, though all quickly entered the war against Germany. After the French defeat in June 1940, Britain and its empire stood alone in combat against Germany, until June 1941. The United States gave diplomatic, financial and material support, starting in 1940, especially through Lend Lease, which began in 1941 and attain full strength during 1943. In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and agreed on the Atlantic Charter, which proclaimed "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This wording was ambiguous and would be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.

Starting in December 1941, Japan overran British possessions in Asia, including Hong Kong, Malaya, and especially the key base at Singapore. Japan then marched into Burma, headed toward India. Churchill's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe, but the rapid defeats irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power. The realisation that Britain could not defend them pushed Australia and New Zealand into permanent close ties with the United States.

Postwar

Further information: Postwar Britain (1945–1979) and Cold War

Overseas military bases in 2016 (blue) and military interventions since 2000 (red).

Economically in dire straits in 1945 (saddled with debt and dealing with widespread destruction of its infrastructure), Britain systematically reduced its overseas commitments. It pursued an alternate role as an active participant in the Cold War against communism, especially as a founding member of NATO in 1949.

The British had built up a very large worldwide Empire, which peaked in size in 1922, after more than half a century of unchallenged global supremacy. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the home economy, and after 1945 the British Empire rapidly began to disintegrate, with all the major colonies gaining independence. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the UK's status as a superpower was gone in the face of the United States and the Soviet Union. Most former colonies joined the "Commonwealth of Nations", an organisation of fully independent nations now with equal status to the UK. However it attempted no major collective policies. The last major colony, Hong Kong, was handed over to China in 1997. Fourteen British Overseas Territories maintain a constitutional link to the UK, but are not part of the country per se.

Britain slashed its involvements in the Middle East after the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956. However Britain did forge close military ties with the United States, France, and Germany, through the NATO military alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common Market in 1973; which became the European Union in 1993. However it did not merge financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which partly isolated it from the EU financial crisis of 2011. In June 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU.

21st century

Further information: International relations since 1989 and Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)

British Prime Minister Boris Johnson and U.S. President Donald Trump at the 45th G7 in Biarritz, August 2019.

Foreign policy initiatives of UK governments since the 1990s have included military intervention in conflicts and for peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance programmes and increased aid spending, support for establishment of the International Criminal Court, debt relief for developing countries, prioritisation of initiatives to address climate change, and promotion of free trade. The British approach has been described as "spread the right norms and sustain NATO".

Lunn et al. (2008) argue:

Three key motifs of Tony Blair's 10-year premiership were an activist philosophy of 'interventionism', maintaining a strong alliance with the US and a commitment to placing Britain at the heart of Europe. While the 'special relationship' and the question of Britain's role in Europe have been central to British foreign policy since the Second World War...interventionism was a genuinely new element.

The GREAT campaign of 2012 was one of the most ambitious national promotion efforts ever undertaken by any major nation. It was scheduled take maximum advantage of the worldwide attention to the Summer Olympics in London. The goals were to make British more culture visible in order to stimulate trade, investment and tourism. The government partnered with key leaders in culture, business, diplomacy and education. The campaign unified many themes and targets, including business meetings; scholarly conventions; recreational vehicle dealers; parks and campgrounds; convention and visitors bureaus; hotels; bed and breakfast inns; casinos; and hotels.

In 2013, the government of David Cameron described its approach to foreign policy by saying:

For any given foreign policy issue, the UK potentially has a range of options for delivering impact in our national interest. ... [W]e have a complex network of alliances and partnerships through which we can work.... These include – besides the EU – the UN and groupings within it, such as the five permanent members of the Security Council (the “P5”); NATO; the Commonwealth; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; the G8 and G20 groups of leading industrialised nations; and so on.

The UK began establishing air and naval facilities in the Persian Gulf, located in the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Oman in 2014–15. The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 highlighted a range of foreign policy initiatives of the UK government. Edward Longinotti notes how current British defence policy is grappling with how to accommodate two major commitments, to Europe and to an ‘east of Suez’ global military strategy, within a modest defence budget that can only fund one. He points out that Britain's December 2014 agreement to open a permanent naval base in Bahrain underlines its gradual re-commitment east of Suez. By some measures, Britain remains the second most powerful country in the world by virtue of its soft power and "logistical capability to deploy, support and sustain [military] forces overseas in large numbers." Although commentators have questioned the need for global power projection, the concept of “Global Britain” put forward by the Conservative government in 2019 signalled more military activity in the Middle East and Pacific, outside of NATO's traditional sphere of influence.

At the end of January 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union, with a subsequent trade agreement with the EU in effect from 1 January 2021, setting out the terms of the UK-EU economic relationship and what abilities the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office can use in foreign relations related to trade.

In July 2023, UK and Bahrain signed a memorandum of understanding for strategic investments and collaborations, through Bahraini sovereign wealth fund Mumtalakat, Investcorp, GFH Financial Group, and Osool Asset Management, that would see the Gulf state's private sector invest 1 billion pounds ($1.3 billion) in Britain.

Major international disputes since 1945

British street patrol in Aden in 1967

A Lynx Helicopter of the British Army Air Corps ready to touch down on a desert road south of Basra Airport, November 2003

from	to	dispute
1946	1949	Involved in Greek Civil War
1945	1948	Administration of the Mandate for Palestine, ending with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. British forces often faced conflict with Arab nationalists and Jewish Zionist militia.
1947	1991	Cold War with Soviet Union
1948	1949	Berlin Blockade – dispute with USSR over access to West Berlin and general Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe
1948	1960	Malayan Emergency – armed conflict against the politically isolated Communist forces of the Malayan National Liberation Army
1950	1953	Korean War – war with North Korea
1951	1954	Abadan Crisis – dispute with Iran over expropriated oil assets
1956	1957	Suez Crisis – armed conflict with Egypt over its seizure of the Suez Canal Zone, and unsupported by most of the international community
1958		First Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland
1962	1966	Konfrontasi – war with Indonesia
1972	1973	Second Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland
1975	1976	Third Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland
1982		Falklands War – war with Argentina over the Falkland Islands and other British south Atlantic territories
1983		Condemnation of the United States over its invasion of Grenada
1984		Dispute with Libya after a policewoman is shot dead in London by a gunman from within the Libyan embassy, and considerable Libyan support for the IRA in Northern Ireland.
1988		Dispute with Libya over the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am flight over the Scottish town of Lockerbie
1991		Gulf War with Iraq
1995		Under UN mandate, military involvement in former Yugoslavia (specifically Bosnia)
1997		Hong Kong handover to Chinese rule. Britain secures guarantees for a "special status" that would continue capitalism and protect existing British property.
1999		Involvement in NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia over Kosovo
2000		British action in saving the UN peacekeeping force from collapse and defeating the anti-government rebellion during the Sierra Leone Civil War
2001		UN-sponsored war against, and subsequent occupation of, Afghanistan
2003	2007	Collaboration with US and others in war against, and occupation of, Iraq; over 46,000 British troops subsequently occupy Basra and southern Iraq
2007	ongoing	Diplomatic dispute with Russia over the death of Alexander Litvinenko
2009	ongoing	Dispute with Iran over its alleged nuclear weapons programme, including sanctions and Iranian condemnation of the British government, culminating in a 2011 attack on the British Embassy in Iran
2011		Under UN mandate, UK armed forces participated in enforcing the Libyan No-Fly Zone as part of Operation Ellamy
2013		Support for French forces in the Malian civil war
2015		Support for the US-led coalition against the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant
2016		UN and EU implement a deal with Iran intended to prevent the country gaining access to nuclear weapons
2018	ongoing	Sanctions on Russia following the poisoning of Sergei Skripal using a nerve agent in Salisbury, England included the expulsions of 23 diplomats, the largest ever since the Cold War, an act that was retaliated by Russia
2019	ongoing	The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius. International Court of Justice in The Hague ruled that the United Kingdom must transfer the islands to Mauritius, a view endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly
2019		The UK seized an Iranian oil tanker in the Strait of Gibraltar on the grounds that it was shipping oil to Syria in violation of European Union sanctions. Iran later captured a British oil tanker and its crew members in the Persian Gulf.
2022	ongoing	The UK provided support and equipment to Ukraine after its invasion by Russia, which declared the United Kingdom an unfriendly country after the UK strongly supported international sanctions against Russia

Sovereignty disputes

Gibraltar National Day celebrations in 2013

• Spain claims the British overseas territory of Gibraltar. Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain under British sovereignty in 1967 and 2002.
• The entire Chagos Archipelago in the British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius. The claim includes the island of Diego Garcia used as a joint UK/US military base since the 1970s when the inhabitants were forcibly removed, Blenheim Reef, Speakers Bank and all the other features.
• There are conflicting claims over the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, controlled by the United Kingdom but claimed by Argentina. The dispute escalated into the Falklands War in 1982 over the islands' sovereignty, in which Argentina was defeated. The Falkland islanders voted overwhelmingly to remain a British Overseas Territory in 2013.
• There is a territorial claim in Antarctica, the British Antarctic Territory, which overlaps with areas claimed by Chile and Argentina.

Commonwealth of Nations

Members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

The UK has varied relationships with the countries that make up the Commonwealth of Nations which originated from the British Empire. Charles III of the United Kingdom is Head of the Commonwealth and is King of 15 of its 56 member states. Those that retain the King as head of state are called Commonwealth realms. Over time several countries have been suspended from the Commonwealth for various reasons. Zimbabwe was suspended because of the authoritarian rule of its President.

Diplomatic relations

British diplomatic relations date back to the 13th century. The following table lists the date from which diplomatic relations were established with other countries:

List of diplomatic relations and dates established

Country	Date
Portugal	9 May 1386
France	1396
Denmark	2 May 1490
Spain	1505
Russia	20 April 1566
Turkey	23 April 1583
Netherlands	1 April 1603
Sweden	23 December 1653
Switzerland	30 August 1689
United States	1 June 1785
Iran	4 January 1801
Austria	27 August 1814
Germany	28 November 1817
Peru	10 October 1823
Colombia	18 April 1825
Argentina	12 May 1825
Mexico	26 December 1826
Brazil	17 August 1827
Belgium	1 December 1830
Greece	1 January 1833
Venezuela	29 October 1834
Serbia	30 January 1837
Guatemala	12 July 1837
Bolivia	29 September 1840
Uruguay	15 July 1842
Costa Rica	28 February 1848
Honduras	16 June 1849
Liberia	1 August 1849
Dominican Republic	6 March 1850
Ecuador	29 January 1853
Paraguay	2 November 1853
Chile	4 October 1854
Thailand	18 April 1855
Japan	26 August 1858
Nicaragua	22 February 1859
Italy	13 April 1859
Haiti	13 May 1859
Bulgaria	23 July 1879
Luxembourg	27 November 1879
Romania	20 February 1880
El Salvador	1883
Cuba	20 May 1902
Norway	6 November 1905
Panama	9 April 1908
Egypt	19 December 1914
Finland	28 March 1918
Poland	15 July 1919
Czech Republic	3 September 1919
Hungary	22 May 1921
Albania	9 November 1921
Afghanistan	22 November 1921
Ireland	6 December 1922
Nepal	21 December 1923
Canada	1 July 1926
South Africa	17 March 1931
Iraq	4 October 1932
Australia	March 1936
New Zealand	March 1939
Iceland	8 May 1940
Lebanon	9 February 1942
Syria	9 February 1942
Ethiopia	4 June 1946
Jordan	17 June 1946
Philippines	4 July 1946
Sri Lanka	22 October 1946
India	November 1946
Myanmar	7 July 1947
Pakistan	August 1947
Saudi Arabia	24 November 1947
South Korea	18 January 1949
Israel	14 May 1949
Indonesia	13 January 1950
Yemen	9 December 1951
Libya	24 December 1951
Cambodia	15 May 1952
Laos	5 September 1955
Sudan	27 February 1956
Tunisia	19 June 1956
Morocco	28 June 1956
Ghana	March 1957
Malaysia	31 August 1957
Guinea	28 May 1959
Cameroon	1 February 1960
Togo	27 April 1960
Somalia	1 July 1960
Democratic Republic of the Congo	7 July 1960
Cyprus	16 August 1960
Senegal	20 August 1960
Benin	6 October 1960
Burkina Faso	6 October 1960
Ivory Coast	6 October 1960
Niger	6 October 1960
Nigeria	October 1960
Mauritania	28 November 1960
Chad	9 December 1960
Central African Republic	9 December 1960
Republic of the Congo	9 December 1960
Gabon	9 December 1960
Madagascar	1960
Mali	22 March 1961
Sierra Leone	April 1961
Kuwait	8 November 1961
Tanzania	December 1961
Burundi	1 July 1962
Rwanda	1 July 1962
Jamaica	6 August 1962
Trinidad and Tobago	31 August 1962
Uganda	9 October 1962
Algeria	21 November 1962
Mongolia	23 January 1963
Kenya	December 1963
Malawi	July 1964
Malta	September 1964
Zambia	17 October 1964
Gambia	1 January 1965
Maldives	26 July 1965
Singapore	12 November 1965
Guyana	26 May 1966
Botswana	30 September 1966
Barbados	30 November 1966
Lesotho	4 October 1966
Mauritius	12 March 1968
Eswatini	September 1968
Equatorial Guinea	1968
Tonga	4 June 1970
Samoa	September 1970
Fiji	10 October 1970
Oman	21 May 1971
Bahrain	21 August 1971
Qatar	6 September 1971
United Arab Emirates	2 December 1971
China	13 March 1972
Bangladesh	18 April 1972
Bahamas	7 July 1973
Vietnam	11 September 1973
Grenada	7 February 1974
Guinea-Bissau	12 March 1975
Mozambique	1 September 1975
Papua New Guinea	16 September 1975
Suriname	31 March 1976
Seychelles	June 1976
Cape Verde	17 May 1977
Angola	14 October 1977
Nauru	1 December 1977
Djibouti	25 January 1978
Solomon Islands	7 July 1978
Tuvalu	1 October 1978
Dominica	13 December 1978
Saint Lucia	22 February 1979
São Tomé and Príncipe	3 December 1979
Kiribati	12 July 1979
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	27 October 1979
Zimbabwe	18 April 1980
Vanuatu	30 July 1980
Belize	21 September 1981
Antigua and Barbuda	1 November 1981
Holy See	16 January 1982
Saint Kitts and Nevis	19 September 1983
Brunei	14 March 1984
Comoros	7 June 1984
Namibia	March 1990
Lithuania	4 September 1991
Estonia	5 September 1991
Latvia	5 September 1991
Ukraine	10 January 1992
Tajikistan	15 January 1992
Moldova	17 January 1992
Slovenia	17 January 1992
Kazakhstan	19 January 1992
Armenia	20 January 1992
Turkmenistan	23 January 1992
Belarus	27 January 1992
Marshall Islands	2 February 1992
Uzbekistan	18 February 1992
Azerbaijan	11 March 1992
Bosnia and Herzegovina	13 April 1992
Georgia	27 April 1992
Liechtenstein	May 1992
Croatia	24 June 1992
Kyrgyzstan	12 June 1992
Federated States of Micronesia	31 August 1992
Slovakia	1 January 1993
Eritrea	16 November 1993
North Macedonia	16 December 1993
Andorra	9 March 1994
Palau	16 August 1996
Cook Islands	4 December 1997
San Marino	18 November 1998
North Korea	12 December 2000
East Timor	20 May 2002
Montenegro	13 June 2006
Monaco	21 September 2007
Kosovo	18 February 2008
South Sudan	9 July 2011

Bilateral relations

Africa

Country	Formal relations began	Notes
Algeria	1962	See Foreign relations of Algeria
Botswana	1966	See Botswana–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Botswana on 30 September 1966. Botswana maintains a high commission in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to Botswana from its high commission in Gaborone. The UK ruled Botswana from 1885, until Botswana achieved independence on 30 September 1966. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, as well as the SACUM-UK Continuity Trade Agreement.
Democratic Republic of the Congo	1960	See Democratic Republic of the Congo–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with the Democratic Republic of the Congo on 7 July 1960. The Democratic Republic of the Congo maintains an embassy in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to the Democratic Republic of the Congo from its embassy in Kinshasa.
Egypt	1922	See Egypt–United Kingdom relations
Kenya	1960	See Kenya–United Kingdom relations
Liberia	1847	See Liberia–United Kingdom relations
Libya		See Libya–United Kingdom relations
Malawi	1964	See Malawi–United Kingdom relations
Mauritania	1960	See Foreign relations of Mauritania The UK established diplomatic relations with Mauritania on 28 November 1960. Mauritania maintains an embassy in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to Mauritania through its embassy in Nouakchott.
Morocco	1956	See Morocco–United Kingdom relations According to some accounts, in the beginning of the 13th century King John of England (1167–1216) sent an embassy to the Almohad Sultan Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1213), requesting military support and an alliance against France. At home, King John was faced with a dire situation, in which his Barons revolted against him, he had been excommunicated by the Pope, and France was threatening to invade. The embassy of three was led by Bishop Roger, and King John supposedly offered to convert to Islam and pay a tribute to al-Nasir in exchange for his help. Al-Nasir apparently dismissed the proposal.
Mozambique	1975	See Foreign relations of Mozambique
Namibia	1990	See Namibia–United Kingdom relations
Rwanda	1962	See Rwanda–United Kingdom relations
Senegal	1960	See Foreign relations of Senegal The UK established diplomatic relations with Senegal on 20 June 1960. Senegal maintains an embassy in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to Senegal from its embassy in Dakar.
Somalia	1960	See Somalia–United Kingdom relations
Somaliland	N/A	See Somaliland–United Kingdom relations On 4 July 2023, Gavin Williamson proposed a bill to the UK Parliament that would invoke the United Kingdom to recognise the Republic of Somaliland.
South Africa	1927	See South Africa–United Kingdom relations
Sudan	1959	See Sudan–United Kingdom relations Sudan has an embassy in London whilst the United Kingdom has an embassy in Khartoum.
Tanzania	1964	See Tanzania–United Kingdom relations
Zambia	1960	See United Kingdom–Zambia relations
Zimbabwe	1980	See United Kingdom–Zimbabwe relations

Asia

Country	Formal relations began	Notes
Afghanistan	1921	See Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations
Armenia	1992	See Armenia–United Kingdom relations Armenia has an embassy in London The United Kingdom has an embassy in Yerevan.
Azerbaijan	1992	See Azerbaijan–United Kingdom relations Azerbaijan has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Baku. Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
Bahrain	1971	See Bahrain–United Kingdom relations Bahrain has an embassy in London and the United Kingdom is only one of four European countries to have embassy in Manama. Bahrain gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1971 and has since maintained diplomatic and trade relations.
Brunei	1984	See Brunei–United Kingdom relations In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate, gaining its independence from British rule less than 100 years later in 1984. The UK and Brunei have a long-standing and strong bilateral relationship, particularly on defence co-operation, trade and education. The UK continues to play a strong role in developing Brunei's oil and gas sector, and the Brunei Investment Agency is a significant investor in the UK, with their largest overseas operations in the City of London. The UK remains the destination of choice for Bruneian students, with about 1,220 of them enrolled in higher education in the UK in 2006–07. The United Kingdom has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan, and Brunei has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
China	1954	See China–United Kingdom relations Although on opposing sides of the Cold War, both countries were allies during World War II, and are members of the UN and permanent members of the Security Council. But because of the Cold War, First and Second Opium War, and the status of Hong Kong, and other issues, China-UK relations at some points in history have been complicated, but better at other times. In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including United Kingdom, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.
Georgia	1992	See Georgia–United Kingdom relations Georgia has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tbilisi.
Hong Kong	N/A	See Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations The UK established modern diplomatic relations with Hong Kong on 1 July 1997. Hong Kong is represented through the Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to Hong Kong from its Consulate General on Hong Kong Island. Hong Kong was a British colony from 1841 to 1997, apart from a period of Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945. Hong Kong's sovereignty was transferred to the People's Republic of China in 1997.
India	1947	See India–United Kingdom relations British India was a former colony of the British Empire. India has a high commission in London and two consulates-general in Birmingham and Edinburgh. The United Kingdom has a high commission in New Delhi and three deputy high commissions in Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The English language, the railways, the legal and parliamentary systems and cricket have been warmly adopted. Indian cuisines are popular in the UK. The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official study reports this. Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. The UK is the second largest investor in India after the US. India is also the fourth largest investor in Britain after the US.
Indonesia	1949	See Indonesia–United Kingdom relations Indonesia has an embassy in London, the United Kingdom has an embassy in Jakarta.
Iran	1807	See Iran–United Kingdom relations Iran, which was known as Persia before 1935, has had political relations with England since the late Ilkhanate period (13th century) when King Edward I of England sent Geoffrey de Langley to the Ilkhanid court to seek an alliance.
Iraq	1920	See Iraq–United Kingdom relations Sanctions against Iraq from 1990 to 2003 prevented any form of economic relations with the United Kingdom and any other country for thirteen years. Ties between London and Baghdad are slowly progressing.
Israel	1948	See Israel–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tel Aviv and a consul in Eilat. Israel has an embassy and a consulate in London. The UK's closest partner in the Middle East is Israel, and Israel's closest partner in Europe is the UK.
Japan	1854	See Japan–United Kingdom relations Contact began in 1600 with the arrival of William Adams (Adams the Pilot, Miura Anjin) on the shores of Kyūshū at Usuki in Ōita Prefecture. During the Sakoku period (1641–1853) there were no relations. but with the impact of Industrial Revolution, British thread company launched its business in 1907 and thrived. The treaty of 1854 saw the resumption of ties which, despite the hiatus of the Second World War, remain very strong in the present day.
Kazakhstan	1992	See Kazakhstan–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom opened an embassy in Kazakhstan in October 1992 and Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Britain in February 1996. Kazakhstan's relations with the West have greatly improved in the last few years as the Government has closely cooperated in the United States-led War on Terror. See also Counter-terrorism in Kazakhstan Britain is the third-largest foreign investor in Kazakhstan with British companies making up 14 per cent of foreign direct investment. Over 100 British companies do business in Kazakhstan.
Kyrgyzstan	1992	See Kyrgyzstan–United Kingdom relations
Macao	N/A	See Foreign relations of Macao There is no British Embassy in Macao. The Consulate-General in Hong Kong develops and maintains relations between the UK and Macao.
Malaysia	1957	See Malaysia–United Kingdom relations The Yang di-Pertuan Agong in a carriage with Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the state visit to London, 1974 The United Kingdom has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Both the UK and Malaysia are part of the Five Powers Defence Arrangements. Malaysia is a strong partner of Britain in the Far East. Britain has made numerous military sacrifices in guaranteeing a stable independent Malaysia, for example the Malaysian Emergency and the protection of the country during high tensions with Indonesia-Konfrontasi. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Abdul Halim of Kedah paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in July 1974. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Azlan Shah of Perak paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in November 1993. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Malaysia in October 1989, and in September 1998.
Myanmar	1947	See Myanmar–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Myanmar on 7 July 1947. Myanmar has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Yangon. Myanmar was ruled by the United Kingdom from 1885 as part of the British Empire; until it achieved full independence on 4 January 1948.
Nepal	1816	See Nepal–United Kingdom relations Relations between the UK and Nepal have historically been friendly and there have been close links between the Royal Families. The UK is highly regarded in Nepal as a result of historical ties, development assistance and long-term support in the struggle for democratic peace in Nepal.
North Korea	2000	See North Korea–United Kingdom relations North Korea has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Pyongyang.
Oman	1971	See Oman–United Kingdom relations The relations between the United Kingdom and Oman are strong and strategic. In April 2010 the government of Oman stated that it wanted to buy Eurofighter Typhoons from the UK. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Mina al Fahal and Oman has an embassy in London.
Pakistan	1947	See Pakistan–United Kingdom relations Pakistan left the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 in protest of the organisation's recognition of Bangladeshi independence, before rejoining in 1989.
Palestine	N/A	See Palestine–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom maintains a consulate in Jerusalem which handles British relations with the Palestinian Authority. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office states the "Consular district covers Jerusalem (West and East), the West Bank and Gaza. As well as work on the Middle East Peace Process and other political issues, the consulate also promotes trade between the UK and the Occupied Palestinian Territories and manages an extensive programme of aid and development work. The latter is undertaken primarily by the DFID office in Jerusalem.". The Palestinian Authority is represented in London by Manuel Hassassian, the Palestinian General Delegate to the United Kingdom.
Philippines	1946	See Philippines–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom and the Philippines have good relations. The Philippines has been one of the UK's major recruitment countries for nurses and over 80,000 Filipino nurses and care-givers work in the UK. The total Philippine community in the UK is estimated to be about 150,000. There are estimated to be some 15,000 British nationals living in the Philippines. About 180,000 British nationals visit the Philippines annually.
Qatar	1971	See Qatar–United Kingdom relations Bilateral relations between the two countries have expanded since the opening of the British embassy in Doha in 1949, marked by the arrival of British Political Officer John Wilton. UK Prime Minister David Cameron visited Qatar in 2011, and the then Emir of Qatar made a 3-day state visit in October 2010. The current Emir of Qatar made a state visit to the UK in October 2014. In March 2013, Prince Charles and his wife the Duchess of Cornwall, arrived in Qatar for a state visit. On 20 September 2019, British Prime Minister Boris Johnson hosted Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani at the Downing Street. Johnson pressed over the fact that the UK's relation with Qatar is going from “strength to strength”.
Saudi Arabia	1927	See Saudi Arabia–United Kingdom relations The UK has an embassy in Riyadh, consulate in Jeddah and trade office in Al Khobar. Saudi Arabia has an embassy and consulate in London.
Singapore	1965	See Singapore–United Kingdom relations Singapore and the United Kingdom share a friendly relationship since Singapore became independent from the United Kingdom in 1959. Singapore retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final court of appeal up till 1989 (fully abolished in 1994) due to political reasons.
South Korea	1883	See South Korea–United Kingdom relations Formal relations between South Korea and the United Kingdom commenced on the 18 January 1949 although diplomatic ties go back to 1883. British military participation in the Korean War during the 1950s was significant, but relations between the two countries at the time were described as "tenuous", with relatively little known about each other. Commercial and trade relationships grew rapidly during the 1970s. During the Asian Financial Crisis in the late 1990s, the Queen made a state visit to South Korea which was well received at a time of crisis in the country. Today, there are strong economic and diplomatic links between the two countries. The United Kingdom has a visa scheme through which young South Koreans can live and work in the UK for two years. There is a British embassy in Seoul and a South Korean embassy in London.
Sri Lanka	1948	See Sri Lanka–United Kingdom relations President Maithripala Sirisena made an official visit to the United Kingdom in 2015 and met Prime Minister David Cameron and the queen. Prime Minister Ranil Wickramasinghe made an official visit in 2018 to meet Prime Minister Theresa May.
Syria	1942	See Syria–United Kingdom relations In 2001, positive relations were developed between Prime Minister Tony Blair and the Syrian government, as part of the War on Terror. Since the 2011 civil war, relations have deteriorated, and the UK was one of the first countries to recognise the opposition as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people.
Taiwan	N/A	See Taiwan–United Kingdom relations Due to the One China policy the United Kingdom doesn't recognise the Government of the Republic of China and all diplomatic relations between the two countries take place on an unofficial basis. Taiwan maintains the Taipei Representative Office in the U.K. in London with a branch office in Edinburgh. The United Kingdom maintains the British Office Taipei in Taipei.
Tajikistan	1992	See Foreign relations of Tajikistan The UK established diplomatic relations with Tajikistan on 15 January 1992. Tajikistan maintains an embassy in London. The UK maintains an embassy in Dushanbe. Both countries share common membership of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
Thailand	1855	See Thailand–United Kingdom relations Thailand is represented in the United Kingdom through the Royal Thai Embassy in London. British interests in Thailand are represented through the British Embassy on Witthayu Road, Lumphini, Pathum Wan in Bangkok
Turkey	1793	See Turkey–United Kingdom relations Turkey has an embassy and a consulate general in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Ankara, a consulate general in Istanbul, a vice consulate in Antalya and a consulate in Izmir. The United Kingdom has honorary consulates in Adana, Bodrum, Fethiye and Marmaris. The United Kingdom is the second biggest importer of goods from Turkey, after Germany. Turkey exports around 8 per cent of its total goods to the United Kingdom. Around 1,000,000 Britons take holidays in Turkey every year, while 100,000 Turks travel to the UK for business or pleasure. The United Kingdom does not recognise the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). The TRNC is only recognised by Turkey. The UK is also a signatory to a treaty with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence of Cyprus, the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of the island's independence. Both countries are members of NATO.
United Arab Emirates	1971	See United Arab Emirates–United Kingdom relations The UAE has an embassy in London. The UK maintains an embassy in Abu Dhabi and is unique in having another Embassy in Dubai. The UAE-UK relations have been described as a "special relationship". Queen Elizabeth II has visited the UAE 2 times. 100,000 British citizens live in the UAE.
Uzbekistan	1992	See United Kingdom–Uzbekistan relations The United Kingdom maintains an embassy in Tashkent. Uzbekistan maintains an embassy in London.
Vietnam	1973	See United Kingdom–Vietnam relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Vietnam on 11 September 1973. The UK maintains an embassy in Hanoi. Vietnam maintains an embassy in London. The UK and Vietnam entered into a strategic partnership agreement in 2010. The UK and Vietnam trade is governed by the UK-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement. Both countries share common membership of CPTPP.

Europe

See also: European Union–United Kingdom relations

The UK maintained good relations with Western Europe since 1945, and Eastern Europe since end of the Cold War in 1989. After years of dispute with France it joined the European Economic Community in 1973, which eventually evolved into the European Union through the Maastricht Treaty twenty years later. Unlike the majority of European countries, the UK does not use the euro as its currency and is not a member of the Eurozone. During the years of its membership of the European Union, the United Kingdom had often been referred to as a "peculiar" member, due to its occasional dispute in policies with the organisation. The United Kingdom regularly opted out of EU legislation and policies. Through differences in geography, culture and history, national opinion polls have found that of the 28 nationalities in the European Union, British people have historically felt the least European. On 23 June 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union and formally left on 31 January 2020.

Country	Formal relations began	Notes
Albania	1920	See Albania–United Kingdom relations Albania has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tirana. FCO Profile Both countries are members of NATO.
Andorra	1994	See Foreign relations of Andorra The United Kingdom's consulate-general in Barcelona handles the United Kingdom's consular activities in Andorra.
Austria	1799	See Austria–United Kingdom relations Austria has an embassy in London and 4 honorary consulates (in Manchester, Edinburgh, Grand Cayman and Hamilton). The United Kingdom has an embassy in Vienna and 4 honorary consulates in Bergenz, Graz, Innsbruck, and Salzburg.
Belarus	1992	See Belarus–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Belarus on 27 January 1992. Belarus maintains an embassy in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to Belarus through its embassy in Minsk. Both countries share common membership of the OSCE.
Belgium	1830	See Belgium–United Kingdom relations Belgium has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Kingston-upon-Hull, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Saint Helier and Southampton. The United Kingdom has an embassy and a consulate general in Brussels. The two countries have trading links going back to the 10th century, especially wool trade from England to the County of Flanders. Both countries are members of NATO.
Bosnia and Herzegovina	1992	See Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Sarajevo and an embassy office in Banja Luka.
Bulgaria	1879	See Bulgaria–United Kingdom relations Bulgaria has an embassy in London and an honorary consulate in Dundee. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Sofia, Both countries are members of NATO.
Croatia	1992	See Croatia–United Kingdom relations Croatia has an embassy in London and a consulate in Edinburgh. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Zagreb and consulates in Dubrovnik and Split. Both countries are members of NATO.
Cyprus	1960	See Cyprus–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Cyprus on 16 August 1960. Cyprus has a High Commission in London and honorary consulates in Birmingham, Bristol, Dunblane, Glasgow, Northern Ireland and West Yorkshire. The United Kingdom has a High Commission in Nicosia. Cyprus was ruled by the United Kingdom from 1878, until it achieved independence on 16 August 1960. The UK is a signatory to the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of Cyprus's independence; the UK maintains the two sovereign base areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, and the OSCE.
Czech Republic	1993	See Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations The Czech Republic has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast and Edinburgh. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Prague. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid a state visit to the Czech Republic in March 1996. Both countries are members of NATO.
Denmark	1654	See Denmark–United Kingdom relations Denmark has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Copenhagen. Queen Margrethe II of Denmark paid state visits to the United Kingdom in April/May 1974, and in February 2000. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Denmark in May 1957, and in May 1979. Both countries are members of NATO.
Estonia	1991	See Foreign relations of Estonia Estonia has an embassy in London and honorary consuls in Liverpool, Cheltenham, Paisley and Wales. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tallinn. Both countries are members of NATO.
Finland	1919	See Foreign relations of Finland Finland has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Dundee, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Glasgow, Hamilton, Harwich, Hull, Immingham, Leeds, Lerwick, Liverpool, Manchester, Middlesbrough, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, Nottingham, Plymouth, Rochester, Sheffield, Southampton and St Helier. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Helsinki and honorary consulates in Åland, Jyväskylä, Kotka, Kuopio, Oulu, Rovaniemi, Turku, Tampere and Vaasa. Both countries are members of NATO.
France	1505	See France–United Kingdom relations France has an embassy in London and consulates general in London and Edinburgh. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Paris and consulates in Bordeaux, Lyon and Marseille. Both countries are members of NATO.
Germany	1680	See Germany–United Kingdom relations Germany has an embassy in London and a consulate general in Edinburgh. German also has honorary consulates in Aberdeen, Barrow on Humber, Belfast, Coventry, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Glasgow, Guernsey, Jersey, Kirkwall, Leeds, Lerwick, Liverpool, Middlesbrough, Newcastle upon Tyne, Plymouth and Southampton. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Berlin and consulates general in Düsseldorf and Munich. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Bremen, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Hannover, Kiel, Nürnberg and Stuttgart. The UK maintains military bases in Germany. Both countries are members of NATO.
Greece	1832	See Greece–United Kingdom relations Greece has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Gibraltar, Glasgow and Leeds. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Athens and a Honorary Vice Consulate in Patras. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Crete, Corfu, Rhodes, Thessaloniki and Zakynthos. Both countries are members of NATO.
Holy See	1982	See Holy See–United Kingdom relations With the English Reformation, diplomatic links between London and the Holy See, which had been established in 1479, were interrupted in 1536 and again, after a brief restoration in 1553, in 1558. Formal diplomatic ties between the United Kingdom and the Holy See were restored in 1914 and raised to ambassadorial level in 1982.
Hungary	1920	See also Hungary–United Kingdom relations Hungary has an embassy in London and a general consulate in Manchester. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Budapest. Both countries are members of NATO.
Iceland	1944	See Iceland–United Kingdom relations Iceland has an embassy in London and 17 honorary consulates in: Aberdeen, Birmingham, Cardiff, Dover, Edinburgh, Fleetwood, Glasgow, Grimsby, Hull, Jersey, Lerwick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northern Ireland, and Ormskirk. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Reykjavík and a Honorary Vice-Consulate in Akureyri. Both countries are members of NATO.
Ireland	1921	See Ireland–United Kingdom relations Despite a long history of conflict from English Tudor plantation in Ireland to the Irish War of independence, the UK presently works closely with the government of the Republic of Ireland in areas concerning the peace process in Northern Ireland as well as on many security issues. In 1949 the Irish Houses of Parliament passed the Republic of Ireland Act, making the Republic of Ireland officially fully independent; the country withdrew from the Commonwealth. Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. Until 1998, the Republic of Ireland claimed Northern Ireland, but this was rescinded under the Belfast Agreement through an amendment of the Irish Constitution, which now states an aspiration to peaceful unity. There is an ongoing dispute that also involves Denmark and Iceland, over the status of the ocean floor surrounding Rockall. However, this is for the most part a trivial issue that rarely makes it onto British-Irish meeting agendas. Ireland has confidential agreements with both the United Kingdom and NATO to defend sovereign Irish airspace from intrusions or attacks. Ireland has an embassy in London and a consulate general in Cardiff, Edinburgh and Manchester. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Dublin. Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above.
Italy	1859	See Italy–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Italy on 13 April 1859. Italy has an embassy in London, a consulate general in Edinburgh and a consulate in Manchester. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Rome, a consulate general in Milan and a consulate in Naples. Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, G7, G20, NATO, OECD, and OSCE.
Kosovo	2008	See Kosovo–United Kingdom relations Kosovo has a Consular Mission in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Pristina. When Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to officially announce recognition of sovereign Kosovo on 18 February 2008. The United Kingdom has had an embassy in Pristina since 5 March 2008. Kosovo has an embassy in London since 1 October 2008.
Latvia	1991	See Foreign relations of Latvia Latvia has an embassy in London and honorary consulates in Edinburgh, Northern Ireland, Manchester and Wales. The United Kingdom has embassy in Riga. Both countries are members of NATO.
Lithuania	1991	See Lithuania–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom has an embassy in Vilnius and an honorary consulate in Klaipėda. Lithuania has an embassy in London and 4 honorary consulates in Northern Ireland, North East England, Wales and the West Midlands. There are around 100,000 Lithuanians living in the United Kingdom. Both countries are members of NATO. In 2006, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip paid an official state visit to Lithuania. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Lithuania Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Poland (in Lithuanian only) Archived 16 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Both countries are members of NATO.
Luxembourg		See Foreign relations of Luxembourg The United Kingdom has an embassy in Luxembourg City. Luxembourg has an embassy in London. Both countries are members of NATO.
Malta	1964	See Malta–United Kingdom relations In the 1950s and 1960s, serious consideration was given in both countries to the idea of a political union between the United Kingdom and Malta. However, this plan for "Integration with Britain" foundered, and Malta gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1964. British Monarch Queen Elizabeth II remained Queen of Malta until the country became a Republic in 1974. There is a small Maltese community in the United Kingdom. In addition, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar has been influenced by significant 18th and 19th Century immigration from Malta (see "History of the Maltese in Gibraltar"). Malta has a High Commission in London and consulates in Gibraltar, the Isle of Man, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom has a High Commission in Valletta. Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above.
Moldova	1992	See Foreign relations of Moldova Moldova has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Chişinău. The number of British and Moldovan citizens in Moldova and the United Kingdom respectively is insignificant. When visiting Moldova no visa obligation exists for British citizens for stays in Moldova less than 90 days, otherwise a visa is required. For Moldovan citizens a visa is required for any border crossing, except for transfer passengers. Embassy of The Republic of Moldova to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland British Foreign and Commonwealth Office See also Moldovan diaspora
Montenegro	2006	See Montenegro–United Kingdom relations Montenegro has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Podgorica. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office Montenegro country profile Both countries are members of NATO.
Netherlands	1603	See Netherlands–United Kingdom relations The Netherlands has an embassy in London and consulates in Aberdeen, Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Guernsey, Hamilton, Harwich, Hull, Liverpool, Manchester, Plymouth and Southampton. The Netherlands also has a vice consulate in Dover. The United Kingdom has an embassy in The Hague and consulates in Amsterdam and Willemstad. Both countries are members of NATO.
Norway	1905	See Norway–United Kingdom relations Norway has an embassy in London and consulate general in Edinburgh. Norway also has consulates in Aberdeen, Ardrossan, Barrow-on-Furness, Belfast, Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff, Douglas, Dundee, Gibraltar, Glasgow, Grimsby, Inverness, Jersey, Kirkwall, Lerwick, Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Plymouth, Southampton and Stornoway. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Oslo and consulates in Ålesund, Bergen, Stavanger and Trondheim. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Bodø, Kristiansand and Tromsø. Both countries are members of NATO.
Poland	1919	See Poland–United Kingdom relations Poland has an embassy in London, a consulate general in Edinburgh and Manchester. Poland also has honorary consulates in Bristol, Gibraltar, Hull, Kidderminster, Newry and St Helier. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Warsaw. Both countries participate in shared defence and security cooperation. Both countries are members of NATO.
Portugal	1386	See Portugal–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Portugal on 9 May 1386. Portugal maintains an embassy and a consulate general in London and consulates in Belfast, Edinburgh, Hamilton and St Helier. The United Kingdom is accredited to Portugal through its embassy in Lisbon and consulates in Lisbon and Portimão. The United Kingdom also has honorary consulates in Funchal, Ponta Delgada, and Porto. The bilateral relation dates back to the Middle Ages in 1373 with the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact, Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE.
Romania	1880	See Romania–United Kingdom relations Romania has an embassy in London and consulates generals in Edinburgh and Manchester. Romania also has honorary consulates in Hirwaun, Leeds, Morpeth-Newcastle and Southampton. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bucharest. See also Romanian migration to the United Kingdom British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Romania Both countries are members of NATO.
Russia	1553	See Russia–United Kingdom relations Russia has an embassy in London and a consulate in Edinburgh. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Moscow and consulate generals in Ekaterinburg and Saint Petersburg. Spanning nearly five centuries, the relationship has often switched from a state of alliance to rivalry. Both countries were allies during World War I and II. During the Cold War, both countries participated in intense espionage activity against each other. In the early-21st century, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained again, and since 2014 have grown more unfriendly due to the Russo-Ukrainian War and to activities by Russia such as the suspected 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, seen as hostile by the UK and by many in the Western world. In the wake of the poisoning, 28 countries expelled suspected Russian spies acting as diplomats.
San Marino	1899	See San Marino–United Kingdom relations San Marino has a consulate general in London. The United Kingdom has a consulate general to San Marino in Rome.
Serbia	1837	See Serbia–United Kingdom relations Serbia has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Belgrade. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Serbia
Slovakia	1993	See Slovakia–United Kingdom relations Slovakia has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bratislava. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relation with Slovakia Both countries are members of NATO.
Slovenia	1992	See Foreign relations of Slovenia Slovenia has an embassy in London The United Kingdom has an embassy in Ljubljana. Both countries are members of NATO.
Spain	1509	See Spain–United Kingdom relations Spain has an embassy in London and consulates general in Edinburgh and Manchester. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Madrid and consulates general in Barcelona and Madrid. The United Kingdom also has consulates in Bilbao, Ibiza, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Málaga, Palma de Mallorca and Santa Cruz de Tenerife. During the Second World War Spain remained neutral, but was perceived to be closely aligned with Nazi Germany. Following the end of the war, frosty relations continued between the two states until the end of the Franco era and the democratisation of Spain. Both countries are members of NATO.
Sweden	1653	See Sweden–United Kingdom relations Sweden has an embassy in London as well as consulates general in Edinburgh and Gibraltar. Sweden also has consulates in Guernsey and Jersey as well as honorary consulates in Belfast, Birmingham, Brighton, Bristol, Cardiff, Dover, Glasgow, Immingham, Lerwick, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle upon Tyne, Southampton and Stornonway. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Stockholm and honorary consulates in Gothenburg and Malmö.
Switzerland	1900	See Switzerland–United Kingdom relations Switzerland has an embassy in London and consulate general in Edinburgh. Switzerland also has consulates in Belfast, Cardiff, Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, Hamilton, Manchester and St Peter Port. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bern.
Ukraine	1991	See Ukraine–United Kingdom relations Ukraine opened an embassy in London in October 1992 and a consulate general in Edinburgh in February 2002. The United Kingdom Consulate-General in Kyiv opened in November 1991 and became an embassy in January 1992. See also Ukrainian diaspora British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relations with Ukraine

North America

Country	Formal relations began	Notes
Antigua and Barbuda	1981	See Antigua and Barbuda–United Kingdom relations
Barbados	1966	See Barbados–United Kingdom relations The two countries are related through common history beginning in the 1620s, the Commonwealth of Nations and until 2021, their sharing of the same Head of State, Queen Elizabeth II as their Monarch. As one of the first English colonies, the initial permanent European settlement took place in the early seventeenth century by English settlers. Barbados thereafter remained as a territory until it negotiated independence in 1966. In recent years, increasing numbers of British nationals have purchased secondary homes in Barbados, and the islands ranked as the Caribbean regions' fourth largest export market of the United Kingdom. The British High Commission was established in Bridgetown, Barbados in 1966. There is a Barbadian High Commission in London.
Belize	1981	See Belize–United Kingdom relations Belize has a high commission in London. United Kingdom has a high commission in Belmopan.
Canada	1880	See Canada–United Kingdom relations Both nations enjoy a cooperative and intimate contact; the two countries are related through history, the Commonwealth of Nations, and their sharing of the same Head of State and monarch. Both countries fought together in both World Wars, the Korean War, and more recently cooperate in the coalition in the War in Afghanistan. Both are founding members of NATO, and also belong to the G7 (and the G8). Winston Churchill said Canada was the "linchpin of the English-speaking world", as it connects two other anglophone countries: the US and the UK. These three countries were the first to share the knowledge of the atom bomb with each other, as all three worked on the Manhattan Project together. Despite this shared history, the UK and Canada have grown apart economically. The UK was Canada's largest trade partner in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now well down the list. However relations are still strong, with large migration between the two countries, as well as Canada having the highest favourable public opinion of the UK in the world. The UK is currently in the process of acceeding to the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, of which Canada is a founding member.
Cuba	1902	See Cuba–United Kingdom relations
Dominican Republic	1850	See Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic The UK established diplomatic relations with the Domican Republic on 6 March 1850. Dominican Republic maintains an embassy in London. United Kingdom is accredited to Dominican Republic from its embassy in Santo Domingo. The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize the Dominican Republic. Both countries are parties of the UK-CARIFORUM continuity Trade Agreement.
El Salvador	1883	See Foreign relations of El Salvador The UK established diplomatic relations with El Salvador in 1883. El Salvador maintains an embassy in London. United Kingdom is accredited to El Salvador from its embassy in San Salvador. Both countries are parties of the UK-Central America continuity Trade Agreement.
Grenada	1974	See Grenada–United Kingdom relations
Honduras	1849	See Foreign relations of Honduras The UK established diplomatic relations with Honduras on 16 June 1849, when Frederick Chatfield was appointed Charge d'Affaires despite being based in Guatemala. Honduras maintains an embassy in London. United Kingdom is accredited to Honduras from its embassy in Guatemala City. Both countries are parties of the UK-Central America continuity Trade Agreement.
Mexico	1824	See Mexico–United Kingdom relations The United Kingdom was the first country in Europe to recognize Mexico's Independence. The relationship between the two nations began after the Pastry War when the United Kingdom aided Mexico against France. Also, relations improved when Mexico joined the British alongside the Allies to fight the Japanese forces in the Pacific War. Mexico has an embassy in London. United Kingdom has an embassy in Mexico City, a consulate-general in Cancún and a consulate in Monterrey.
Nicaragua	1859	See Foreign relations of Nicaragua The UK established diplomatic relations with Nicaragua on 22 February 1859. Nicaragua maintains an embassy in London. The United Kingdom maintains an embassy in Managua. Both countries are parties of the UK-Central America continuity Trade Agreement.
Panama	1904	See Foreign relations of Panama The United Kingdom has an embassy in Panama City. Panama has an embassy in London. The UK and Panama have a strong bilateral relationship.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	1979	See Saint Vincent and the Grenadines–United Kingdom relations
United States	1783	See United Kingdom–United States relations United States President Barack Obama talks to British Prime Minister David Cameron on the South Lawn of the White House, 20 July 2010. The UK established diplomatic relations with the United States on 1 June 1785. UK-US diplomatic relations is commonly described as the "Special Relationship". The United States maintains an embassy in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to its embassy in Washington, D.C. The United States declared its independence from the United Kingdom on 4 July 1776. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact, AUKUS, Five Eyes, the G7, the G20, NATO, OECD, OSCE, UKUSA Agreement, and the UNSC. Bilateral agreements between the two countries include the US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement, and a proposed free trade agreement.

Oceania

Country	Formal relations began	Notes
Australia	1936	See Australia–United Kingdom relations Australia–United Kingdom relations are close, marked by shared history, culture, institutions and language, extensive people-to-people links, aligned security interests, and vibrant trade and investment cooperation. The long-standing relationship formally began in 1901 when the six British Crown colonies in Australia federated, and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed as a Dominion of the British Empire. Australia fought alongside Britain in World War I, notably at Gallipoli, and again in World War II. Andrew Fisher, Australian prime minister from 1914 to 1916, declared that Australia would defend the United Kingdom "to the last man and the last shilling." Australia's sovereignty, de facto recognised at the end of the First World War, was formalised with the Statute of Westminster of 1931. Until 1949, the United Kingdom and Australia nevertheless shared a common nationality code. The final constitutional ties between United Kingdom and Australia ended in 1986 with the passing of the Australia Act 1986. Currently, more than 4 per cent of the Australian population was born in the UK, giving strong mutual relations. Furthermore, investment and trade between the two countries are still important.
Nauru	1968	See Nauru–United Kingdom relations Nauru was part of the British Western Pacific Territories from September 1914 and June 1921. The British Government had ceased to exercise any direct role in the governance of Nauru by 1968, when the island achieved its independence. The Nauruan government maintains an Hon. Consul, Martin W I Weston. The British High Commission in Suva is responsible for the United Kingdom's bilateral relations with Nauru.
New Zealand	1939	See New Zealand–United Kingdom relations Up to about the 1960s, New Zealand also had extremely close economic relations with the United Kingdom, especially considering the distance at which trade took place. As an example, in 1955, Britain took 65.3 per cent of New Zealand's exports, and only during the following decades did this dominant position begin to decline as the United Kingdom oriented itself more towards the European Union, with the share of exports going to Britain having fallen to only 6.2 per cent in 2000. Historically, some industries, such as dairying, a major economic factor in the former colony, had even more dominant trade links, with 80–100 per cent of all cheese and butter exports going to Britain from around 1890 to 1940. This strong bond also supported the mutual feelings for each other in other areas.
Papua New Guinea	1975	See Papua New Guinea–United Kingdom relations Papua New Guinea and the United Kingdom share Queen Elizabeth as their head of state. They have had relations since 1975 when Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia.
Solomon Islands	1978	See Foreign relations of Solomon Islands The UK maintains a British High Commission in Honiara.
Tonga	1879	See Foreign relations of Tonga The United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Tonga established formal mutual diplomatic recognition in 1879. Tonga was then a British protectorate from 1900 to 1970, whereupon diplomatic relations resumed at the level of sovereign states.

South America

Country	Formal relations began	Notes
Argentina	1823	See Argentina–United Kingdom relations Diplomatic relations were cut off before the Falklands War, they were reinstated only in 1990, after the departure of Margaret Thatcher from the post of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Argentina has an embassy in London The United Kingdom has an embassy in Buenos Aires. List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and United Kingdom (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)
Brazil	1826	See Brazil–United Kingdom relations Brazil has an embassy in London and a consulate-general in Edinburgh. United Kingdom has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Belo Horizonte, Recife, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
Chile	1844	See Chile–United Kingdom relations Chile provided some assistance to Britain during the Falklands War since it was itself at risk of possible war with Argentina regarding the boundary between the two nations in the Beagle Channel. The United Kingdom has embassies in Valparaíso, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Santiago. Chile has an embassy in London.
Colombia	1825	See Colombia–United Kingdom relations Colombia has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Bogotá and two consulates in Cali and Cartagena. The United Kingdom helped Colombia to gain independence from Spain. Colombia, as well as the United States and Chile, declared Argentina to be the aggressor of the Falklands War. See also Colombians in the United Kingdom. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relation with Colombia
Cuba	1902	See Cuba–United Kingdom relations
Ecuador	1935	See Foreign relations of Ecuador In 2012, relations came under strain when Julian Assange, founder of the WikiLeaks website, entered the Ecuadorian embassy in London and sought asylum; Assange had recently lost a legal case against his extradition to Sweden on charges of sexual assault and rape, but when within the embassy he was on diplomatic territory and beyond the reach of the British police. The United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office delivered a note to the Ecuadorian government in Quito reminding them of the provisions of the Diplomatic and Consular Premises Act 1987 which allow the British government to withdraw recognition of diplomatic protection from embassies; the move was interpreted as a hostile act by Ecuador, with Foreign Minister Ricardo Patiño stating that this "explicit threat" would be met with "appropriate responses in accordance with international law". Assange was granted diplomatic asylum on 16 August 2012, with Foreign Minister Patiño stating that Assange's fears of political persecution were "legitimate".
Guyana	1966	See Foreign relations of Guyana Formerly known as British Guiana (until 1966), it became the U.K.'s largest Commonwealth realm in South America upon the nation's independence the same year. In 1970, the nation transitioned to republic status through newly laid constitution and today both nations continue relations chiefly through the Commonwealth of Nations. Guyana is roughly the same physical size as the U.K. Due to proximity, Guyana predominately associates and identifies culturally with the close by Commonwealth Caribbean area and takes part in the West Indies Cricket Team as national sport. Ninety per cent of the nation's population of 800 thousand persons live on ten per cent of the nation's mostly coastal area while the nations' interior consists mostly of Amerindians and native rainforests. Guyana has a high commission in London. United Kingdom has a high commission in Georgetown.
Paraguay	1853	See Paraguay–United Kingdom relations Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on 4 March 1853, with the signing of a treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation. A dominant view in Paraguay and significant in all the Southern Cone is that the interests of the British Empire played a considerable role during the Paraguayan War. The United Kingdom is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina) and an honorary consulate in Asunción. Paraguay has an embassy in London. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Paraguay Paraguayan Ministry of Foreign Relations about relations with the United Kingdom
Peru	1823	See Peru–United Kingdom relations The UK established diplomatic relations with Peru on 10 October 1823. Peru has an embassy in London. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Lima. Both countries are members of CPTPP and the UK-Andean Countries Free Trade Agreement.
Suriname	1976	See Foreign relations of Suriname United Kingdom is accredited to Suriname from its embassy in Georgetown, Guyana. Suriname has an embassy in London.
Uruguay	1825	See United Kingdom–Uruguay relations The UK played an important role in Uruguay's history until the end of World War II, after which the United States played an increasing role. The United Kingdom has an embassy in Montevideo. Uruguay has an embassy in London. British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about the relation with Uruguay
Venezuela	1842	See Venezuela–United Kingdom relations; Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903

International organisations

See also: United Kingdom and the United Nations

The United Kingdom is a member of the following international organisations:

• ADB - Asian Development Bank (nonregional member)
• AfDB - African Development Bank (nonregional member)
• Arctic Council (observer)
• Australia Group
• BIS - Bank for International Settlements
• Commonwealth of Nations
• CBSS - Council of the Baltic Sea States (observer)
• CDB - Caribbean Development Bank
• Council of Europe
• CERN - European Organization for Nuclear Research
• CPTPP - Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans–Pacific Partnership
• EAPC - Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council
• EBRD - European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
• EIB - European Investment Bank
• ESA - European Space Agency
• FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
• FATF - Financial Action Task Force
• G-20 - Group of Twenty
• G-5 - Group of Five
• G7 - Group of Seven
• G8 - Group of Eight
• G-10 - Group of Ten (economics)
• IADB - Inter-American Development Bank
• IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency
• IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (also known as the World Bank)
• ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization
• ICC - International Chamber of Commerce
• ICCt - International Criminal Court
• ICRM - International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
• IDA - International Development Association
• IEA - International Energy Agency
• IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development
• IFC - International Finance Corporation
• IFRCS - International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
• IHO - International Hydrographic Organization
• ILO - International Labour Organization
• IMF - International Monetary Fund
• IMO - International Maritime Organization
• IMSO - International Mobile Satellite Organization
• Interpol - International Criminal Police Organization
• IOC - International Olympic Committee
• IOM - International Organization for Migration
• IPU - Inter-Parliamentary Union
• ISO - International Organization for Standardization
• ITSO - International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
• ITU - International Telecommunication Union
• ITUC - International Trade Union Confederation
• MIGA - Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
• MONUSCO - United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization
• NEA - Nuclear Energy Agency
• NSG - Nuclear Suppliers Group
• OAS - Organization of American States (observer)
• OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
• OPCW - Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
• OSCE - Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
• Paris Club
• PCA - Permanent Court of Arbitration
• PIF - Pacific Islands Forum (partner)
• SECI - Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (observer)
• UN - United Nations
• UNSC - United Nations Security Council
• UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
• UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
• UNFICYP - United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
• UNHCR - United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
• UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization
• UNMIS - United Nations Mission in Sudan
• UNRWA - United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
• UPU - Universal Postal Union
• WCO - World Customs Organization
• WHO - World Health Organization
• WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization
• WMO - World Meteorological Organization
• WTO - World Trade Organization
• Zangger Committee - (also known as the) Nuclear Exporters Committee

See also

• Timeline of British diplomatic history
• Timeline of European imperialism
• Anglophobia
• British diaspora
• History of the United Kingdom
• Soft power of the United Kingdom
• Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office
• Heads of United Kingdom Missions
• List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom
• European Union–United Kingdom relations
• Latin America–United Kingdom relations
• Accession of the United Kingdom to CPTPP
• Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom
• United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union

Bibliography

• Casey, Terrence. The Blair Legacy: Politics, Policy, Governance, and Foreign Affairs (2009) excerpt and text search
• Daddow, Oliver, and Jamie Gaskarth, eds. British foreign policy: the New Labour years (Palgrave, 2011)
• Daddow, Oliver. "Constructing a ‘great’ role for Britain in an age of austerity: Interpreting coalition foreign policy, 2010–2015." International Relations 29.3 (2015): 303-318.
• Dickie, John. The New Mandarins: How British Foreign Policy Works (2004)
• Dumbrell, John. A special relationship: Anglo-American relations from the Cold War to Iraq (2006)
• Finlan, Alastair. Contemporary Military Strategy and the Global War on Terror: US and UK Armed Forces in Afghanistan and Iraq 2001-2012 (2014)

• Gallagher, Julia. "Healing the scar? Idealizing Britain in Africa, 1997–2007." African Affairs 108.432 (2009): 435-451 online

• Honeyman, V. C. "From Liberal Interventionism to Liberal Conservatism: the short road in foreign policy from Blair to Cameron." British Politics (2015). abstract
• Lane, Ann. Strategy, Diplomacy and UK Foreign Policy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
• Leech, Philip, and Jamie Gaskarth. "British Foreign Policy and the Arab Spring." Diplomacy & Statecraft 26#1 (2015).
• Lunn, Jon, Vaughne Miller, Ben Smith. "British foreign policy since 1997 - Commons Library Research Paper RP08/56" (UK House of Commons, 2008) 123pp online
• Magyarics, Tamas. Balancing in Central Europe: Great Britain and Hungary in the 1920s
• Seah, Daniel. "The CFSP as an aspect of conducting foreign relations by the United Kingdom: With Special Reference to the Treaty of Amity & Cooperation in Southeast Asia]" International Review of Law (2015) "online
• Seton-Watson, R. W. Britain in Europe (1789–1914): A Survey of Foreign Policy (1937) online

• Stephens, Philip. Britain Alone: The Path from Suez to Brexit (2021) excerpted

• Whitman, Richard G. "The calm after the storm? Foreign and security policy from Blair to Brown." Parliamentary Affairs 63.4 (2010): 834–848. online
• Williams, Paul. British Foreign Policy under New Labour (2005)

Primary sources

• Blair, Tony. A Journey: My Political Life (2010)

External links

• Foreign and Commonwealth Office
• Department for International Development