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'''Sher Shah Suri''' (1472, or 1486 – 22 May 1545), born '''Farīd Khān''', or '''Farid al-Din Khan''',<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Jonathan |title=Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2019 |isbn=9781789140101 |pages=57 |language=English}}</ref> was the founder of the [[Sur Empire]] in [[India]]. He standardized the silver coin to the weight of 178 grams and named the currency as [[rupee]] based on the ancient Sanskrit term for silver. Sher Shah defeated the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1540 CE, and established his rule in [[Delhi]]. After his accidental death in 1545 CE, his son [[Islam Shah Suri|Islam Shah]] became his successor. The influence of his innovations and reforms extended far beyond his brief reign; his arch foe, [[Humayun]], referred to him as “Ustad-I-Badshahan”, teacher of kings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Hussain |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=gGSamwEACAAJ&dq=Ustad-I-Badshahan&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&redir_esc=y |title=Sher Shah Sur "Ustad-i-Badshahan" Humayun Alais Sher Shah Suri |date=1987 |publisher=Ferzsons |isbn=978-969-0-00679-0 |language=en}}</ref> In the seven years of his reign he never lost a battle.
'''Sher Shah Suri''' (''Farid al-Din Khan''; 1472, or 1486 – 22 May 1545),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Jonathan |title=Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present |publisher=Reaktion Books |year=2019 |isbn=9781789140101 |pages=57 |language=English}}</ref> often called '''the Just''' (''Sultan Adil''), was the founder of the [[Sur Empire]] in [[India]]. He standardized the silver coin to the weight of 178 grams and named the currency as [[rupee]] based on the ancient Sanskrit term for silver. Sher Shah defeated the [[Mughal Empire]] in 1540 CE, and established his rule in [[Delhi]]. After his accidental death in 1545 CE, his son [[Islam Shah Suri|Islam Shah]] became his successor. The influence of his innovations and reforms extended far beyond his brief reign; his arch foe, [[Humayun]], referred to him as “Ustad-I-Badshahan”, teacher of kings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Khan |first=Hussain |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=gGSamwEACAAJ&dq=Ustad-I-Badshahan&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&redir_esc=y |title=Sher Shah Sur "Ustad-i-Badshahan" Humayun Alais Sher Shah Suri |date=1987 |publisher=Ferzsons |isbn=978-969-0-00679-0 |language=en}}</ref> In the seven years of his reign he never lost a battle.


He first served as a [[private (rank)|private]] before rising to become a commander in the Mughal army under [[Babur]] and then the governor of Bihar. In 1538, when Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] was elsewhere on military campaigns, Sher Shah overran the [[Bengal Sultanate]] and established the Suri dynasty. A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself as a gifted administrator as well as a capable general. His reorganization of the empire, alongside his strategies laid the foundations for the later Mughal emperors, notably [[Akbar]].
He first served as a [[private (rank)|private]] before rising to become a commander in the Mughal army under [[Babur]] and then the governor of Bihar. In 1538, when Mughal Emperor [[Humayun]] was elsewhere on military campaigns, Sher Shah overran the [[Bengal Sultanate]] and established the Suri dynasty. A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself as a gifted administrator as well as a capable general. His reorganization of the empire, alongside his strategies laid the foundations for the later Mughal emperors, notably [[Akbar]].

Revision as of 19:51, 17 August 2023

Sher Shah Suri
Shah
Sultan Adil (Just King)
Ustad-I-Badshahan[a]
Painting of Sher Shah Suri from a manuscript of Tarikh-i-Khandan-i-Timuriya (dated between ca.1570–1590), prepared by the court painters of Mughal emperor Akbar
1st Sultan of the Sur Empire
Reign6 April 1538 – 22 May 1545
Coronation6 April 1538
PredecessorHumayun (as Mughal Emperor)
SuccessorIslam Shah Suri
Ruler of Bihar
Reign1529 – 1537
PredecessorJalal Khan Lohani
Born1472, or 1486
Sasaram, Delhi Sultanate (now in Bihar, India)
Died22 May 1545 (aged 73, or 59)
Kalinjar
Burial
Sher Shah Suri Tomb, Sasaram
SpouseUtmadun Nissa Bano Begum
Rani Shah
IssueIslam Shah Suri (Jalal Khan)
Adil Khan
HouseHouse of Sur, who claimed descendants from the House of Ghor[1]
DynastySur Dynasty
FatherHassan Khan Sur
ReligionSunni Islam

Sher Shah Suri (Farid al-Din Khan; 1472, or 1486 – 22 May 1545),[2] often called the Just (Sultan Adil), was the founder of the Sur Empire in India. He standardized the silver coin to the weight of 178 grams and named the currency as rupee based on the ancient Sanskrit term for silver. Sher Shah defeated the Mughal Empire in 1540 CE, and established his rule in Delhi. After his accidental death in 1545 CE, his son Islam Shah became his successor. The influence of his innovations and reforms extended far beyond his brief reign; his arch foe, Humayun, referred to him as “Ustad-I-Badshahan”, teacher of kings.[3] In the seven years of his reign he never lost a battle.

He first served as a private before rising to become a commander in the Mughal army under Babur and then the governor of Bihar. In 1538, when Mughal Emperor Humayun was elsewhere on military campaigns, Sher Shah overran the Bengal Sultanate and established the Suri dynasty. A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself as a gifted administrator as well as a capable general. His reorganization of the empire, alongside his strategies laid the foundations for the later Mughal emperors, notably Akbar.

During his seven year rule from 1538 to 1545, he set up a new economic and military administration, issued the first Rupiya, and organized the postal system of the Indian subcontinent. He extended the Grand Trunk Road from Chittagong in the frontiers of the province of Bengal in northeast India to Kabul in Afghanistan in the far northwest of the country. Suri further developed Humayun's Dina-panah city and named it Shergarh, also reviving the historical city of Pataliputra, which had been in decline since the 7th century CE, as Patna.[4] Sher Shah also embarked on numerous military campaigns which saw the Afghans rise into prominence again in India.

Sher Shah Suri is renowned as one of the most skillful Afghan generals ever produced.[5]

Early life and origin

Sher Shah was born in 1472,[6] or 1486.[7] He was of Pashtun Afghan ethnicity.[8] Sher Shah was of the Sur clan, which was from the Kakar tribe.[9]

His grandfather Ibrahim Khan Sur, who started out as a horse trader, became a landlord (Jagirdar) in Narnaul area (present-day Haryana), representing his patron Jamal Khan Lodi Sarangkhani, who assigned him a few villages in Hissar Firoza.[10] Sikandar Khan Lodi appointed Sarangkhani, who supported Sikandar's struggle to the throne, as governor of Jaunpur area (present-day Uttar Pradesh) after its conquest. Jamal's son and successor Khan-i-Azam Ahmad Khan Sarangkhani, with a rank of 20,000 sawars, further appointed Ibrahim Sur's son Hasan, a leader of Afghan freebooters, to the iqta of Sasaram and Khawaspur-Thanda with a rank of 500 sawars.[10]

It was at the time of this bounty of Sultán Bahlul, that the grandfather of Sher Sháh, by name Ibráhím Khán Súri,*[The Súr represent themselves as descendants of Muhammad Súri, one of the princes of the house of the Ghorian, who left his native country, and married a daughter of one of the Afghán chiefs of Roh.] with his son Hasan Khán, the father of Sher Sháh, came to Hindu-stán from Afghánistán, from a place which is called in the Afghán tongue "Shargarí,"* but in the Multán tongue "Rohrí" (Tehsil Kulachi). It is a ridge, a spur of the Sulaimán Mountains, about six or seven kos in length, situated on the banks of the Gomal river. They entered into the service of Muhabbat Khán Súr, Dáúd Sáhú-khail, to whom Sultán Bahlol had given in jágír the parganas of Hariána and Bahkála, etc., in the Panjáb, and they settled in the pargana of Bajwára.[11]

— Abbas Khan Sarwani, 1580

The mazar of Suri's grandfather Ibrahim Khan Sur still stands as a monument in Narnaul.[12][11][13]

Historian Satish Chandra writes that, "We do not know precisely when and where Farid, later Sher Shah, was born. The consensus of opinion among modern scholars is that he was born in Narnaul in 1486 or so, during the reign of Bahlul Khan Lodi."[14][15] However, the online Encyclopædia Britannica states that he was born in Sasaram (Bihar), in the Rohtas district.

During his early age, Farid was given a village in Fargana, Delhi (comprising present-day districts of Bhojpur, Buxar, Bhabhua of Bihar) by Omar Khan Sarwani, an ethnic Pashtun himself, the counselor and courtier of Bahlul Khan Lodi.[16] Hasan, Farid Khan's father, held jagirdars of Sasaram in Bihar, had several wives. Hasan raised over 8 eight sons, with only Nizam Khan being the full brother of Farid Khan.[17] One of Farid Khan's stepmothers was cruel to him, with Hasan being unable to do anything about it as he was to submissive to his wife. As a result, Farid Khan went to Jamal Khan, wishing to garner experience and expand his education.[18] When his father discovered that he fled to serve Jamal Khan, the governor of Jaunpur, he wrote Jamal Khan a letter that stated:

Faríd Khán, being annoyed with me, has gone to you without sufficient cause. I trust in your kindness to appease him, and send him back; but if refusing to listen to you, he will not return, I trust you will keep him with you, for I wish him to be instructed in religious and polite learning.[11]

Jamal Khan had advised Farid to return home but he refused. Farid replied in a letter:

If my father wants me back to instruct me in learning, there are in this city many learned men: I will study here.[11]

Farid pursued his education in Jaunpur for many years, he studied many topics including history and religion. As a result, he had a soft spot for people who were poor, and wished to give to their needs.[19] Hasan attended Jamal Khan in Jaunpur in a visit on an occasion and met with some of Farid Khan's kinsmen, who told Hasan about promises of future greatness about Farid. As a result, Hasan offered the administration of the Parganas.[20]

Rise to Power

Imagined sketch of Sher Shah Suri by Afghan artist Abdul Ghafoor Breshna

Farid began a large magnitude of reforms after assuming administration, clamping down on corruption and warning against the oppression of people of lower class. He recognized that the poor cultivators were the basis of all governments. Notably, Farid's greatest achievement as the administrator of the territory was assessing land revenues, defining, and establishing commissions for those who collected. As a result, his reforms brought security to the land and gained rapid popularity amongst his soldiers, and peasantry. His renown and word of his achievements spread throughout Bihar, which established a large reputation. However, following this success, his step-mother who had initially force him to flee, began launching intrigues again, which led to his resignation from his post. Farid Khan then went to Agra, which was ruled by the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.[21]

Farid Khan remained in Agra until his father's death, after which, the jagirs of his father were given to him by the King. Following this, he returned to the jagirs and begin administering it, while fighting off his half-brother, Sulaiman, who initially drove Farid Khan from the state. Farid Khan returned after allying with Junid Barlas, and occupied his old Jagir as well as other several crown Parganas. Having eliminated any threat to his Jagirs, he accompanied Junid Barlas to Agra, where he met Mughal emperor Babur. Farid Khan remained in Agra and observed Mughal military organization, as well as their administration.[22]

While conversing with a friend, Farid Khan remarked:

If luck and fortune favor me I will very shortly expel the Mughals from Hind, for the Mughals are not superior to the Afghans in battle or single combat, but the Afghans have let the Empire of Hindo slip from their hands on account of their internal dissensions. Since I have been amongst the Mughals, and know their conduct in action, I see that they have no order or discipline and that their kings from pride of birth and station do not personally superintend the government and leave all the affair and business of the state to their nobles and ministers, in whose sayings and doings they put perfect confidence. These grandees act on corrupt motives in every case whether it be of a soldier or a cultivator, or of a rebellious zamindar.[23]

His surname 'Suri' was taken from his Pashtun Sur tribe. He was a distant kinsman to Babur's brother-in-law, Mir Shah Jamal, who remained loyal to Humayun. The name Sher (means lion or tiger in the older pronunciation of Persian) was conferred upon him for his courage, when as a young man, he killed a tiger that leapt suddenly upon the governor of Bihar, Bahar Khan Lohani.[24][25]

In one occasion with Mughal Emperor Babur, while dining with him, they placed a dish that Sher Khan was unaware of how to eat customarily. As a result, he drew his dagger and cut the dish into smaller pieces for him to put into his spoon. This received the attention of Babur, who remarked to his minister Mir Khalifa:

Keep an eye on Sher Khan, he is a clever man and the marks of royalty are visible on his forehead. 1 have seen many Afghan nobles, greater men than he, but they never made an impression on me, but as soon as I saw this man, it entered into my mind that he ought to be arrested for I find in him the qualities of greatness and the marks of mightiness.[26]

— Babur

Suspecting a plot was rising against him, he left Agra and returned to his own Jagirs in 1528. However, he felt unsafe, and as a result, established himself under the protection of Sultan Bahar, now known as Sultan Mahmud of Bihar, who Sher Khan had served in the past. Upon his arrival, he was greeted well, and was appointed as the guardian of Mahmud's son, Jalal Khan.[27]

Rule in Bihar (1529-1537)

Specially Sher Khan was not an angel (malak) but a king (malik). In six years he gave such stability to the structure (of the empire) that its foundations still survive. He had made India flourish in such a way that the king of Persia and Turan appreciate it, and have a desire to look at it. Hazrat Arsh Ashiyani (Akbar the great) followed his administrative manual (zawabit) for fifty years and did not discontinue them. In the same India due to able administration of the well wishers of the court, nothing is left except rabble and jungles...

Mirza Aziz Koka, son of Ataga Khan, in a letter to Emperor Jahangir

After the death of Sultan Mahmud, sometime before April 1529,[28] Sher Khan became the regent of Jalal Khan. Jalal Khan, discontent with Sher Khan's power, fled to the Bengal. As a result, Sher Khan was effectively the paramount over all of Bihar. While assassination attempts by Jalal Khan were discovered and availed to nothing.[29]

Acquisition of Chunar (1530)

Taj Khan, the governor of Chunar, died. His wealthy wife, Lad Malika, excited many of her step-sons. As a result, she searched for a protector, and gave consent in marriage to Sher Khan, who was of great renown for his wisdom and bravery. As a result, negotiations were held and the sons of Taj Khan were unaware. As a result, the fort of Chunar fell under the control of Sher Khan.[30]

First conflict with the Mughals (1532)

Mughal Emperor Humayun, faced with the rising threat of the Afghans in the east led by Mahmud Lodi,[31] defeated a force of them at Dadrah in 1532, and besieged Chunar following this, which was under the control of Sher Khan. The siege continued for over four months to no avail. As a result, Sher Khan offered his loyalty to the Mughals on the condition that he remained in control of Chunar, also sending one of his sons as hostage. Humayun accepted and returned to Agra due to the rising threat of Bahadur Shah, the ruler of the Gujarat Sultanate. Humayun did not wish to split up his forces under the command of a noble to continue the siege, as this would split his strength.[32][33]

Lohani conflict (1534)

Main article: Battle of Surajgarh

Makhdum Alam refused to accept Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah as the Sultan of Bengal with a plea of assassinating Sultan Alauddin Firuz. Makhdum formed an alliance with Sher Khan, who was the deputy ruler of Bihar. And afterwards he showed a rebellious attitude. At that time, Sher Khan was the ruler of Bihar as he was the acting guardian of Jalal Khan Lohani. Sher Khan's growing power created two groups in Bihar, one led by Sher Khan and the other by Jalal Khan. Jalal Khan asked for Mahmud's help against Sher Khan and with an excuse of attacking Bengal, he crossed the border with his supporters and surrendered himself to Mahmud's shelter, acknowledging his allegiance. The asylum of Jalal Khan at the court of the Sultan of Bengal gave Mahmud Shah the exclusive right to subdue Sher Khan. Mahmud Shah sent an army of artillery, cavalry and infantry under Ibrahim Khan in 1534 to conquer Bihar. Jalal Khan was also with Ibrahim Khan in this expedition.[34] Sher Khan abruptly attacked the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs of Bihar and Mohamud Shah of Bengal and defeated them at Surajgarh in March 1534. In this battle Ibrahim Khan was defeated and killed and Jalal Khan was forced to return to his patron Mahmud Shah.[35] Sher Shah consolidated his control over the whole Bihar with the victory.[36]

First Bengal Campaign (1536-1537)

Sher Khan, having consolidated rule over much of Bihar, now marched on Bengal. The Sultanate of Bengal was ruled by the Hussain Shahi dynasty. He utilized large subsidies from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, recruiting a large army that included over 1,200 elephants. Not long after Humayun returned to Agra from his campaigns against Malwa, Sher Khan launched his Bengal campaign and defeated Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah, the ruler of Bengal. The Sultan was forced to pay over 13,000,000 gold coins.[37]

Second Bengal campaign and conflict with the Mughals (1537-1540)

Main articles: Battle of Chausa and Battle of Kannauj
Portrait of Mughal Emperor Humayun

Towards the end of 1537, Humayun raised an army and marched on Chunar, besieging the fort. The siege of the fort would last over six months until it finally fell despite the attempts from Rumi Khan to make quick work of the city. Sher Khan then led a second invasion into Bengal, and besieged Gauda. Gauda fell to the Afghan forces in April 1538.[38][39] Following the fall of Gaur, Sher Khan offered favorable peace terms to Humayun, offering 10,000,000 dinars, and that he would surrender Bihar in exchange for control of Bengal. Humayun did not wish to leave Bengal in the hands of a hostile state, especially with its rich resources, as well as the contributing factor that Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah, wounded, entered the camp of Humayun and requested the continuation of war against Sher Khan. Ghiyasuddin would die from his wounds not long after.[40]

Humayun would begin his march to Bengal against Sher Khan, however the march of the Mughal army would be overwhelmed from poor weather conditions, with rains causing the loss of his baggage between Patna and Monghyr. Humayun eventually reached Gauda and seized it without any opposition on 8 September 1538. However, the city was abandoned by the Afghans, with no loot as they had stripped the treasury.[41] Humayun remained at Gaur for months, stuck there due to the weather, however he restored order into the city. However as this was happening, Sher Khan drove deep into his territory, seizing Bihar and Varanasi, while also recovering control over Chunar, and laying siege to Jaunpur, with other detachments of the Afghan army extending as far as Kannauj. As a result, Humayun was effectively stranded at Gauda with no communication lines. After learning of disturbances at Agra, Humayun rushed to settle for peace with Sher Khan, which was concluded. Humayun crossed the Karmanasa river, where he could easily be attacked by the Afghans. Sher Khan, seeing the fragile state of the Mughal army, attacked the Mughal army led by Humayun at the Battle of Chausa. The Afghans descended on the Mughals and caught them off guard, and resulted in the complete rout of the Mughals. Humayun barely escaped with his life, and the Mughals suffered over 7,000 dead, with many prominent noblemen dead.[42][43]

Following this victory, Sher Khan was coronated in 1539 as Sher Shah, also the epithet of Sultan Adil, meaning "Just King". Following his defeat, Humayun returned to Agra, and restored order after disturbances from his brother, Hindal Mirza. Humayun mobilized a large force, and advanced with an army of 40,000, while Sher Shah amassed 15,000. Humayun met Sher Shah at Kannauj, with both armies mirroring each other across the Ganges river. Humayun crossed the river and began skirmishing with Sher Shah's army. Amidst the fighting, Humayun's army saw many nobles hiding their insignia to prevent them from being recognized by the Afghans, with many nobles also fleeing from the battle. The Mughal army was defeated, which led to Humayun fleeing to Sindh.[44][45]

With the defeat and flight of Humayun, Sher Shah captured Delhi.[46]

Reign as Emperor (1540-1545)

Portrait of Sher Shah Suri, Afghan emperor of northern India (1538-1545)

Reforms in Bengal (1540)

Realizing the importance of Bengal, Sher Shah focused much of his administrative efforts in the region. After discontent from his governor, Khijir Khan, he dismissed him from his governorship and divided his territory. Bengal was divided into smaller administrative divisions, appointing them under a Muqtar, which would be oversighted by Kazi Fajilot. This saw the rise of Afghan prominence in Bengal, with many Afghans moving and settling in the region.[47]

Advance into the Punjab and pacification of the Gakhars (1541-1542)

Following the flight of Humayun, Sher Shah continued in pursuit, advancing into the Punjab. Sher Shah advanced on Lahore, and caused panic among the Mughals. Kamran Mirza was not prepared to face Sher Shah, and as a result, retreated to Kabul, leaving the region to Sher Shah. The Afghan armies advanced as far as the Khyber, but did not extend his empire beyond the Indus as Sher Shah did not wish to incorporate many Afghans who enjoyed their independence and face difficulties with them. The Afghans also seized control of Multan in 1541, but did not pursue the retreat of the Mughals further, seeing them as no longer as a threat.[48]

Not longer after, Sher Shah entered conflict with the Gakhars, who had always been difficult to subjugate, and caused issues amongst former rulers in the region. Sher Shah resorted to diplomacy, inviting the Gakhar chief and asking him to acknowledge him as the emperor of India. The Gakhar chief gave an insulting response, which enraged Sher Shah. Sher Shah marched through the Punjab and subjugated the Gakhars, laying waste to much of the countryside and taking many prisoner. Sher Shah also constructed the Rohtas Fort. To further secure his rule over the Gakhars, and to wade off any threat of Mughal return, he left 50,000 men in the Punjab, while he returned toward the Bengal, whose governor he placed was becoming unruly.[49][48]

Conquest and consolidation of Malwa (1542)

in 1542, Sher Shah embarked on his campaign to Malwa. This was a result of fears of Malwa joining with the Mughals against Sher Shah. Sher Shah also faced the external threat of Humayun, who was attempting to forge a kingdom in Gujarat, and a forged alliance with the Malwa Sultanate would be threatening. As a result, the Afghan armies first began their march on Gwalior. Led by Shujaat Khan, Gwalior was subjugated under Afghan rule. With this, the threat of being flanked as the Afghans advanced further into Malwa were extinguished. After gaining the submission of Abul Qasim Beg, the Mughal wali of Gwalior, The Afghans continued their march to Sarangpur. Qadir Khan, the ruler of the Malwa Sultanate, being abandoned by his vassals who refused to support him, begged for the mercy of Sher Shah, who treated him well.[50]

Despite former grudges, Sher Shah reconciliated and gave him gifts, and even gave Qadir Khan a Jagir in Bengal. Despite this, Qadir Khan did not like the generous offer, and instead, fled to Gujarat, with an attempt to re-capture him in a pursuit led by Shujaat Khan ending in failure. Sher Shah made also obtained the fort of Ranthambore without conflict, and consolidated his new territories before returning to Agra. Shujaat Khan was placed as the new governor of Malwa. Qadir Khan attempted to retrieve his lost territories, and entered in battle against Shujaat Khan on separate occasions. Despite numerical inferiority, Shujaat Khan decisively defeated the coalition of Qadir Khan. Shujaat Khan was awarded with over 12,000 horses due to his valiant efforts.[51]

Conquest of Raisin (1543)

Main articles: Siege of Chanderi and Puran Mal

After the death of Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Puran Mall recovered control of Raisin after it was annexed by Bahadur Shah in 1532. Upon his restored rule in the region, he led many tyrannical actions on the Muslim populace of the city. The survivors of this occasion developed a grudge against Puran Mall. Sher Shah, hearing of this, and seeking to obtain control of Raisen himself, began preparing for war. Sher Shah remarked:

I did wrong when I said I would go towards Bengal. If Almighty God would vouchsafe me a recovery from this fever I will return with all speed, and Puran Mall who has enslaved the families of the Muslims in Chanderi and has made dancing girls of their daughters and did not accompany my son Qutab Khan — him will I so punish that he may be a warning to others.[52]

Before resorting to war, Sher Shah offered Varanasi to Puran Mall if he ceded Raisin. Puran Mall refused to agree to any offer, and as a result, Sher Shah declared war. Jalal Khan led the Afghan army, reaching Vidisha, where he merged forces with Sher Shah. The Afghan forces then advanced to Raisin, besieging it. The siege of the city lasted for six months until the artillery of Sher Shah destroyed the cities defenses, which led to Puran Mall surrendering. The treaty observed the points that: Free passage to himself [Puran Mall] and his family with their belongings, The retirement of Sher Shah to a distance of two marches from the fort, and Adil Khan and Qutab Khan to bind themselves by solemn oaths that Puran Mall and his family will not be molested in any way.[53]

Sher Shah and his army withdrew a distance of two marches from the fort per the agreement. However, Sher Shah then encountered widows of the chiefs of Chanderi, with many others waiting for Sher Shah along the roadside. They called out to Sher Shah:

we have suffered from this inhuman and malignant infidel all kinds of tyranny and oppression. He has slain our husbands and our daughters he has enslaved, and made dancing girls of them, and has .seized our lands, and all our worldly goods for a long time past. ... If you do not give us justice, hereafter, in the day of Resurrection when the first and the last of all men shall be collected together, we will accuse you.[54]

Upon hearing this, and further seeing the ruined families of Muslim survivors, Sher Shah was reported to have tears dropped from his eyes, and his idea of the destruction of oppression overtook him. Furthermore demanded by his army to take action, Sher Shah ordered an army led by Isa Khan Hajjab to lead a forced march, which caught up to the retreating detachment of Puran Mal. The Rajput forces put up resistance, but were entirely annihilated.[55][56][57]

Second conquest of Multan and subjugation of upper Sindh (1543)

After conquering Multan in 1541, it was later overrun by Baloch tribes. As a result, Sher Shah began assembling for a campaign in 1543. It also aligned with his ideas of building a new road from Lahore to Multan. During this, a certain raider named Fateh Khan Jat looted the routes between Lahore and Delhi, which surmounted to numerous complaints in return. As a result, Sher Shah ordered Haibat Khan to put an end to the raids of Fateh Khan. Haibat Khan successfully trapped Fateh Khan in a mud fort around Fatehpur. Seeking no possible way of escaping the situation, Fateh Khan surrendered to Haibat Khan. However, the garrison of the fort led by Hinda Baluch made a sortie, breaking out of the fort and successfully fleeing. Despite this, Hinda Baluch was captured during the sortie. With this, the Balochi leaders were executed, and Haibat Khan would go on to successfully subjugate upper Sindh.[58][59]

Conquest of Marwar (1543-1544)

Main article: Battle of Sammel
Painting of Rao Maldeo Rathore

In 1543, Sher Shah Suri with a force of 80,000 cavalry set out against Maldeo Rathore, the Rajput king of Marwar. Maldeo Rathore with an army of 4,000-12,000 cavalry and archers advanced to face Sher Shah's army.[60] Instead of marching to the enemy's capital Sher Shah halted in the village of Sammel in the pargana of Jaitaran, ninety kilometres east of Jodhpur.[60] After one month of skirmishing, Sher Shah's position became critical owing to the difficulties of food supplies for his huge army. To resolve this situation, Sher Shah resorted to a cunning ploy. One evening, he dropped forged letters near the Maldeo's camp in such a way that they were sure to be intercepted. These letters indicated, falsely, that some of Maldeo's army commanders were promising assistance to Sher Shah. This caused great consternation to Maldeo, who immediately (and wrongly) suspected his commanders of disloyalty. Maldeo left for Jodhpur with his own men, abandoning his commanders to their fate.[61]

After that Maldeo's generals Jaita and Kumpa fought with a few thousand men against the Afghans, who wielded a force of 80,000 men and some cannons. In the ensuing battle of Sammel (also known as battle of Giri Sumel), Sher Shah emerged victorious, but several of his generals lost their lives and his army suffered thousands of casualties. Sher Shah is said to have remarked: "for a few grains of bajra (millet, which is the main crop of barren Marwar) I almost lost the entire kingdom of Hindustan."[62]

According to Mughal historian Badauni, Sher Shah's use of elephant troops helped him defeat the Rajput army.[63]

After this victory, Sher Shah's general Khawas Khan Marwat took possession of Jodhpur and occupied the territory of Marwar from Ajmer to Mount Abu in 1544.[61]

Death and Legacy (1545)

Further information: Sher Shah Suri Tomb
Sher Shah Suri Tomb at Sasaram
The Tomb (covered in green)

Following his conquest of Marwar, Sher Shah besieged Kalinjar Fort in 1544. While leading the siege, he was mortally wounded from a gunpowder explosion from one of his cannons bursting. Sher Shah was taken to his tent where he remained for two days. When he received the news that the fort finally fell, he succumbed to his wounds and died on 22 May 1545.[64][65][66] He was succeeded by his son, Jalal Khan, who took the title of Islam Shah Suri.[66] Sher Shah was buried in the Sher Shah Suri Tomb (122 ft high), stands in the middle of an artificial lake at Sasaram, a town on the Grand Trunk Road.[67] The tomb finished its construction on 16 August 1545, three months following the death of Sher Shah.[68][69]

Destruction of cities

Sher Shah Suri is accused by ʽAbd al-Qadir Badayuni and other Muslim historians for destroying old cities while founding new ones on their ruins after his own name.[70][71] Shergarh is one of the prime examples, representing a deserted town with a fort in ruins, which, in old times, used to be a thriving place where Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism co-existed peacefully. This can be evidently derived from the various inscriptions found in the area.[72] Sher Shah is also said to have destroyed Dinpanah, which Humayun was constructing as the "sixth city of Delhi". The new city, Shergarh, built by him, was itself destroyed in 1555 after Humayun re-conquered the territory from the Surs.[73] Tarikh-i-Da'udi states, however, that he destroyed Siri. Abbas Sarwani states that he had the older city of Delhi destroyed. Tarikh-i-Khan Jahan states that Salim Shah Suri had built a wall around Humayun's imperial city.[74]

Government and administration

Rupiya released by Sher Shah Suri, 1538–1545 CE, was the first Rupee

The system of tri-metalism which came to characterise Mughal coinage was introduced by Sher Shah.[75] While the term rūpya had previously been used as a generic term for any silver coin, during his rule the term rūpee came to be used as the name for a silver coin of a standard weight of 178 grains, which was the precursor of the modern rupee.[76] Rupee is today used as the national currency in India, Indonesia, Maldives, Mauritius, Nepal, Pakistan, Seychelles, Sri Lanka among other countries. Gold coins called the Mohur weighing 169 grains and copper coins called Paisa were also minted by his government.[76] According to numismatists Goron and Goenka, it is clear from coins dated AH 945 (1538 AD) that Sher Khan had assumed the royal title of Farid al-Din Sher Shah and had coins struck in his own name even before the battle of Chausa.[77]

Sher Shah was responsible for greatly rebuilding and modernizing the Grand Trunk Road, a major artery which runs all the way from modern day Bangladesh to Afghanistan. Caravanserais (inns) and mosques were built and trees were planted along the entire stretch on both sides of the road to provide shade to travelers. Wells were also dug, especially along the western section. He also established an efficient postal system, with mail being carried by relays of horse riders.[78]

Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi (History of Sher Shah), written by Abbas Khan Sarwani, a waqia-navis under later Mughal Emperor, Akbar around 1580, provides a detailed documentation about Sher Shah's administration.[79]

Religious policy

The religious policy of Sher Shah is debated amongst historians. Dr. Qanungo states that Sher Shah upheld religious tolerance toward Hindus. Ram Sharma states that Sher Shah Suri was heavily devoted to his faith, always praying the five prayers. And on other occasions, claimed that Sher Shah's wars against the Rajputs were a Jihad. The war against Puran Mall was described as a Jihad, and his treatment of Maldeo was argued as signs of religious intolerance. However, he was always tolerant of Hindus, and did not hold any grudges against them, or wage propaganda.[80][17]

According to Srivastava, Sher Shah's balance made his fellow Muslims content with his lenient treatment of Hindus. Sher Shah's evaluated policy was seen that Islam should hold supremacy over the lands he had conquered, but not to displace Hinduism.[80]

Army

Sher Shah Suri's army defeated the Mughal Empire and drove them out of India. Sher Shah invited Afghans from across the empire and gave them high positions, with himself taking interest in recruiting troops. Sher Shah also promoted out of Merit. The Afghan army utilized heavy emphasis on their cavalry, while his infantry were armed with muskets. One of his reforms included splitting up his armies into divisions, which was led by a commander. Discipline was strict, with provisions being given by Banjaras, who accompanied the army. Men were also assigned roles, attributing to the system of the Dagh, with spys being able to be rooted out using this method.[81]

Sher Shah also considered Pashto a sign of friendliness, and gave higher salaries to Afghans who could speak Pashto in his army.[11]

In 1540, Sher Shah's army consisted of over 150,000 cavalrymen, 25,000 infantrymen, and over 5,000 war elephants.[82][83][84]

Social Justice

One of the things Sher Shah Suri was renowned for was giving justice. Courts were held by Qadis, with Sher Shah as well observing civil cases. Hindus settled their disputes in Panchayat assemblies, while in criminal cases, nobody was exempt from the law of the empire. The criminal law of the empire was extremely harsh, and done so to prevent others from doing a crime out of fear of the repercussions. Sher Shah gave heavy punishments for people in high posts, including government officials.[85]

The reputation of Sher Shah was formidable in this regard as a just ruler, to the point where merchants could travel through and sleep in deserts without fear of being harassed by bandits or robbers. The soldiers of Sher Shah acted as police, with the duty of these soldiers to look for thieves and robbers. Sher Shah Suri also implemented the reform of self-responsibility. It was the duty assigned to officials to find the culprits of different cases in examples such as murder, lest the officials be held responsible themselves and be hanged. As a result of these reforms, historians praise it for its effectiveness.[86]

Buildings

Sher Shah built several monuments including Rohtas Fort (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan), many structures in the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, the Qila-i-Kuhna mosque inside the Purana Qila complex in Delhi, and the Sher Mandal, an octagonal building also inside the Purana Qila complex, which later served as the library of Humayun. He built a new city, Bhera, in present-day Pakistan in 1545, including within it a grand masjid named after him.[87][88]

The mausoleum of Sher Shah Suri is described as one of the most beautiful monuments in India, due to its grandeur and dignity. Cunningham even was inclined to prefer it over the Taj Mahal.[88]

Trade

Amongst his magnitude of reforms while consolidating the empire, Sher Shah Suri abolished taxes that were held on the borders of provinces. This was due to Sher Shah wishing to invigorate trade throughout India, and only two levies remaining in place, with them being upon goods being brought into the country, and the second for when goods were sold. Customs as a result, were entirely removed.[86]

Sher Khan (1962) an Indian Hindi-language action film by Radhakant starring Kamaljeet in the titular role along with Kumkum is ostensibly based on the emperor's life.[89] Shershah Suri, a television show about the emperor was aired on DD National by Doordarshan, the Indian national public broadcaster.[90]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Humayun, the rival of Sher Shah Suri, referred to Sher Shah as Ustad-I-Badashan, meaning "Teacher of Kings".

References

  1. ^ Bakshi, Sharma, SR, SK (1999). Humayun: The Great Moghul. Deep & Deep Publications. p. 385. ISBN 9788176291620.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ Lee, Jonathan (2019). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 57. ISBN 9781789140101.
  3. ^ Khan, Hussain (1987). Sher Shah Sur "Ustad-i-Badshahan" Humayun Alais Sher Shah Suri. Ferzsons. ISBN 978-969-0-00679-0.
  4. ^ Patna encyclopedia.com.
  5. ^ Chandra, Satish (2007). History of Medieval India: 800-1700. Orient BlackSwan. p. 216. ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
  6. ^ Jansari, Sushma (1 June 2023). Chandragupta Maurya: The creation of a national hero in India. UCL Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-80008-388-2.
  7. ^ Wright, Thomas Edmund Farnsworth; Wright, Edmund (2015). A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. p. 402. ISBN 978-0-19-968569-1.
  8. ^ "Sher Khan". Columbia Encyclopedia. 2010. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  9. ^ Lee 2019, p. 57.
  10. ^ a b Aquil, Raziuddin (2007). "The Making of a Badshah: Emergence of Sher Shah Suri". In Chaudhur (ed.). Sufism, Culture, and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India. London: Oxford University Press. p. 81-114. ISBN 9780195685121.
  11. ^ a b c d e Abbas Khan Sarwani (1580). "Táríkh-i Sher Sháhí; or, Tuhfat-i Akbar Sháhí, of 'Abbás Khán Sarwání. CHAPTER I. Account of the reign of Sher Sháh Súr". Sir H. M. Elliot. London: Packard Humanities Institute. p. 78. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
  12. ^ Tarikh-i Khan Jahan Lodi (MS. p. 151).
  13. ^ Frowde, Henry, ed. (1908). The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. XVIII Moram to Nayāgarh. Ofxord: The Clarendon Press. p. 381.
  14. ^ Chandra, Satish (2005) [First published 1999]. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals - Part Two: Mughal Empire (1526–1748) (3rd ed.). Har-Anand Publications. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9.
  15. ^ Prasad, Ishwari (1974). The Mughal Empire. Allahabad: Chugh Publications. p. 157. OCLC 1532660.
  16. ^ Adel, Farid (2016). The Champions’ of the True Faith. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 9781524547080.
  17. ^ a b "Shēr Shah of Sūr". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  18. ^ Ali Khan, Zulfiqar (1925). Sher Shah Suri, Emperor of India. Civil and Military Gazette Press. p. 12.
  19. ^ Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 179. ISBN 978-81-269-0123-4.
  20. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 13.
  21. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 14-17.
  22. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 17-18.
  23. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 18-19.
  24. ^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (2007) [First published 1903]. Medieval India: under Mohammedan rule (A.D. 712-1764). Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 236. ISBN 978-969-35-2052-1.
  25. ^ "Sur Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
  26. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 20.
  27. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 20-21.
  28. ^ Khan, Hussain (1976). THITRANSITION OF POWER FROM THE EARLY MUGHULS TO SHER SHAH SURI (Thesis thesis). UNIVERSITY OF PUNJAB. p. 53.
  29. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 21.
  30. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 23.
  31. ^ "Rule of Afghans - Banglapedia". en.banglapedia.org. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
  32. ^ Chandra 2007, p. 212-213.
  33. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 33.
  34. ^ Ahmed, ABM Shamsuddin. "Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  35. ^ "Afghan Emperor Sher Shah Suri defeats Mughal Emperor Humayun, forcing him to live in exile". The Free Press Journal. 17 May 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  36. ^ "Sher Shah Suri Biography". MapsofIndia.com. 5 February 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
  37. ^ Chandra 2007, p. 215.
  38. ^ "Rule of Afghans - Banglapedia". en.banglapedia.org. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
  39. ^ Puri, B. N.; Das, M. N. (1 December 2003). A Comprehensive History of India: Comprehensive history of medieval India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 113. ISBN 978-81-207-2508-9.
  40. ^ Chandra 2007, p. 215-216.
  41. ^ "Rule of Afghans - Banglapedia". en.banglapedia.org. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
  42. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 34-36.
  43. ^ Chandra 2007, p. 216-217.
  44. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 38-41.
  45. ^ Chandra 2007, p. 217.
  46. ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander (22 July 2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 830. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8.
  47. ^ "Rule of Afghans - Banglapedia". en.banglapedia.org. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
  48. ^ a b Chandra 2005, p. 77.
  49. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 41-45.
  50. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 63-64.
  51. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 65-66.
  52. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 47.
  53. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 47-52.
  54. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 53.
  55. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 53-56.
  56. ^ Kennedy, Pringle (1905). A History of the Great Moghuls: Or, A History of the Badshahate of Delhi from 1398 A.D. to 1739, with an Introduction Concerning the Mongols and Moghuls of Central Asia. Thacker, Spink. p. 212.
  57. ^ Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan (2005). Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-19-597882-7.
  58. ^ Ali Khan, 1925 & p-67-68.
  59. ^ Chandra 2005, p. 77-78.
  60. ^ a b Hooja, Rima (2006). A history of Rajasthan. Rupa and Company. pp. 526–529. ISBN 9788129115010. 80,000 cavalry, besides infantry, artillery, war-elephants and possibly a camel corps, was ready for the campaign against Maldeo........4,000 cavalry according to some sources and less than 12,000 cavalry and archers according to others, Jaita, Kumpa and other loyal warriors of Marwar attacked the centre of Sher Shah's army.......Jalal Khan backed by the superiority of numbers and guns, eventually decimated the attackers and ensured victory for Sher Shah.
  61. ^ a b Majumdar, R. C., ed. (2006) [First published 1974]. The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vol. 7. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 81–82. OCLC 3012164.
  62. ^ Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II By Satish Chandra pg.80. — Sher Shahs oft quoted remark " I had given away the country of Delhi for a handful of millets" is a tribute to the gallantry of Jaita and Kumpa and the willingness of the Rajputs to face death even in the face of impossible odds.
  63. ^ Curry, Anne (2020). The Cambridge History of War: Volume 2, War and the Medieval. Cambdrige. p. all. ISBN 9781108901192.
  64. ^ Mikaberidze 2011, p. 830.
  65. ^ Ali Khan 1925, p. 99-100.
  66. ^ a b Chandra 2007, p. 220.
  67. ^ Asher, Catherine B. (1977). "The Mausoleum of Sher Shāh Sūrī". Artibus Asiae. 39 (3/4): 273–298. doi:10.2307/3250169. JSTOR 3250169.
  68. ^ Catherine B. Asher (1977). "The mausoleum of Sher Shah Suri". Artibus Asiae. 39 (3/4). Artibus Asiae Publishers: 273–298. doi:10.2307/3250169. JSTOR 3250169.
  69. ^ "Sasaram". Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. Retrieved 6 November 2018.
  70. ^ `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni (1898). Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh (English translation (Bib. Ind.) ed.). Calcutta. p. 472.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  71. ^ Qanungo, K. R. (1921). Sher Shah. p. 404.
  72. ^ "Jain inscription from Shergarh (Dr. D.C. Sircar)". South Indian Inscriptions. Manager of Publications, Delhi.
  73. ^ Bolande-Crew, Tara; Lea, David (2 September 2003). The Territories and States of India. ISBN 9781135356255.
  74. ^ D'Ayala, Diana; Fodde, Enrico, eds. (2 June 2008). Structural Analysis of Historic Construction: Preserving Safety and Significance. Vol. 1. CRC Press. pp. 290, 291. ISBN 978-1-4398-2822-9.
  75. ^ Thomas, Edward (1967). The Chronicles of the Pathan Kings of Delhi. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 403. ISBN 9788121503600.
  76. ^ a b "Mughal Coinage". RBI Monetary Museum. Reserve Bank of India. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  77. ^ Goron, Stan; Goenka, J. P. (2001). The Coins of the Indian Sultanates. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 98. ISBN 978-81-215-1010-3. This and the next items show Sher Shāh to have adopted the royal title as early as year 945 ... within circle: al-sultān sher shāh ... In margin: farīd al-dunyā wa 'l dīn abū'l muzaffar khallada allāh mulkahu
  78. ^ Sarkar, K. M. (1927). The Grand Trunk Road in the Punjab: 1849-1886. Atlantic Publishers & Distri.
  79. ^ Josh, Jagran (26 May 2017). Indian History Question Bank ebook. Jagran Josh.
  80. ^ a b Chandra 2005, p. 53-54.
  81. ^ Chandra 2005, p. 49.
  82. ^ Roy, Kaushik (6 October 2015). Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia. Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-317-32128-6.
  83. ^ Roy, Kaushik (3 June 2015). Warfare in Pre-British India - 1500BCE to 1740CE. Routledge. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-317-58692-0.
  84. ^ "Sher ki Fauj: The Army of The Great Sher Suri". www.thisday.app. Retrieved 17 August 2023. Suri's army had 150,000 cavalry, 25,000 infantry, 5,000 war elephants, and huge artillery. His army was secular; it housed soldiers from various religions, including Hindus. He made sure that everything about the army was taken care of, from their training to their payouts. He also appointed Bakshi-e-Lashkar, a military officer, to accompany him in administering it.
  85. ^ Chandra 2005, p. 51.
  86. ^ a b Chandra 2005, p. 52.
  87. ^ Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan (2005). Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-19-597882-7.
  88. ^ a b Chandra 2005, p. 54.
  89. ^ Rajadhyaksha, Ashish; Willemen, Paul (1999). Encyclopaedia of Indian cinema. British Film Institute. ISBN 9780851706696. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
  90. ^ "Shershah Suri - Episode 01". Prasar Bharati Archives. 14 September 2017. Archived from the original on 31 October 2021.
Preceded by Shah of Delhi
1540–1545 		Succeeded by

Further reading

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