Psilocybin mushroom

"Magic Mushroom" redirects here. For other uses, see Magic Mushroom (disambiguation).

"Psychedelic mushroom" redirects here. Not to be confused with Psychoactive mushroom.

Psilocybe cubensis

Psilocybin mushrooms are fungi that contain the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and psilocin. There are multiple colloquial terms for psilocybin mushrooms, the most common being shrooms and magic mushrooms. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Agrocybe, Conocybe, Copelandia, Galerina, Gerronema, Gymnopilus, Hypholoma, Inocybe, Mycena, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Psilocybe. There are approximately 190 species of psilocybin mushrooms and most of them fall in the genus Psilocybe.

History

Early

World-wide distribution of Psilocybe cubensis

There is some archaeological evidence for the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms in ancient times. Several mesolithic rock paintings from Tassili n'Ajjer (a prehistoric North African site identified with the Capsian culture) have been identified by author Giorgio Samorini as possibly depicting the shamanic use of mushrooms, possibly Psilocybe. Hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times up to the present day. Mushroom-shaped statuettes found at archaeological sites seem to indicate that ritual use of hallucinogenic mushrooms is quite ancient. Mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Mayan temple ruins in Guatemala, though there is considerable controversy as to whether these objects indicate the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms or whether they had some other significance with the mushroom shape being simply a coincidence. More concretely, a statuette dating from ca. 200 AD and depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in a west Mexican shaft and chamber tomb in the state of Colima. Hallucinogenic Psilocybe were known to the Aztecs as teonanácatl (literally "divine mushroom" - agglutinative form of teó (god, sacred) and nanácatl (mushroom) in Náhuatl) and were reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, when translated into English. Bernardino de Sahagún reported ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs, when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the "pagan idolatry," and as a result the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms like other pre-Christian traditions was quickly suppressed. The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with "devils". In converting people to Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from teonanácatl to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this history, in some remote areas, the use of teonanácatl has remained.

The first mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the Western medicinal literature appeared in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: a man had served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms that he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The doctor who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him."

Modern

Psilocybe subaeruginascens

In 1955, Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson became the first Westerners to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life in 1957. In 1956 Roger Heim identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe, and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocin and psilocybin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience hallucinogenic mushrooms firsthand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin and other hallucinogenic drugs. After Leary and Alpert were dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.

The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Leary, authors Terence McKenna and Robert Anton Wilson, and others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic Psilocybe throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a number of psychoactive Psilocybe species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating Psilocybe cubensis in large quantities were also published. The availability of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the hallucinogenic drugs.

At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina.

Effects

Psilocybin

The effects of Psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. They do create short-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it difficult to abuse them because the more often they are taken within a short period of time, the weaker the resultant effects are. Poisonous (sometimes lethal) wild picked mushrooms can be easily mistaken for psilocybin mushrooms. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down to produce psilocin, which is responsible for the hallucinogenic effects.

As with many psychedelic substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. The mind-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last anywhere from 3 to 8 hours depending on dosage, preparation method, and personal metabolism. However, the effects can seem to last much longer because of psilocybin's ability to alter time perception.

Despite risks, mushrooms may do much less damage in the UK than other recreational drugs - whereas alcohol was considered to be the most damaging (although magic mushrooms are also much less readily available).

Some users suffer from hallucinogen persisting perception disorder although how many, and why, is unknown. Perceptual disturbances causing discomfort are rarely reported after using psylocybin, but they may be more likely if the drug is mixed with cannabis. There have been reports of such disturbances lasting 5 years or more. Magic mushrooms have also been controversially associated with long term effects such as panic attacks, depression and paranoid delusions. On the other hand, magic mushrooms were rated as causing some of the least damage in the UK compared to other recreational drugs by experts in a study by the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs. Other researchers have said that the main chemical component (psilocybin) is "remarkably non-toxic to the body's organ systems", explaining that the risks are indirect: higher dosages are more likely to cause fear and may result in dangerous behavior.

One study found that the most desirable results may come from starting with very low doses first, and trying slightly higher doses over months. The researchers explain that the peak experiences occur at quantities that are only slightly lower than a sort of anxiety threshold. Although risks of experiencing fear and anxiety increased somewhat consistently along with dosage and overall quality of experience, at dosages exceeding the individual's threshold, there was suddenly greater increases in anxiety than before. In other words, after finding the optimum dose, there are diminishing returns for using more (since risks of anxiety now increase at a greater rate).

Sensory

Noticeable changes to the audio, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around thirty minutes to an hour after ingestion. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual acuity, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colours; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds seem to be heard with increased clarity; music, for example, can often take on a profound sense of cadence and depth. Some users experience synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.

Emotional

Psilocin

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or "trip," is strongly dependent upon set and setting. A negative environment could likely induce a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would allow for a pleasant experience. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends, people they are familiar with, or people who are also 'tripping'.

Spiritual and well being

In 2006, the United States government funded a randomized and double-blinded study by Johns Hopkins University which studied the spiritual effects of psilocybin in particular. That is, they did not use mushrooms specifically (in fact, each individual mushroom piece can vary widely in psilocybin and psilocin content). The study involved 36 college-educated adults (average age of 46) who had never tried psilocybin nor had a history of drug use, and who had religious or spiritual interests. The participants were closely observed for eight-hour intervals in a laboratory while under the influence of psilocybin.

One-third of the participants reported that the experience was the single most spiritually significant moment of their lives and more than two-thirds reported it was among the top five most spiritually significant experiences. Two months after the study, 79% of the participants reported increased well-being or satisfaction; friends, relatives, and associates confirmed this. They also reported anxiety and depression symptoms to be decreased or completely gone.

Despite highly controlled conditions to minimize adverse effects, 22% of subjects (8 of 36) had notable experiences of fear, some with paranoia. The authors, however, reported that all these instances were "readily managed with reassurance."

See psilocybin for more details

As medicine

For more health related information on the main psycho-active ingredient, see psilocybin.

Psilocybe villarrealiae, which is only known to a small area of Mexico

There have been calls for medical investigation of the use of synthetic and mushroom-derived psilocybin for the development of improved treatments of various mental conditions, including chronic cluster headaches, following numerous anecdotal reports of benefits. There are also several accounts of psilocybin mushrooms sending both obsessive-compulsive disorders ("OCD") and OCD-related clinical depression (both being widespread and debilitating mental health conditions) into complete remission immediately and for up to months at a time, compared to current medications which often have both limited efficacy and frequent undesirable side-effects.

Dosage

Dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the potency of the mushroom (the total psilocybin and psilocin content of the mushrooms), which varies significantly both between species and within the same species, but is typically around 0.5-2% of the dried weight of the mushroom. A typical dose of the rather common species, Psilocybe cubensis, is approximately 1 to 2.5 grams, while about 2.5 to 5 grams dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose. Above 5 dried grams is often considered a heavy dose.

Alkaloid Concentration of Dried Psilocybin Mushrooms

Name	Psilocybin [%]	Psilocin [%]	Baeocystin [%]	Total [%]
Conocybe cyanopus	0.930–0.450	0.70-0.00	0.030-0.100	1.03–0.55
Conocybe smithii	n/a	n/a	0.40–0.80	0.40–0.80+
File:Gymnopilus.australian.02.jpgGymnopilus purpuratus	0.34%	0.29%	0.05%	0.68%
Gymnopilus validipes	0.12%	–	–	0.12%+
Panaeolus cinctulus	0.150%–0.600	0.00%	0.001%–0.005	0.151%–0.605
Psilocybe azurescens	1.78	0.38	0.35	2.51
Psilocybe baeocystis	0.85	0.59	0.10	1.54
Psilocybe Serbica	0.93–1.34%	0.11–0.28	0.02%	1.06–1.47%
Psilocybe cubensis	0.63%	0.25–0.60%	0.02–0.025%	0.90–1.26%
Psilocybe cyanescens	0.85	0.36	0.03	1.24
Psilocybe cyanofibrillosa	0.21	0.04	n/a	0.25+
Psilocybe hoogshagenii	0.60	0.10	n/a	0.70+
Psilocybe liniformans	0.16	n/a	0.005	0.17+
Psilocybe semilanceata	0.98%	0.02%	0.36%	1.36%
Psilocybe stuntzii	0.36	0.12	0.02	0.5
Psilocybe tampanensis	0.68	0.32	n/a	1.00+
File:Psilocybe weilii 4.jpgPsilocybe weilii	0.61	0.27	0.05	0.93

The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies not only from species to species, but also from mushroom to mushroom inside a given species, subspecies or variety. The same holds true even for different parts of the same mushroom. In the species Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, the dried cap of the mushroom contains the most psilocybin at about 0.23%–0.90%. The mycelia contain about 0.24%–0.32%.

Legality

Main article: Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybe cyanofriscosa

Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Schedule I drugs are deemed to have a high potential for abuse and are not recognized for medical use. However, psilocybin mushrooms are not covered by UN drug treaties.

From a letter, dated Sept 13, 2001, from Herbert Schaepe, Secretary of the UN International Narcotics Control Board, to the Dutch Ministry of Health:

As you are aware, mushrooms containing the above substances are collected and used for their hallucinogenic effects. As a matter of international law, no plants (natural material) containing psilocine and psilocybin are at present controlled under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. Consequently, preparations made of these plants are not under international control and, therefore, not subject of the articles of the 1971 Convention. It should be noted, however, that criminal cases are decided with reference to domestic law, which may otherwise provide for controls over mushrooms containing psilocine and psilocybin. As the Board can only speak as to the contours of the international drug conventions, I am unable to provide an opinion on the litigation in question.

Psilocybin mushrooms are regulated or prohibited in many countries, often carrying severe legal penalties (for example, the U.S. Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and Drugs Act 2005, and the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act).

Magic mushrooms in their fresh form still remain legal in some countries including Spain, Austria, and Canada. On November 29, 2008, The Netherlands announced it would ban the cultivation and use of psilocybin-containing fungi beginning December 1, 2008. The UK ban on fresh mushrooms (dried ones were illegal as they were considered a psilocybin-containing preparation) introduced in 2005 came under much criticism, but was rushed through at the end of the 2001-2005 Parliament; until then magic mushrooms had been sold in the UK.

New Mexico appeals court ruled on June 14, 2005, that growing psilocybin mushrooms for personal consumption could not be considered "manufacturing a controlled substance" under state law. However it still remains illegal under federal law.

By country

Brazil

In Brazil, where at least Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens psychedelic mushrooms grow naturally, only psilocybin is listed, but not the fungal species themselves. The Federal Constitution says that an act must be previously stated as illegal by a law. So, psilocybian mushrooms cannot be considered illegal themselves. There are also no legal jurisprudences available on the topic. Ayahuasca religious usage is authorized, so sacramental mushroom use is expected to fall under the same protection. Also, any drug possession for personal use is punished just with alternative penances, such as public non paid service for a maximum of 10 months, if reincident.

British Virgin Islands

In the British Virgin Islands, where the mushrooms grow naturally, it is legal to possess and consume psilocybin mushrooms; however, their sale is illegal.

Bulgaria

In Bulgaria, possession and consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms was legal and psilocybin in its pure form was considered a "Class 1" drug until recently, but it is now illegal to possess Psilocybin Mushrooms as well.

Belgium

In Belgium, cultivation of mushrooms have been prohibited since the enactment of the Criminal Law of 24 February 1921. Possession and sale of mushrooms have been prohibited since the Royal Decree of 22 January 1998.

Canada

Mushroom spore kits and grow kits are legal and are sold openly in stores or on the internet as the spores and kits themselves are legal. Psilocybin and psilocin are illegal to possess, obtain or produce without a prescription or license as they are schedule III under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Psilocybin and Psilocin are illegal to import or export because it's illegal to transport foreign fruits and vegetables across the border except by a licensed importer or exporter.

Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic, possession and consumption of psilocybin mushrooms is legal but it is illegal to sell them.

Cyprus

Although magic mushrooms are very rare In Cyprus possession and consumption is illegal.A guy who was caught ordering psilocybin mushrooms from the internet was fined 1500 Euros but was not put to jail.

Denmark

The sale, possession, and consumption of psilocybin have long been illegal; however the sale, possession, and consumption of psilocybin mushrooms was legal until 1 July 2001, when the Danish Ministry of Health prohibited them.

Finland

As of 1 September 2008, the new 1st section of the 50th chapter of the penal code specially prohibits (attempt of) growing Psilocybe mushroom. However, they have already been illegal to possess, grow, sell or use at least since 1 January 1994 based on the chemicals they contain (psilocybin & psilocin) per UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances and especially huumausaineasetus of 1994.

Germany

The sale, possession, and cultivation of psilocybin have been illegal since Executive Order 698 of 1993 The following amendment was added in 2001: "Plants,Parts of plants as well as animals and parts of animals that contain psilocin or psilocibin in processed or unprocessed state as well as fruits, mycelia, seeds, spores and cell cultures that can be used to grow psilocin or psilocibin producing organisms are illegal if a use as drug is intended." Use as a drug is assumed as soon as the organism contains psilocybin. Use as a drug can be suspected (resulting in a house search) when spores or mycelia are found.

Greece

Cultivation is prohibited. For sale and possession, hallucinogenic mushrooms may be treated as psylocin.

Ireland

Until 31 January 2006, unprepared psilocybin mushrooms were legal in Republic of Ireland. On that date they were made illegal by a ministerial order. This decision was partly based on the death of Dubliner Colm Hodkinson, age 33, who fell to his death on 30 October 2005, after suffering a psychotic reaction some 15 minutes after consuming 3 legally purchased psilocybin mushrooms. His inquest showed that there were traces of alcohol which were under the national driving limit in his system, suggesting it was the psilocybin that caused the psychotic reaction.

Japan

Prior to 2002, psilocybin mushrooms were widely available in Japan and were often sold in mail-order shops, online vendors and in head shops throughout Japan; according to Hideo Eno of Japan's Health Ministry narcotics division, prior to 2002, "You can find them [psilocybin mushrooms] anywhere." In June 2002, Japan Health, Labor and Welfare Ministry added psilocybin mushrooms to Schedule Narcotics of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drug Control Law, possibly in preparation for the World Cup, and in response to a widely reported case of mushroom poisoning. On this subject, it should be noted that the psychedelic drugs are not physically toxic, and in the case of overdose it is impossible to die of the pharmacological effects of the drug alone. Use, production, trafficking, growing or possession of psilocybin mushrooms is now illegal in Japan.

Mexico

Psilocin and psilocybin are prohibited under the Ley General de Salud of 1984, which also specifically mentions psilocybin-containing fungi as being covered by the law, and mentions Psilocybe mexicana and Psilocybe cubensis in particular. However, these laws are rarely, if ever, enforced against indigenous users of psychoactive fungi. The Mexican government has also specifically taken the position that wild occurrence of Psilocybe does not constitute drug production.

The Netherlands

See also: Drug policy of the Netherlands

Since December 2008 possession of both dry and fresh psychoactive mushrooms has been forbidden by law. The Openbaar Ministerie – the Dutch prosecutor’s office – stated that prosecution shall be started on possession of 0.5g dried or 5g fresh psychoactive mushrooms. Possession of these minor amounts is allowed and won’t lead to a criminal charge. Before December 2008, unprocessed psychoactive mushrooms were legal to possess, they were not covered under the opium law, therefore making them legal to possess, consume and sell, and could be obtained in "smart shops" which specialize in ethnobotanicals.

Psychoactive mushrooms, whether dried or fresh were legal until 2001, when the Hoge Raad der Nederlanden – the supreme court of the Netherlands – ruled dry mushrooms to be an illegal preparation of psilocybin and psilocin. The limitation to fresh mushrooms (which go bad quite fast) is severely reducing the export of psychoactive mushrooms. In a series of court cases during 2003–2005 this was challenged by a Dutch mushroom wholesaler. The vice president of the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) of the UN testified to the court that the UN does not see dried or prepared psilocybin mushrooms as a controlled substance. Explanation: Psilocybin mushrooms are not listed as controlled substances, therefore preparations are also not controlled. Preparations of the controlled substances psilocybin and psilocin (i.e. tablets, etc.) are controlled. Various mushroom experts have testified that there is no way to see the difference between passively and actively dried mushrooms. The court decided to agree to other viewpoints of “De Sjamaan” in order not to touch the subject of the UN's stance. The court also decided not to publish the testimony of the vice president of the INCB. The Hoge Raad ruled that:

• There is no definition in regards to water content, which differentiates between a dry mushroom and a fresh mushroom.
• Passively dried mushrooms (natural desiccation) are legal.
• A police officer is not skilled to differentiate between a fresh and dry mushroom.

In October 2007 the Dutch government announced plans to ban the sale of all magic mushrooms, as a result of several incidents involving tourists. One of the incidents being Gaelle Caroff, a French tourist, jumping from a building onto a road fatally wounding herself. On 25 April 2008, the Dutch government, backed by a majority of members of parliament, decided to introduce a bill to parliament banning the cultivation and use of hallucinogenic or "magic mushrooms", including the sale of dried mushrooms except fresh ones. The Dutch VLOS organization answered this decision with a preliminary injunction, but on 28 November it was published that they lost this. A few species of psylocibin and psylocin-containing sclerotia were not listed in the 2008 law, thus psilocybin-containing fungal compounds are currently still available commercially in the Netherlands. These products, however, are generally found to be weaker, and more difficult to consume due to bad taste, than the previously available mushroom products.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, psilocybin mushrooms are class A drugs, putting them in the highest class of illicit compounds along with heroin and LSD. They do not have to be prepared in any way for possession to be illegal. The penalties are: Possession – 6 months jail; Supply or Manufacture – Life imprisonment.

Turkey

In Turkey magic mushrooms are treated as psilocybin which is illegal.The sale,growth and possesion can lead to prosecution.

United Kingdom

As of 18 July 2005, both fresh and "prepared" (that is, dried, cooked or made into a tea) psilocybin mushrooms were made illegal in the United Kingdom. Prior to this date, fresh mushrooms were widely available (even in city centre shops), but section 21 of the Drugs Act 2005 made fresh psychedelic mushrooms ("fungi containing psilocybin"), a Class A drug. Prior to these laws being passed, possession and use of psilocybin and psilocin was prohibited, but courts had ruled the law did not apply to naturally-occurring substances containing these compounds, and for a brief period Psilocybe cubensis and other psilocybin mushrooms were sold in farmers markets. Mushrooms spores are not illegal, due to the fact they do not carry psilocybin until they are cultivated.

United States

In the United States, possession of psilocybin-containing mushrooms is illegal because they contain the Schedule I drugs psilocin and psilocybin. Spores, however, which do not contain psychoactive chemicals, are only explicitly illegal in Georgia, Idaho and California. Additionally; spores are illegal to import, buy, sell, trade, or give away in California if intended to be cultivated. In the rest of the country, it's not illegal to just sell the spores, but selling them with the purpose of producing hallucinogenic mushrooms is illegal.

The Florida Supreme Court in 1978 ruled that possession of wild psilocybin mushrooms is not illegal; however, whether knowingly gathering wild psilocybin mushrooms for later use is illegal was not addressed in the decision.

In all states, except New Mexico, growing psilocybin-containing mushrooms from spores is considered manufacture of a controlled substance. In New Mexico, on 15 June 2005, the New Mexico appeals court ruled that growing psilocybin mushrooms for personal use is not manufacture of a controlled substance.

See also

2

References

• Allen, John W. (1997). Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Raver Books and John W. Allen. ISBN 1-58214-026-X.
• Letcher, Andy (2006). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. London: Faber and Faber Limited. ISBN 0-060-82828-5.
• Nicholas, L. G (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Quick American Archives. ISBN 0-932551-71-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Stamets, Paul (1993). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-175-4.
• Stamets, Paul (1983). Mushroom Cultivator, The. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Stamets, Paul (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0.
• Kuhn, Cynthia (1998 & 2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc. ISBN 0-393-32493-1. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
• R. Gordon Wasson, The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica
• Alvaro Estrada, Maria Sabina: Her Life and Chants
• Terence McKenna, Food of the Gods
• Ole Högberg, Flugsvampen och människan. Section concerning the berserker myth is published online [1] In Swedish and PDF format ISBN 91-7203-555-2

External links

• The Vaults of Erowid - Psilocybin Mushrooms
• International Legal Status of Psilocybin Mushrooms Ananda Schouten, Erowid, 2004
• Hallucinogenic mushrooms EMCDDA, Lisbon, June 2006
• Hallucinogenic mushrooms: the challenge of responding to naturally occurring substances in an electronic age EMCDDA, Drugs in Focus 15