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[[File:Ara ararauna -Blue-and-gold Macaw -head and neck.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Blue-and-yellow Macaw|Macaw]] is a typical animal of Brazil. The country has one of the world's most diverse [[List of birds of Brazil|populations of birds]] and [[List of amphibians in Brazil|amphibians]].]]
[[File:Ara ararauna -Blue-and-gold Macaw -head and neck.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Blue-and-yellow Macaw|Macaw]] is a typical animal of Brazil. The country has one of the world's most diverse [[List of birds of Brazil|populations of birds]] and [[List of amphibians in Brazil|amphibians]].]]
[[File:Amazonie.jpg|thumb|right|[[Amazon Rainforest]], the largest tropical forest in the world.]]
[[File:Amazonie.jpg|thumb|right|[[Amazon Rainforest]], the largest tropical forest in the world.]]
Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the [[Amazon Rainforest]], recognized as having the greatest [[Biodiversity|biological diversity]] in the world;<ref name="WWF">{{cite web | title = One fifth of the world's freshwater | work = Amazon | publisher = World Wide Fund for Nature | date = 2007-08-06 | url = http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_freshwater/rivers/amazon/ | accessdate = 2008-06-12 }}</ref> the [[Atlantic Forest]] and the [[Cerrado]], which together sustain some of the world's greatest biodiversity.<ref name="Encarta 10">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Plant and Animal Life | encyclopedia = Encarta | publisher = MSN | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html | accessdate = 2008-06-12 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQIOd3Z|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In the south, the [[Araucaria]] [[Temperate coniferous forest|pine forest]] grows under temperate conditions.<ref name="Encarta 10"/> The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Much of it, however, remains largely unknown, and new species are found on nearly a daily basis.<ref>{{cite web | title = Forests as Habitats | work = Importance of Forests | publisher = World Wide Fund for Nature | date = 2006-01-16 | url = http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/about_forests/importance/habitats/index.cfm | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080124100830/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/about_forests/importance/habitats/index.cfm | archivedate = 2008-01-24 | accessdate = 2008-06-12 }}</ref>
Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the [[Amazon Rainforest]], recognized as having the greatest [[Biodiversity|biological diversity]] in the world;<ref name="WWF">{{cite web | title = One fifth of the world's freshwater | work = Amazon | publisher = World Wide Fund for Nature | date = 2007-08-06 | url = http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/about_freshwater/rivers/amazon/ | accessdate = 2008-06-12 }}</ref> the [[Atlantic Forest]] and the [[Cerrado]], which together sustain some of the world's greatest biodiversity.<ref name="Encarta 10">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Plant and Animal Life | encyclopedia = Encarta | publisher = MSN | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html | accessdate = 2008-06-12 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQIOd3Z|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref> In the south, the [[Araucaria]] [[Temperate coniferous forest|pine forest]] grows under temperate conditions.<ref name="Encarta 10"/> The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Much of it, however, remains largely unknown, and new species are found on nearly a daily basis.{{fact}}<!-- The footnote previously here linked to http://web.archive.org/web/20080124100830/http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/forests/about_forests/importance/habitats/index.cfm , which does not say this. -->


Scientists estimate that the total number of [[Wildlife of Brazil|plant]] and [[Wildlife of Brazil|animal species]] in Brazil could approach four million.<ref name="Encarta 10"/> Larger mammals include [[puma (animal)|pumas]], [[jaguar]]s, [[ocelot]]s, rare [[bush dog]]s, and [[fox]]es. [[Peccary|Peccaries]], [[tapir]]s, [[anteater]]s, [[sloth]]s, [[opossum]]s, and [[armadillo]]s are abundant. [[Deer]] are plentiful in the south, and [[monkey]]s of many species abound in the northern [[Rainforest|rain forests]].<ref name="Encarta 10"/><ref>{{cite news | title = Atlantic Forest, Brazil | work = Map: Biodiversity hotspots | publisher = BBC News | date = 2004-10-01 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3707888.stm#brazil | accessdate = 2008-06-12 }}</ref> Concern for the environment in Brazil has grown in response to global interest in [[List of environmental issues|environmental issues]].<ref name="Encarta 11">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Environmental Issues | encyclopedia = Encarta | publisher = MSN | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html | accessdate = 2008-06-12 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQIOd3Z|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref>
Scientists estimate that the total number of [[Wildlife of Brazil|plant]] and [[Wildlife of Brazil|animal species]] in Brazil could approach four million.<ref name="Encarta 10"/> Larger mammals include [[puma (animal)|pumas]], [[jaguar]]s, [[ocelot]]s, rare [[bush dog]]s, and [[fox]]es. [[Peccary|Peccaries]], [[tapir]]s, [[anteater]]s, [[sloth]]s, [[opossum]]s, and [[armadillo]]s are abundant. [[Deer]] are plentiful in the south, and [[monkey]]s of many species abound in the northern [[Rainforest|rain forests]].<ref name="Encarta 10"/><ref>{{cite news | title = Atlantic Forest, Brazil | work = Map: Biodiversity hotspots | publisher = BBC News | date = 2004-10-01 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3707888.stm#brazil | accessdate = 2008-06-12 }}</ref> Concern for the environment in Brazil has grown in response to global interest in [[List of environmental issues|environmental issues]].<ref name="Encarta 11">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Environmental Issues | encyclopedia = Encarta | publisher = MSN | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761554342_2/Brazil.html | accessdate = 2008-06-12 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQIOd3Z|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

Revision as of 05:28, 2 January 2010

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Brazil (disambiguation).
Federative Republic of Brazil
[República Federativa do Brasil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Pt icon
Motto: "Ordem e Progresso"
Template:Pt icon
"Order and Progress"
Anthem: Hino Nacional Brasileiro
Template:Pt icon
"Brazilian National Anthem"
National seal
Selo Nacional do Brasil
Template:Pt icon
"National Seal of Brazil"
Location of Brazil
CapitalBrasília
Largest citySão Paulo
Official languagesPortuguese
Demonym(s)Brazilian
GovernmentPresidential Federal republic
• President
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (Worker's Party)
José Alencar (Brazilian Republican Party)
Michel Temer (Brazilian Democratic Movement Party)
José Sarney (Brazilian Democratic Movement Party)
Gilmar Mendes
LegislatureNational Congress
• Upper house
Federal Senate
• Lower house
Chamber of Deputies
Independence 
from Portugal
• Declared
7 September 1822
29 August 1825
• Republic
15 November 1889
5 October 1988
Area
• Total
8,514,877 km2 (3,287,612 sq mi) (5th)
• Water (%)
0.65
Population
• 2009 estimate
192,272,890[1] (5th)
• 2007 census
189,987,291
• Density
22/km2 (57.0/sq mi) (182nd)
GDP (PPP)2008 estimate
• Total
$1.984 trillion[2] (9th)
• Per capita
$10,465[2] (77th)
GDP (nominal)2008 estimate
• Total
$1.612 trillion [3] (10th)
• Per capita
$8,295[2] (63rd)
Gini (2009)49.3[4]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2007)0.813[5]
Error: Invalid HDI value (75th)
CurrencyReal (R$) (BRL)
Time zoneUTC-2 to -4[6] (BRT[6])
• Summer (DST)
UTC-2 to -4 (BRST)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy (CE)
Driving sideright
Calling code+55
ISO 3166 codeBR
Internet TLD.br

Brazil (Portuguese: Brasil), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil[7] (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil) listenⓘ, is the largest country and the only Portuguese-speaking country in South America.[8]

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822.[9] Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified.[9] Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic.[10] The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.[10][11]

Brazil is the world's tenth largest economy by nominal GDP[3] and the ninth largest by purchasing power parity[12]. It is a founding member of the United Nations and the Union of South American Nations. Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.[8]

History

Main article: History of Brazil

Portuguese colonization and territorial expansion

Main article: Colonial Brazil
See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil and Slavery in Brazil

The land which is now called Brazil (the origin of the country's name is disputed), was claimed by the Portuguese in April 1500, at the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral[13]. The Portuguese encountered its stone age inhabitants[13] who were divided into several tribes that fought among themselves[14], most of which shared the same Tupi-Guarani linguistic family[13]. Colonization was effectively started in 1534, when King Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies[15][16] but this proved an utter disaster, and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony.[16][17] The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes[18] while others were enslaved[19][20] or mostly exterminated in long wars and mainly by European diseases to which they had no immunity[19][21]. By the mid 16th century, sugar had become the most important export from Brazil[14][22]. This made the Portuguese import African slaves[23][24] to cope with the increasing international demand.[19][25]

The first Christian mass in Brazil, 1500.

Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to the northwest, São Luís in 1615.[26] They sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest that conquered British and Dutch strongholds, founding villages and forts from 1669.[27] In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata, in the Eastern Strip region (present-day Uruguay).[28] At the end of the 17th century sugar exports started to decline[29] but the discovery of gold by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais (General Mines) around 1693 and in the following decades in current Mato Grosso and Goiás saved the colony from imminent collapse.[30] From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants departed toward the mines.[31]

The Spanish tried to prevent the Portuguese expansion into the territory belonging to them according to the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 and succeeded in conquering the Eastern Strip in 1777. All was in vain as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding from its territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian borders.[32] In 1808, the Portuguese royal family, fleeing the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon I that were invading Portugal and most of Central Europe, established themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which thus became the seat of the entire Portuguese Empire[33] In 1815 King Dom João VI, then regent on behalf of his incapacitated mother, elevated Brazil from colony to sovereign Kingdom united with Portugal.[33] In 1809 the Portuguese invaded French Guiana (returned to France in 1817)[34] and in 1816 the Eastern Strip, subsequently renamed Cisplatina.[35]

Independence and empire

Main articles: Brazilian War of Independence and Empire of Brazil
Declaration of the Brazilian independence by Emperor Pedro I in September 7, 1822.

King João VI returned to Europe on 26 April, 1821, leaving his elder son Prince Pedro de Alcântara as regent to rule Brazil.[36] The Portuguese government attempted to turn Brazil into a colony once again, thus depriving it of its achievements since 1808.[37] The Brazilians refused to yield and Prince Pedro stood by them declaring the country's independence from Portugal on September 7, 1822.[38] On October 12, 1822, Pedro was declared first Emperor of Brazil (as Dom Pedro I) and crowned on 1 December 1822.[39] In 1822 almost all Brazilians were in favor of a monarchy: Republicanism was an ideal supported by few.[40][41] The subsequent Brazilian War of Independence spread through almost its entire territory, with battles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions.[42] The last Portuguese army surrendered on March 8, 1824[43] and independence was recognized by Portugal on August 29, 1825.[44]

File:Pedro II 1853 1.JPG
Emperor Dom Pedro II. For "the longevity of his government and the transformations that occurred in its course, no other Head of State has marked more deeply the history of the country."[45]

The first Brazilian constitution was promulgated on March 25, 1824, after its acceptance by the municipal councils across the country.[46][47][48][49] Pedro I abdicated in 7 April 1831 and went to Europe to reclaim his daughter’s crown leaving behind his son and heir who became Dom Pedro II.[50] As the new emperor could not exert his constitutional prerogatives until he reached maturity, a regency was created.[51] Disputes between political factions led to rebellions and an unstable, almost anarchical, regency.[52] The rebellious factions, however, were not in revolt against the monarchy,[53][54] even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics (but only so long as Pedro II was a minor).[55]

Thus, Pedro II was prematurely declared of age and "Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapid material progress."[56] Brazil also won three international wars during his long reign of 58 years (Platine War, Uruguayan War and War of the Triple Alliance.[57]) and witnessed the consolidation of representative democracy mainly due to successive elections and unrestricted freedom of the press.[58] Most importantly, slavery was extinguished after a slow but steady process that went from the end of international traffic in 1850[59] up to the complete abolition in 1888.[60] It had been in decline since the country's independence: in 1823, 29% of the Brazilian population were slaves while in 1887 this had fallen to 5%.[61]

When the monarchy was overthrown on November 15, 1889[62] there was little desire in Brazil to change the form of government[63] and Pedro II was at the height of his popularity among his subjects.[64][65] However, he "bore prime, perhaps sole, responsibility for his own overthrow."[66] After the death of his two male sons, he believed that "the imperial regime was destined to end with him."[67] The emperor did not care about its fate,[68][69] did nothing, and allowed no one to do anything[70] to prevent the military coup[71] that was backed by former slave owners who resented the abolition of slavery.[72]

Old republic and Vargas era

Main articles: República Velha, Estado Novo (Brazil), and Brazilian Second Republic
The Brazilian coup d'état of 1930 raised Getúlio Vargas (center with military uniform but no hat) to power. He would rule the country for fifteen years.

The early republican government "was little more than a military dictatorship. The army dominated affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power."[62] In 1894 the republican civilians rose to power, opening a "prolonged cycle of civil war, financial disaster, and government incompetence."[73] By 1902, the government "began a return to the policies pursued during the Empire, policies that promised peace and order at home and a restoration of Brazil's prestige abroad."[73] and was successful in negotiating several treaties that expanded (with the purchase of Acre) and secured the Brazilian boundaries.[74] In the 1920s the country was plagued by several rebellions caused by young military officers.[75][76] By 1930, the regime was weakened and demoralized, which allowed the defeated presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas to lead a coup d'état and assume the presidency.[77] Vargas was supposed to assume the presidency temporarily, but instead closed the National Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his supporters.[78][79]

In 1935 the Communists rebelled all over the country and tried to take power, but were defeated.[80] The communist threat served as an excuse for Vargas to launch another coup d'état in 1937, making Brazil a full dictatorship.[81][82] The repression of the opposition was brutal, with more than 20,000 people imprisoned, internment camps for political prisoners created in distant regions of the country, censorship of the press, and widespread torture by the government's agents of repression.[83][84]

Brazil remained neutral at the early years of World War II until the government declared war against the Axis powers in 1942.[85] After that Vargas forced Germans, Japanese and Italians immigrants into concentration camps,[86] and sent troops to the battlefields in Italy in 1944.[87][88] With the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe after the allied victory in 1945, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown by a military coup.[89] Democracy was reinstated and General Eurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president and took office in 1946.[90] Vargas returned to power in 1951, this time democratically elected, but he was incapable of both governing under a democracy and of dealing with an active opposition and committed suicide in 1953.[91][92]

Military regime and contemporary era

Main articles: Military dictatorship (Brazil) and History of Brazil since 1985

Several brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas's suicide.[93] Juscelino Kubitscheck became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture that allowed him to govern without major crises.[94] His economic and industrial policy was highly successful.[95] But his greatest achievement was the construction of Brasília, the new Brazilian capital inaugurated in 1960.[96] His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961, less than a year after taking office.[97] His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but suffered large opposition[98] and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime[99] intended to be transitory,[100] but that gradually closed itself until it became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.[101] The repression against the dictatorship's opponents and also against the communist terrorists[102] was the most severe, but not nearly as brutal as in other Latin American countries.[103] Due to the extraordinary economic growth, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached its highest level of popularity in those years of repression.[104]

The transition from Fernando Henrique Cardoso to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva revealed that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability.

General Ernesto Geisel became president in 1974 and began his project of re-democratization through a process that would have to be "slow, gradual and safe."[105][106] Geisel ended the military indiscipline that had plagued the country since 1889,[107] as well as the torture of political prisoners and censorship of the press,[108] and finally, the dictatorship itself after he extinguished the Fifth Institutional Act.[101] However, the military regime continued under his chosen successor to accomplish the transition to full democracy, General João Figueiredo.[109]

The civilians fully returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency[110] but he ended his term extremely unpopular due to the uncontrollable economic crisis and unusually high inflation.[111] That allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor,[112] who was impeached by the National Congress in 1992.[113] He was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who called Fernando Henrique Cardoso to become Minister of Finance. Cardoso was highly successful with his Plano Real (Royal Plan)[114] that granted stability to the Brazilian economy[115] and his efforts were recognized by the Brazilians who elected him president in 1994 and again in 1998.[116] The peaceful transition of power to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva, elected in 2002 (and re-elected in 2006), revealed that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability.[117]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Brazil
The National Congress in Brasília, the capital of Brazil.

The Brazilian Federation is based on the association of three autonomous political entities: the States, the Municipalities and the Federal District.[10] A fourth entity originated in this association: the Union.[10] There is no hierarchy among these four. The Federation is set on six fundamental principles:[10] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of the people, social value of labor, freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial under the checks and balances system), is formally established by the Constitution.[10] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all four political entities, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state levels.

All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.[118][119][120] Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.[118] Voting is compulsory for those between 18 and 65 years old.[10] Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), and Democrats (formerly Liberal Front Party – PFL). Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.

The form of government is that of a democratic republic, with a presidential system.[10] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[10] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. He was elected on October 27, 2002,[121] and re-elected on October 29, 2006.[122] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in governing.[10] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of laws in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively.

Law

Main articles: Law of Brazil and Crime in Brazil
Interior of the Brazilian Supreme Court.

Brazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions.[123] Thus civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.

The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.[124] As of April 2007, there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.[125] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" ([leis orgânicas] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) which act similar to constitutions.[10][126] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.[10] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[10] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[10] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Tribunal. This system has been criticised over the last decades for the slow pace at which final decisions are issued. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings are made.[127]

Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal is the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and more recently also via Youtube.[128][129] More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the actions that arrive daily to the Court, and the most important decisions made by them.[130]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Brazil and Brazilian Armed Forces
States hosting a diplomatic mission of Brazil.

Brazil is a political and economic leader in Latin America.[131][132] However, social and economic problems prevent it from becoming an effective global power.[133] Between World War II and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. More recently, the country has aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, and engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States.[134]

Aircraft carrier NAE São Paulo of the Brazilian Navy.

Brazil's current foreign policy is based on the country's position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.[135] In general current Brazilian foreign policy reflects multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and nonintervention in the affairs of other countries.[136] The Brazilian Constitution also determines that the country shall seek the economic, political, social and cultural integration of the nations of Latin America.[10][137][138][139]

The armed forces of Brazil consist of the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force with 371,199 active personnel.[140] The Military Police (States' Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army by the constitution, but is under the control of each state's governor.[10] The armed forces are the largest in Latin America. The Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Brazilian armed forces, and the largest air force in Latin America, with about 700 manned aircraft in service.[141] The Navy is responsible for naval operations and for guarding Brazilian territorial waters. It is the oldest of the Brazilian armed forces and the only navy in Latin America to operate an aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo (formerly FS Foch of the French Navy).[142] The Army is responsible for land-based military operations and has 235,978 active personnel.[143]

States and municipalities

Main articles: States of Brazil and Municipalities of Brazil
See also: Regions of Brazil

Brazil is a federation composed of twenty-six States, one federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and municipalities.[10] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite that, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can only be voted by the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.[10]

In turn, the states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and sometimes to define the application of federal funds in development projects.

Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.[10] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).

Geography

Main article: Geography of Brazil
See also: List of countries and outlying territories by total area
Topography map of Brazil.

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,[144] sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every country in South America except for Ecuador and Chile. A few oceanic archipelagos are also part of Brazil, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz[8]. Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.[144] Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada, China and the United States, and third largest in the Americas; with a total area of Template:Km2 to mi2, including Template:Km2 to mi2 of water.[8] It spans three time zones; from UTC-4 in the western states, to UTC-3 in the eastern states (and the official time of Brazil), and UTC-2 in the Atlantic islands.[6]

Brazilian topography is also diverse, including hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of Brazil lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation.[145] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.[145] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[145] The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).[145] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.[145] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 3,014 metres (9,888 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[8] Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.[146] Major rivers include the Amazon, the largest river in terms of volume of water and the second-longest in the world; the Paraná and its major tributary, the Iguaçu River, where the Iguazu Falls are located; the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and the Tapajós rivers.[146]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Brazil

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but the largest part of the country is tropical.[8] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic subtypes: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, and temperate; ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.[147] Many regions have starkly different microclimates.[148][149]

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.[147] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[149] with more significant temperature variations between night and day than between seasons.[148] Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.[148] This region is as large and extensive as the Amazon basin but, lying farther south and being at a moderate altitude, it has a very different climate.[147] In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climate region generally receives less than 800 millimetres (31 in) of rain,[150] most of which falls in a period of three to five months[151] and occasionally even more insufficiently, creating long periods of drought.[148] South of Bahia, near São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rainfall in all months.[147] The south has temperate conditions, with average temperatures below 18 °C (64 °F) and cool winters;[149] frosts are quite common, with occasional snowfall in the higher areas.[147][148]

Flora and fauna

Main articles: Wildlife of Brazil and Deforestation in Brazil
The Macaw is a typical animal of Brazil. The country has one of the world's most diverse populations of birds and amphibians.
Amazon Rainforest, the largest tropical forest in the world.

Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon Rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world;[152] the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, which together sustain some of the world's greatest biodiversity.[153] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions.[153] The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Much of it, however, remains largely unknown, and new species are found on nearly a daily basis.[citation needed]

Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million.[153] Larger mammals include pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes. Peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos are abundant. Deer are plentiful in the south, and monkeys of many species abound in the northern rain forests.[153][154] Concern for the environment in Brazil has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.[155]

Its natural heritage is extremely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, expansion of urban centres, wildlife trade, fire, climate change, dams and infrastructure, water contamination, and invasive species.[152] In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development.[156] Construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape.[155][157]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Brazil
Soybean fields in Brazil.

Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates[158][159] and the ninth largest in purchasing power parity (PPP),[158][160] according to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Its GDP (PPP) per capita is $10,200, putting Brazil in the 64th position according to World Bank data. It has a large and developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors, as well as a large labor pool.[12] Brazilian exports are booming, creating a new generation of tycoons.[161] Major export products include aircraft, coffee, automobiles, soybean, iron ore, orange juice, steel, ethanol, textiles, footwear, corned beef and electrical equipment.[162] The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is regarded as one of the group of four emerging economies called BRIC.[163]

Brazil had pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998[164] and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Brazilian central bank temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.[165] Brazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 in the amount of $30.4 billion,[166] a record sum at that time. The IMF loan was paid off early by Brazil's central bank in 2005 (the due date was scheduled for 2006).[167] One of the issues the Brazilian central bank is currently dealing with is the excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country in the past few months, which might explain in part the recent downfall of the U.S. dollar against the real in the period.[168] Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.[169] Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major role in Brazil's Central Bank activity in setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.[170]

Components and energy

Main articles: Agriculture in Brazil, Industry in Brazil, and Energy policy of Brazil
Itaipu Dam, the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation and second-largest by installed capacity.

Brazil's economy is diverse,[171] encompassing agriculture, industry, and a multitude of services.[161][172][173][174] The recent economic strength has been due in part to a global boom in commodities prices with exports from beef to soybeans soaring.[173][174] Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007.[175] A performance that puts agribusiness in a position of distinction in terms of Brazil's trade balance, in spite of trade barriers and subsidizing policies adopted by the developed countries.[176][177] The industry; from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables; accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product.[175] Industry is highly concentrated geographically, with the leading concentrations in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte. Technologically advanced industries are also highly concentrated in these locations.[178]

Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer. Its energy comes from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; and nonrenewable sources, mainly oil and natural gas.[179] A global power in agriculture and natural resources, Brazil witnessed tremendous economic growth over the past three decades.[180] Brazil is expected to become a major oil producer and exporter, having recently made huge oil discoveries.[181][182][183] The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.[184][185]

Science and technology

Main article: Brazilian science and technology
File:Lnls 300.jpg
Brazilian National Laboratory of Synchrotron Light in Campinas.

Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes. Nonetheless, more than 73% of funding for basic research still comes from government sources.[186] Some of Brazil's most notable technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE. The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant capabilities to launch vehicles, launch sites and satellite manufacturing.[187]

Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory to fuel the country's energy demands. Plans are on the way to build the country's first nuclear submarine.[188][189] Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America[190] with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Brazil
BR-116 highway in the outskirts of Fortaleza.
An aerial view of Congonhas-São Paulo Airport.

As befits such a large country Brazil has a large and diverse transport network. Roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. Brazil's road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 184,140 km (114,425 mi) in 2002.[191]

Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total extension of railway track was 30,875 km (19,186 mi) in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in 1970. Most of the railway system belongs to the Federal Railroad Corp., with a majority government interest; there are also seven lines which the government privatized in 1997.[192] The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are located in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Teresina, Fortaleza, and Salvador.

There are approximately 2,498 airports in Brazil, including landing fields. Is the second largest number in the world, after only the United States.[193] São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport located in the vicinity of São Paulo is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting the city with virtually all major cities across the world.[194]

Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul.[195]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Brazil
See also: Immigration to Brazil, Religion in Brazil, and Municipalities of Brazil

The Brazilian people is composed of several ethnic groups.[196] The last National Research for Sample of Domiciles (PNAD) census revealed the following: 49.4% of the population self-declared White, about 93 million; 42.3% self-declared Brown (Multiracial), about 80 million; 7.4% self-declared Black, about 13 million; 0.5% self-declared Asian, about 1 million; and 0.4% self-declared Amerindian, about 519,000.[197] Also, in 2007, the National Indian Foundation reported the presence of 67 different tribes yet living without contact with civilization, up from 40 in 2005. With this figure, now Brazil has the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[198]

Race/Ethnicity (2007)
White 49.4%
Brown (Multiracial) 42.3%
Black 7.4%
Yellow (Asian) 0.5%
Native Brazilian 0.4%

The country has both the largest white population in the Tropics[199] and population of African descent outside of Africa.[200] Most Brazilians can trace their ancestry to the country's indigenous peoples, Portuguese settlers, and African slaves.[199] Since 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese, miscegenation between these three groups took place. The Brown population (as it is officially called the multiracial Brazilians)[201][202] is a broader ethnic category that includes Caboclos (descendants of Whites and Indians), Mulattoes (those of Whites and Blacks) and Cafuzos (those of Blacks and Indians).[199][201][202][203][204][205] The Caboclos forms the majority of the population in the Northern,[206] Northeastern[207] and Central-Western regions.[208] A large Mulatto population can be found in the eastern coast of the northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba[205][209] and also in the northern Maranhão,[210][211] southern Minas Gerais[212] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.[205][212] Beginning in the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration: people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil. About 5 million European and Asian immigrants arrived between 1870 and 1953, most of them from Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Germany. In the early 20th century, people from Japan and the Middle-East also arrived.[196]

Christ the Redeemer, symbol of Brazilian Christianity.

In 2005, the literacy rate was 90% of the population, and the youth literacy rate (ages 15–19) was 93.2%.[213] Illiteracy is highest in the Northeast, around 27%, which has a high proportion of rural poor.[214] Although in the same year, Brazil's education had low levels of efficiency by 15-year-old students, particularly in the public school network.[215] Higher education starts with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different specialist choices such as academic or vocational paths. Depending on choice, students may improve their educational background with Stricto Sensu or Lato Sensu postgraduate courses.[216][217]

The Catholicism is dominant, making Brazil the largest Catholic nation in the world.[218] According to the 2000 Demographic Census: 73.89% of the population follow Roman Catholicism; 15.41% - Protestantism; 0.907% - other Christian denominations; 1.332% - Kardecist spiritism; 0.309% - traditional African religions; 0.126% - Buddhism; 0.051% - Judaism; 0.016% - Islam; 0.01% - Amerindian religions; 0.6% - other religions; 7.354% - Agnosticism, Atheism or without a religion.[219][220]

The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte, with 19.7, 11.4, and 5.4 million inhabitants respectively.[221] Almost all the capitals are the largest city in their corresponding state, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santos and the Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley), and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley).[222]

 
Largest urban agglomerations in Brazil
Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop.
São Paulo
São Paulo
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro 		1 São Paulo São Paulo 21,314,716 11 Belém Pará 2,157,180 Belo Horizonte
Belo Horizonte
Recife
Recife
2 Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 12,389,775 12 Manaus Amazonas 2,130,264
3 Belo Horizonte Minas Gerais 5,142,260 13 Campinas São Paulo 2,105,600
4 Recife Pernambuco 4,021,641 14 Vitória Espírito Santo 1,837,047
5 Brasília Federal District 3,986,425 15 Baixada Santista São Paulo 1,702,343
6 Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul 3,894,232 16 São José dos Campos São Paulo 1,572,943
7 Salvador Bahia 3,863,154 17 São Luís Maranhão 1,421,569
8 Fortaleza Ceará 3,594,924 18 Natal Rio Grande do Norte 1,349,743
9 Curitiba Paraná 3,387,985 19 Maceió Alagoas 1,231,965
10 Goiânia Goiás 2,347,557 20 João Pessoa Paraíba 1,168,941

Culture

Main article: Culture of Brazil

The core culture of Brazil derived from Portuguese culture, because of strong colonial ties with the Portuguese empire. Among other inheritances, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, the Catholic religion and the colonial architectural styles.[226] This culture, however, was strongly influenced by African, Indigenous cultures and traditions, and other non-Portuguese European people.[227] Some aspects of Brazilian culture are contributions of Italian, German and other European immigrants; came in large numbers and their influences are felt closer to the South and Southeast of Brazil.[196] Amerindian peoples influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.[196][228]

Coffe has been one the main beverages among Brazilians since the beginning of the 19th century.

Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region. This diversity reflects the country's mix of native and immigrants. This has created a national cooking style marked by the preservation of regional differences.[229] Examples are the Feijoada considered the country's national dish[230][231] and regional foods such as vatapá, moqueca, polenta and acarajé. Brazil has a variety of candies like brigadeiros ("brigadiers") and beijinhos ("kissies"). Nationwide beverages are the coffe and the cachaça, Brazil's native liquor, distilled from sugar cane, which is the main ingredient in the national drink, the Caipirinha.

Brazilian art has constantly developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century.)[232][233] to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and Abstractionism.

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Brazil.[229]

The Cinema has a long tradition in Brazil, reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century, and gained a new level of international acclaim in recent years.[234]

The Brazilian music encompasses various regional music styles influenced by African, European and Amerindian forms. After 500 years of history the Brazilian music developed unique and original styles like samba, Brazilian Popular Music, choro, sertanejo, brega, forró, frevo, maracatu, Bossa nova, Brazilian rock, axé and others.

The most popular sport in Brazil is Football. The Brazilian national football team is usually ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings and won the World Cup tournament five times.[235] Basketball, volleyball, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences. Though not as regularly followed or practiced as the previously mentioned sports, tennis, team handball, swimming, and gymnastics have found a growing number of enthusiasts over the last decades. Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil. Beach football,[236] futsal (official version of indoor football)[237] and footvolley emerged in the country as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians have developed Capoeira,[238] Vale tudo,[239] and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[240] In auto racing, Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One world championship nine times.[241][242][243]

Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1950 FIFA World Cup[244] and is chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup event.[245] The circuit located in São Paulo, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.[246] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963,[247] and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[247] On October 2, 2009, Brazil, was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games, which will be the first to be held in South America.[248]

Language

Main articles: Languages of Brazil, Portuguese language, and Brazilian Portuguese
Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo, the first language museum in the world.

Portuguese is the official language of Brazil.[219] It is spoken by almost all of the population and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for all business and administrative purposes, with the exception of Nheengatu, an indigenous language of South America which was granted co-official status alongside Portuguese in the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira.[249] Moreover, Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from its Spanish-speaking neighbors.[250]

Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, influenced by the Amerindian and African languages.[251] As a result, the language is somewhat different from that spoken in Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries, mainly for phonological and orthographic differences. These differences are somewhat greater than those of American and British English.[251] As of 2008, the CPLP (Community of Portuguese Language Countries) reached an agreement in the reform of Portuguese as one international language, as opposed to two diverged dialects of the same language, in which all countries with Portuguese as the official language participated. All CPLP countries were given a certain period of time to adjust to the necessary changes, between 2009 and 2014.[252]

Minority languages are spoken throughout the vast national territory. Some of these are spoken by indigenous peoples: 180 Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas. Others are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.[251] There are important communities of speakers of German (mostly the Hunsrückisch, part of the High German languages) and Italian (mostly the Talian dialect, of Venetian origin) in the south of the country, both largely influenced by the Portuguese language.[250][251]

See also

Main article: Outline of Brazil

Bibliography

References

  • Azevedo, Aroldo. O Brasil e suas regiões. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971. Template:Pt icon
  • Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. Template:En icon
  • Boxer, Charles R.. O império marítimo português 1415-1825. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. Template:Pt icon
  • Bueno, Eduardo. Brasil: uma História. 1. ed. São Paulo: Ática, 2003. Template:Pt icon
  • Calmon, Pedro. História da Civilização Brasileira. Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002. Template:Pt icon
  • Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007. Template:Pt icon
  • Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4. Ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996. Template:Pt icon
  • Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004. Template:Pt icon
  • Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopaedia Britannica do Brasil, 1987. Template:Pt icon
  • Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. Brasil e Argentina: Um ensaio de história comparada (1850-2002), 2. ed. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005. Template:Pt icon
  • Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura envergonhada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. Template:Pt icon
  • Janotti, Aldo. O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história da nacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990. Template:Pt icon
  • Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825 – 1891): Ascenção (1825 – 1870). v.1. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. Template:Pt icon
  • Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825 – 1891): Declínio (1880 – 1891). v.3. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. Template:Pt icon
  • Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. Template:Pt icon
  • Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981. Template:Pt icon
  • Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Republics; A History. New York: D. Appleton, 1942. Template:En icon
  • Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos. 2. Ed. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998. Template:Pt icon
  • Skidmore, Thomas E. Uma História do Brasil.4. ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. Template:Pt icon
  • Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. Template:Pt icon
  • Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. Template:Pt icon
  • Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil. 7ª. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988. Template:Pt icon
  • Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república, 15. ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994. Template:Pt icon

Further reading

  • Alves, Maria Helena Moreira (1985). State and Opposition in Military Brazil. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
  • Amann, Edmund (1990). The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso. World Development (pp. 1805–1819).
  • "Background Note: Brazil". US Department of State.
  • Bellos, Alex (2003). Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life. London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc.
  • Bethell, Leslie (1991). Colonial Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
  • Costa, João Cruz (1964). A History of Ideas in Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
  • Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
  • Furtado, Celso. The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  • Leal, Victor Nunes (1977). Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
  • Malathronas, John (2003). Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul. Chichester: Summersdale.
  • Martinez-Lara, Javier (1995). Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change. Macmillan.
  • Prado Júnior, Caio (1967). The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
  • Schneider, Ronald (1995). Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic Powerhouse. Boulder Westview.
  • Skidmore, Thomas E. (1974). Black Into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Wagley, Charles (1963). An Introduction to Brazil. New York, New York: Columbia University Press.
  • The World Almanac and Book of Facts: Brazil. New York, NY: World Almanac Books. 2006.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Brazil 2009 Estimate IGBE: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  2. ^ a b c "Brazil". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 2009-10-01.
  3. ^ a b http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf
  4. ^ "Desigualdade e pobreza continuaram caindo no Brasil mesmo com crise, revela Ipea — Agência Brasil - EBC". Agenciabrasil.gov.br. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
  5. ^ UNDP Human Development Report 2009. "Table H: Human development index 2007 and its components" (PDF). UNDP. Retrieved 2009-10-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c "Hora Legal Brasileira". Observatório Nacional. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
  7. ^ As on for example the natiuonal website.
  8. ^ a b c d e f "Geography of Brazil". Central Intelligence Agency. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)
  9. ^ a b "Introduction of Brazil". Central Intelligence Agency. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Brazilian Federal Constitution" (in Portuguese). Presidency of the Republic. 1988. Retrieved 2008-06-03. "Brazilian Federal Constitution". v-brazil.com. 2007. Retrieved 2008-06-03. Unofficial translate
  11. ^ "Territorial units of the municipality level" (in Portuguese). Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
  12. ^ a b "Economy of Brazil". Central Intelligence Agency. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b c Boxer, p.98
  14. ^ a b Boxer, p.100
  15. ^ Boxer, pp.100-101
  16. ^ a b Skidmore, p.27
  17. ^ Boxer, p.101
  18. ^ Boxer, p.108
  19. ^ a b c Boxer, p.102
  20. ^ Skidmore, pp. 30, 32
  21. ^ Skidmore, p.30
  22. ^ Skidmore, p.36
  23. ^ Boxer, p.110
  24. ^ Skidmore, p.34
  25. ^ Skidmore, pp.32-33
  26. ^ Bueno, pp.80-81
  27. ^ Calmon, p.294
  28. ^ Bueno, p.86
  29. ^ Boxer, p.164
  30. ^ Boxer, p.168 and p.170
  31. ^ Boxer, p.169
  32. ^ Boxer, p.207
  33. ^ a b Boxer, p.213
  34. ^ Bueno, p.145
  35. ^ Calmon (2002), p.191
  36. ^ Lustosa, pp.109-110
  37. ^ Lustosa, pp.117-119
  38. ^ Lustosa, pp.150-153
  39. ^ Vianna, p.418
  40. ^ Hendrik Kraay apud Lorenzo Aldé, Revista de História da Biblioteca Nacional, issue 50, year 5 (Rio de Janeiro: SABIN, 2009), p.20
  41. ^ Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, O Brasil Monárquico: o processo de emancipação, 4th ed. (São Paulo: Difusão Européia do Livro, 1976), p.403
  42. ^ Diégues 2004, pp. 168, 164, 178
  43. ^ Diégues 2004, pp. 179–180
  44. ^ Lustosa, p.208
  45. ^ Carvalho (2007), p.9
  46. ^ Vianna, p.140
  47. ^ José Murilo de Carvalho, A Monarquia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Ao Livro Técnico, 1993), p.23
  48. ^ Calmon (2002), p.189
  49. ^ Vainfas, p.170
  50. ^ Lyra (v.1), p.17
  51. ^ Carvalho 2007, p.21
  52. ^ Miriam Dohlnikoff, Pacto imperial: origens do federalismo no Brasil do século XIX (São Paulo: Globo, 2005), p.206
  53. ^ Carvalho (2007), p.43
  54. ^ Souza, p.326
  55. ^ Janotti, pp.171-172
  56. ^ Munro, p.273
  57. ^ Lyra (v.1), pp. 164, 225, 272
  58. ^ Carvalho (2007), pp. 9, 222
  59. ^ Lyra (v.1), p.166
  60. ^ Lyra (v.3), p.62
  61. ^ Vainfas, p.18
  62. ^ a b Munro, p.280
  63. ^ George Ermakoff, Rio de Janeiro - 1840-1900 - Uma crônica fotográfica (Rio de Janeiro: G. Ermakoff Casa Editorial, 2006), p.189
  64. ^ Schwarcz, p.444
  65. ^ Vainfas, p.201
  66. ^ Barman (1999), p.399
  67. ^ Barman (1999), p.130
  68. ^ Lyra (v.3), p.126
  69. ^ Barman (1999), p.361
  70. ^ Ricardo Salles, Nostalgia Imperial (Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks, 1996), p.194 - However, the monarchist reaction after the fall of the empire and the subsequent exile of the Imperial Family "was not small and even less was its repression".
  71. ^ Lyra (v.3), p.99
  72. ^ Schwarcz, pp. 450, 457
  73. ^ a b Barman (1999), p.403
  74. ^ Barman (1999), p.404
  75. ^ Skidmore, p.153
  76. ^ Bueno, pp.296-301
  77. ^ Skidmore, p.154
  78. ^ Skidmore, pp.155-156
  79. ^ Bueno, pp.328 and 331
  80. ^ Fausto (2005), p.249
  81. ^ Fausto (2005), p.267
  82. ^ Skidmore, p.162
  83. ^ Bueno, p.336
  84. ^ Skidmore, p.164
  85. ^ Fausto (2005), p.272
  86. ^ Dietrich, Ana Maria in História Viva magazine, issue 67, year VI, 2009, p.61
  87. ^ Bueno, pp.343-344
  88. ^ Skidmore, p.173
  89. ^ Fausto (2005), p.281
  90. ^ Skidmore, pp.182-183
  91. ^ Bueno, pp.346-347
  92. ^ Skidmore, pp.188-194
  93. ^ Skidmore, p.201
  94. ^ Skidmore, pp.202-203
  95. ^ Skidmore, p.204
  96. ^ Skidmore, pp.204-205
  97. ^ Skidmore, pp.209-210
  98. ^ Skidmore, p.210
  99. ^ Fausto (2005), p.397
  100. ^ Gaspari (A Ditadura Envergonhada), pp.141-142
  101. ^ a b Gaspari (A Ditadura Envergonhada), p.35
  102. ^ Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura escancarada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002, p.193 - Who did not struggle over the return of democracy, but instead over the implantation of a communist dictatorship).
  103. ^ Skidmore, p.239
  104. ^ Fausto (2005), p.422
  105. ^ Bueno, p.379
  106. ^ Fausto (2005), p.455
  107. ^ Gaspari (A Ditadura Envergonhada), pp.34-35
  108. ^ Gaspari (A Ditadura Envergonhada), pp.35-36
  109. ^ Bueno, p.382
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