Voiced uvular trill
Voiced uvular trill
| Voiced uvular trill | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ʀ | |||
| IPA Number | 123 | ||
| Encoding | |||
| Entity (decimal) | ʀ | ||
| Unicode (hex) | U+0280 | ||
| X-SAMPA | R\ | ||
| Braille |   | ||
| |||
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The uvular trill is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʀ⟩, a small capital letter R. This consonant is one of several collectively called guttural R.
Features
Features of the uvular trill:
- Its manner of articulation is trill, which means it is produced by directing air over an articulator so that it vibrates.
- Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) at the uvula.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
not usual
only in some educated speech
usual in educated speech
general
There are two main theories regarding the origination of the uvular trill in European languages. According to one theory, the uvular trill originated in Standard French around the seventeenth century, spreading to standard varieties of German, Danish, Portuguese, as well as in parts of Dutch, Norwegian, and Swedish; it is also present in other areas of Europe, but it is not clear if such pronunciations are due to French influence.[2] In most cases, varieties have shifted this to a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] or a voiced uvular approximant [ʁ̞].
The other main theory posits that the uvular R originated within Germanic languages through a process where the alveolar R was weakened and then replaced by an imitation of the alveolar R (vocalisation).[3] As counterevidence against the "French origin" theory, it is stipulated that there are many signs that the uvular R existed in certain German dialects long before the 17th century. [citation needed]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afrikaans | Parts of the former Cape Province[4] | [rooi] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀoːi̯] | 'red' | May be a fricative [ʁ] instead.[4] See Afrikaans phonology |
| Catalan | Some northern dialects[5] | [[[Catalan orthography|córrer]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [koˈʀe] | 'to run' | See Catalan phonology |
| Dutch[6][7][8][9] | Belgian Limburg[10][11] | [rood] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | 'red' | More commonly a tap.[12] Uvular pronunciations appear to be gaining ground in the Randstad.[13] Realization of /r/ varies considerably among dialects. See Dutch phonology | |
| Central Netherlands[14] | |||||
| Randstad[14] | |||||
| Southern Netherlands[14] | |||||
| Flemish Brabant[11] | More commonly a tap.[12] It is one of the least common realizations of /r/ in these areas.[15] See Dutch phonology | ||||
| Northern Netherlands[14] | |||||
| West Flanders[11] | |||||
| English | Cape Flats dialect[16] | [[[English orthography|red]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀɛd] | 'red' | Possible realization of /r/; may be [ɹ ~ ɹ̝ ~ ɾ ~ r] instead.[16] |
| Northumbrian dialect[17] | More often a fricative.[17] Dialectal "Northumbrian Burr", mostly found in eastern Northumberland, declining. See English phonology | ||||
| Sierra Leonean[17] | More often a fricative.[17] | ||||
| French[18] | [[[French orthography|rendez-vous]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | 'appointment' | Dialectal. More commonly an approximant or a fricative [ʁ]. See French phonology | ||
| German | Standard[19] | [[[German orthography|rot]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | 'red' | In free variation with a voiced uvular fricative and approximant. See German phonology | |
| Hebrew | ירוק | [jaˈʀok] | 'green' | May also be a fricative or approximant. See Modern Hebrew phonology | |
| Italian[20] | Northern dialects[21] | [[[Italian orthography|raro]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈʀäːʀo] | 'rare' | Some speakers, especially in Parma. May also be a fricative [ʁ] or a labiodental approximant [ʋ].[21] |
| Judaeo-Spanish | [mujer] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [muˈʒɛʀ] | 'woman', 'wife' | ||
| Luxembourgish | Older speakers[22] | [Mauer] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈmɑ̝ʊ̯əʀ] | 'wall' | Realized as [ə ~ ɐ] by younger speakers.[22] See Luxembourgish phonology |
| Standard[23] | [Rou] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀəu̯] | 'silence' | Pre-vocalic allophone of /ʀ/; less often realized as a fricative [ʁ].[22] See Luxembourgish phonology | |
| Occitan | Eastern | [garric] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ɡaʀi] | 'oak' | Contrasts with alveolar trill ([ɡari] 'cured') |
| Provençal | [parts] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [paʀ] | 'parts' | See Occitan phonology | |
| Southern Auvergnat | [garçon] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ɡaʀˈsu] | 'son' | ||
| Southeastern Limousin | [filh] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [fʲiʀ] | |||
| Portuguese | European[24] | [[[Portuguese orthography|rarear]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀəɾiˈaɾ] | 'to get scarcer' | Alternates with other uvular forms and the older alveolar trill. See Portuguese phonology |
| Fluminense[25] | [[[Portuguese orthography|mercado]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [me̞ʀˈkaðu] | 'market', 'fair' | Tendency to be replaced by fricative pronunciations. In coda position, it is generally in free variation with [x], [χ], [ʁ], [ħ] and [h] before non-voicing environments | |
| Sulista[25] | [[[Portuguese orthography|repolho]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀe̞ˈpoʎ̟ʊ] | 'cabbage' | ||
| Romani | Some dialects | [[[Romani orthography|rom]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀom] | 'man' | Allophone of a descendant of the Indic retroflex set, so often transcribed /ɽ/. A coronal flap, approximant or trill in other dialects; in some it merges with /r/ |
| Selkup | Northern dialects | [ˈqaʀlɪ̈] | 'sledge' | Allophone of /q/ before liquids | |
| Sioux | Lakota[26][27] | ǧí | [ʀí] | 'it's brown' | Allophone of /ʁ/ before /i/ |
| Sotho | Regional variant | [moriri] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [moʀiʀi] | 'hair' | Imported from French missionaries. See Sesotho phonology |
| Swedish | Southern[28] | [[[Swedish orthography|räv]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀɛːv] | 'fox' | See Swedish phonology |
| Yiddish | Standard[29] | בריק | [bʀɪk] | 'bridge' | More commonly a flap [ʀ̆]; can be alveolar [ɾ ~ r] instead.[29] See Yiddish phonology |
Voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill
| Voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill | |
|---|---|
| ʀ̝ | |
| IPA Number | 123 429 |
| Encoding | |
| X-SAMPA | R\_r |
Features
Features of the voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill:
- Its manner of articulation is fricative trill, which means it is a non-sibilant fricative and a trill pronounced simultaneously.
- Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) at the uvula.
- Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
- It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
- It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
- Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.
Occurrence
It is phonemic in the Maastrichtian and Weert dialects of Limburgish, though in neither of these does it contrast with a plain uvular trill.[30][31]
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Danish[32] | [[[Danish alphabet|rød]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ʀ̝ɶð̞] | 'red' | Word-initial allophone of /ʁ/, used only sometimes when emphasising a word.[32] Otherwise a continuant, described variously as uvular [ʁ] and pharyngeal [ʕ]. See Danish phonology | |
| Dutch | Belgian[33] | [sturen] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈstÿːʀ̝ə(n)] | 'to send' | Only when following a vowel, otherwise it is voiceless.[34] Realization of /r/ varies considerably among dialects. See Dutch phonology |
| Limburgish | Maastrichtian[30] | [drei] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [dʀ̝ɛi̯] | 'three' | Either uvular [ʀ̝] or pre-uvular [ʀ̝˖].[30][31] |
| Weert dialect[31] | [drej] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [dʀ̝æj] | |||
| Portuguese | Lisbon[32] | [[[Portuguese orthography|ritmo]]] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈʀ̝it̪mu] | 'rhythm' | Common realization of word-initial /ʀ/.[32] See Portuguese phonology |
| West Flemish | Bruges dialect[35] | [onder] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) | [ˈuŋəʀ̝] | 'under' | A trill with little friction. An alveolar [r] is used in the neighbouring rural area.[35] |
See also
References
- ^ Map based on Trudgill (1974:220) and (for Italy) Canepari (1999:486)
- ^ Trudgill (1974:221), citing Moulton (1952), Ewert (1963), and Martinet (1969)
- ^ Bisiada (2009).
- ^ a b Donaldson (1993), p. 15.
- ^ Wheeler (2005), pp. 24.
- ^ Booij (1999), p. 8.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 42, 54, 77, 165, 199–200.
- ^ Goeman & van de Velde (2001), pp. 91–92, 94–97, 99–104.
- ^ Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), pp. 45–46, 51, 53–55, 58.
- ^ Verhoeven (2005), pp. 243 and 245.
- ^ a b c Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), p. 52.
- ^ a b Collins & Mees (2003), p. 42.
- ^ Collins & Mees (2003), p. 209.
- ^ a b c d Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), p. 54.
- ^ Verstraten & van de Velde (2001), pp. 52 and 54.
- ^ a b Finn (2004), p. 976.
- ^ a b c d Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 236.
- ^ Grevisse & Goosse (2008), pp. 22–36.
- ^ Hall (1993), p. 89.
- ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 225.
- ^ a b Canepari (1999), pp. 98–101.
- ^ a b c Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 68.
- ^ Gilles & Trouvain (2013), pp. 67–68.
- ^ Mateus & d'Andrade (2000), p. 11.
- ^ a b Acoustic analysis of vibrants in Brazilian Portuguese Template:Pt icon
- ^ Rood & Taylor (1996).
- ^ Lakota Language Consortium (2004). Lakota letters and sounds.
- ^ Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:225–226)
- ^ a b Kleine (2003:263)
- ^ a b c Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), p. 156.
- ^ a b c Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 108.
- ^ a b c d Grønnum (2005), p. 157.
- ^ Tops (2009), pp. 25, 30–32, 63, 80–88, 97–100, 105, 118, 124–127, 134–135, 137-138 and 140-141.
- ^ Tops (2009), p. 83.
- ^ a b Hinskens & Taeldeman (2013), p. 167.
Bibliography
- Bisiada, Mario (2009), "[R] in Germanic Dialects — Tradition or Innovation?", Vernacular, 1: 84–99
- Booij, Geert (1999), The phonology of Dutch, Oxford University Press
- Canepari, Luciano (1999) [1992], Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana (in Italian) (2 ed.), Bologna: Zanichelli, ISBN 88-08-24624-8
{{citation}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help) - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003), The Phonetics of English and Dutch, Fifth Revised Edition (PDF), ISBN 9004103406
- Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261
- Ewert, A. (1963), The French Language, London: Faber
- Finn, Peter (2004), "Cape Flats English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 934–984, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
- Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
- Goeman, Ton; van de Velde, Hans (2001), "Co-occurrence constraints on /r/ and /ɣ/ in Dutch dialects", in van de Velde, Hans; van Hout, Roeland (eds.), 'r-atics, Brussels: Etudes & Travaux, pp. 91–112, ISSN 0777-3692
- Grevisse, Maurice; Goosse, André (2008), Le Bon Usage (14th ed.), De Boeck et Larcier
- Grønnum, Nina (2005), Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.), Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, ISBN 87-500-3865-6
- Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29, University of Nijmegen, Centre for Language Studies: 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526
- Hall, Tracy Alan (1993), "The phonology of German /ʀ/", Phonology, 10 (1): 83–105, doi:10.1017/S0952675700001743, JSTOR 4615428
- Heijmans, Linda; Gussenhoven, Carlos (1998), "The Dutch dialect of Weert" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28: 107–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006307
- Hinskens, Frans; Taeldeman, Johan, eds. (2013), Dutch, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018005-3
- Kleine, Ane (2003), "Standard Yiddish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 261–265, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001385
- Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
- Martinet, A. (1969), Le Français sans fard, Paris: Presses Universitaires
- Mateus, Maria Helena; d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000), The Phonology of Portuguese, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-823581-X
- Moulton, W.G. (1952), "Jacob Böhme's uvular r", Journal of English and Germanic philology, 51: 83–89
- Rood, David S.; Taylor, Allan R. (1996), "Sketch of Lakhota, a Siouan Language, Part I", Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 17, Smithsonian Institution, pp. 440–482
- Tops, Evie (2009), Variatie en verandering van de /r/[[Category:Pages with plain IPA]] in Vlaanderen, Brussels: VUBPress, ISBN 9789054874713
{{citation}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help) - Trudgill, Peter (1974), "Linguistic change and diffusion: Description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect", Language in Society, 3 (2): 215–246, doi:10.1017/S0047404500004358
- Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173
- Verstraten, Bart; van de Velde, Hans (2001), "Socio-geographical variation of /r/ in standard Dutch", in van de Velde, Hans; van Hout, Roeland (eds.), 'r-atics, Brussels: Etudes & Travaux, pp. 45–61, ISSN 0777-3692
- Wheeler, Max W. (2005), The Phonology Of Catalan, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-925814-7
