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This article is about the country. For other uses, see Brazil (disambiguation).
Federative Republic of Brazil
[República Federativa do Brasil] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) Template:Pt icon
Motto: "Ordem e Progresso"
Template:Pt icon
"Order and Progress"
Anthem: Hino Nacional Brasileiro
Template:Pt icon
"Brazilian National Anthem"
National seal
Selo Nacional do Brasil
Template:Pt icon
"National Seal of Brazil"
Location of Brazil
CapitalBrasília
Largest citySão Paulo
Official languagesPortuguese
Demonym(s)Brazilian
GovernmentPresidential Federal republic
• President
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (Worker's Party)
José Alencar (Brazilian Republican Party)
Michel Temer (Brazilian Democratic Movement Party)
José Sarney (Brazilian Democratic Movement Party)
Gilmar Mendes
LegislatureNational Congress
• Upper house
Federal Senate
• Lower house
Chamber of Deputies
Independence 
from Portugal
• Declared
7 September 1822
29 August 1825
• Republic
15 November 1889
5 October 1988
Area
• Total
8,514,877 km2 (3,287,612 sq mi) (5th)
• Water (%)
0.65
Population
• 2009 estimate
192,272,890[1] (5th)
• 2007 census
189,987,291
• Density
22/km2 (57.0/sq mi) (182nd)
GDP (PPP)2009 estimate
• Total
$2.002 trillion[2] (9th)
• Per capita
$10,455[2] (77th)
GDP (nominal)2009 estimate
• Total
$1.482 trillion[2] (8th)
• Per capita
$7,737[2] (63rd)
Gini (2009)49.3[3]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2007)0.813[4]
Error: Invalid HDI value (75th)
CurrencyReal (R$) (BRL)
Time zoneUTC-2 to -4[5] (BRT[5])
• Summer (DST)
UTC-2 to -4 (BRST)
Date formatdd/mm/yyyy (CE)
Drives onright
Calling code+55
ISO 3166 codeBR
Internet TLD.br

Brazil (Template:Lang-pt), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil[6][7] (Template:Lang-pt, listenⓘ), is the largest country in South America and the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas.[8] It is the fifth largest country by geographical area and the fifth most populous country in the world.[8][9]

Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of over Template:Km to mi.[8] It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas department of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos are part of the Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.[8]

Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until its independence in 1822.[10] Initially independent as the Brazilian Empire, the country has been a republic since 1889, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to 1824, when the first constitution was ratified.[10] Its current Constitution defines Brazil as a Federal Republic.[11] The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.[11][12]

Brazil is the world's eighth largest economy by nominal GDP[13] and the ninth largest by purchasing power parity.[14] Economic reforms have given the country new international recognition.[15] Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, Mercosul (Mercosur) and the Union of South American Nations, and is one of the BRIC Countries. Brazil is also home to a diversity of wildlife, natural environments, and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats.[8]

History

Main article: History of Brazil

Portuguese colonization and territorial expansion

Main article: Colonial Brazil
See also: Indigenous peoples in Brazil and Slavery in Brazil

The land now called Brazil (the origin of whose name is disputed), was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral.[16] The Portuguese encountered stone age natives divided into several tribes, most of whom shared the same Tupi-Guarani linguistic family, and fought among themselves.[17]

Colonization was effectively begun in 1534, when Dom João III divided the territory into twelve hereditary captaincies,[18][19] but this arrangement proved problematic and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony.[19][20] The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes[21] while others were enslaved or exterminated in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity.[22][23] By the mid 16th century, sugar had become Brazil's most important export[17][24] and the Portuguese imported African slaves[25][26] to cope with the increasing international demand.[22][27]

The first Christian mass in Brazil, 1500.

Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to the northwest, taking São Luís in 1615.[28] They sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest and conquered British and Dutch strongholds,[29] founding villages and forts from 1669.[30] In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata, in the Eastern Strip region (present-day Uruguay).[31]

At the end of the 17th century sugar exports started to decline[32] but the discovery of gold by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais (General Mines) around 1693, and in the following decades in current Mato Grosso and Goiás, saved the colony from imminent collapse.[33] From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines.[34]

The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into the territory that belonged to them according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, and succeeded in conquering the Eastern Strip in 1777. However, this was in vain as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding from its territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian borders.[35]

In 1808, the Portuguese royal family, fleeing the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon I that were invading Portugal and most of Central Europe, established themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro, which thus became the seat of the entire Portuguese Empire.[36] In 1815 Dom João VI, then regent on behalf of his incapacitated mother, elevated Brazil from colony to sovereign Kingdom united with Portugal.[36] In 1809 the Portuguese invaded French Guiana (which was returned to France in 1817)[37] and in 1816 the Eastern Strip, subsequently renamed Cisplatina.[38]

Independence and empire

Main articles: Brazilian War of Independence and Empire of Brazil
Declaration of the Brazilian independence by Emperor Pedro I on 7 September 1822.

King João VI returned to Europe on 26 April 1821, leaving his elder son Prince Pedro de Alcântara as regent to rule Brazil.[39] The Portuguese government attempted to turn Brazil into a colony once again, thus depriving it of its achievements since 1808.[40] The Brazilians refused to yield and Prince Pedro stood by them declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822.[41] On 12 October 1822, Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil and crowned Dom Pedro I on 1 December 1822.[42]

At that time almost all Brazilians were in favor of a monarchy and republicanism had little support.[43][44] The subsequent Brazilian War of Independence spread through almost the entire territory, with battles in the northern, northeastern, and southern regions.[45] The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824[46] and independence was recognized by Portugal on 29 August 1825.[47]

Emperor Dom Pedro II. Due to "the length of government and the transformations that occurred, no other head of State has ever had a deeper impact on the country’s history".[48]

The first Brazilian constitution was promulgated on 25 March 1824, after its acceptance by the municipal councils across the country.[49][50][51][52] Pedro I abdicated on 7 April 1831 and went to Europe to reclaim his daughter’s crown, leaving behind his five year old son and heir, who was to become Dom Pedro II.[53] As the new emperor could not exert his constitutional prerogatives until he reached maturity, a regency was created.[54]

Disputes between political factions led to rebellions and an unstable, almost anarchical, regency.[55] The rebellious factions, however, were not in revolt against the monarchy,[56][57] even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics, but only so long as Pedro II was a minor.[58] Because of this, Pedro II was prematurely declared of age and "Brazil was to enjoy nearly half a century of internal peace and rapid material progress."[59]

Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II (the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the War of the Triple Alliance)[60] and witnessed the consolidation of representative democracy, mainly due to successive elections and unrestricted freedom of the press.[61] Most importantly, slavery was extinguished after a slow but steady process that began with the end of the international traffic in slaves in 1850[62] and ended with the complete abolition of slavery in 1888.[63] The slave population had been in decline since Brazil's independence: in 1823, 29% of the Brazilian population were slaves but by 1887 this had fallen to 5%.[64]

When the monarchy was overthrown on 15 November 1889[65] there was little desire in Brazil to change the form of government[66] and Pedro II was at the height of his popularity among his subjects.[67][68] However, he "bore prime, perhaps sole, responsibility for his own overthrow."[69] After the death of his two sons, Pedro believed that "the imperial regime was destined to end with him."[70] He cared little for the regime's fate[71][72] and so neither did anything, nor allowed anyone else to do anything, to prevent the military coup, backed by former slave owners who resented the abolition of slavery.[73][74][75]

Old republic and Vargas era

Main articles: República Velha, Estado Novo (Brazil), and Brazilian Second Republic
The Brazilian coup d'état of 1930 raised Getúlio Vargas (center with military uniform but no hat) to power. He would rule the country for fifteen years.

The "early republican government was little more than a military dictatorship. The army dominated affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power".[65] In 1894 the republican civilians rose to power, opening a "prolonged cycle of civil war, financial disaster, and government incompetence."[76] By 1902, the government began a return to the policies pursued during the Empire, policies that promised peace and order at home and a restoration of Brazil's prestige abroad.[76] and was successful in negotiating several treaties that expanded (with the purchase of Acre) and secured the Brazilian boundaries.[77]

In the 1920s the country was plagued by several rebellions caused by young military officers.[78][79] By 1930, the regime was weakened and demoralized, which allowed the defeated presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas to lead a coup d'état and assume the presidency.[80] Vargas was supposed to assume the presidency temporarily but instead, he closed the National Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with his supporters.[81][82]

In 1935 Communists rebelled across the country and made an unsuccessful bid for power.[83] The communist threat, however, served as an excuse for Vargas to launch another coup d'état in 1937 and Brazil became a full dictatorship.[84][85] The repression of the opposition was brutal with more than 20,000 people imprisoned, internment camps created for political prisoners in distant regions of the country, widespread torture by the government agents of repression, and censorship of the press,[86][87]

Brazil remained neutral during the early years of World War II until the government declared war against the Axis powers in 1942.[88] Vargas then forced German, Japanese and Italian immigrants into concentration camps,[89] and, in 1944, sent troops to the battlefields in Italy.[90][91] With the allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in a military coup.[92] Democracy was reinstated and General Eurico Gaspar Dutra was elected president and took office in 1946.[93] Vargas returned to power in 1951, this time democratically elected, but he was incapable of either governing under a democracy or of dealing with an active opposition, and he committed suicide in 1954.[94][95]

Military regime and contemporary era

Main articles: Military dictatorship (Brazil) and History of Brazil since 1985

Several brief interim governments succeeded after Vargas's suicide.[96] Juscelino Kubitscheck became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises.[97] The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,[98] but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960.[99] His successor was Jânio Quadros, who resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.[100] His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition[101] and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime.[102]

The new regime was intended to be transitory[103] but it gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.[104] The repression of the dictatorship's opponents, including urban guerrillas,[105] was harsh, but not as brutal as in other Latin American countries.[106] Due to the extraordinary economic growth, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached its highest level of popularity in the years of repression.[107]

The transition from Fernando Henrique Cardoso to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva revealed that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability.

General Ernesto Geisel became president in 1974 and began his project of re-democratization through a process that he said would be "slow, gradual and safe."[108][109] Geisel ended the military indiscipline that had plagued the country since 1889,[110] as well as the torture of political prisoners, censorship of the press,[111] and finally, the dictatorship itself, after he extinguished the Fifth Institutional Act.[104] However, the military regime continued, under his chosen successor General João Figueiredo, to complete the transition to full democracy.[112]

The civilians fully returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency[113] but, by the end of his term, he had become extremely unpopular due to the uncontrollable economic crisis and unusually high inflation.[114] Sarney's unsuccessful government allowed the election in 1989 of the almost unknown Fernando Collor, who was subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.[115] Collor was succeeded by his Vice-President Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Minister of Finance.

Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real (Royal Plan)[116] that granted stability to the Brazilian economy[117] and he was elected as president in 1994 and again in 1998.[118] The peaceful transition of power to Luís Inácio Lula da Silva, who was elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006, proved that Brazil had finally succeeded in achieving its long-sought political stability.[119]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Brazil
The National Congress in Brasília, the capital of Brazil.

The Brazilian Federation is the "indissoluble union" of three distinct political entities: the States, the Municipalities and the Federal District.[11] The Union, the states and the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The Federation is set on five fundamental principles:[11] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labour and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative, and judicial under the checks and balances system), is formally established by the Constitution.[11] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state/Federal District spheres.

All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.[120][121][122] Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.[120] Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.[11] Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), and Democrats (DEM). Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.

The form of government is that of a democratic republic, with a presidential system.[11] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,[11] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva who was elected on October 27, 2002,[123] and re-elected on October 29, 2006.[124] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.[11] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively.

Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. The largest political parties are the Workers' Party (PT), Democrats (DEM), Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB-center), Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB), Progressive Party (PP), Brazilian Labor Party (PTB), Liberal Party (PL), Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB), Popular Socialist Party (PPS), Democratic Labor Party (PDT), and the Communist Party of Brazil (PCdoB).[125]

Law

Main articles: Law of Brazil and Crime in Brazil
Interior of the Supreme Federal Tribunal.

Brazilian law is based on Roman-Germanic traditions[126] and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.

The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, which was promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.[127] As of April 2007, there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.[128] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" ([leis orgânicas] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) which act in a similar way to constitutions.[11][129] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.[11] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.[11] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.[11] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Tribunal.

This system has been criticised over the last few decades for the slow pace at which final decisions are issued. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings are made.[130] Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via Youtube.[131][132] More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.[133]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Brazil and Brazilian Armed Forces
States hosting a diplomatic mission of Brazil.

Brazil is a political and economic leader in Latin America,[134][135] however, social and economic problems prevent it from becoming an effective global power.[136] Between World War II and 1990, both democratic and military governments sought to expand Brazil's influence in the world by pursuing a state-led industrial policy and an independent foreign policy. More recently, the country has aimed to strengthen ties with other South American countries, and engage in multilateral diplomacy through the United Nations and the Organization of American States.[137]

Aircraft carrier NAE São Paulo of the Brazilian Navy.

Brazil's current foreign policy is based on the country's position as: a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.[138] In general, current Brazilian foreign policy reflects multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and nonintervention in the affairs of other countries.[139] The Brazilian Constitution also determines that the country shall seek the economic, political, social and cultural integration of the nations of Latin America.[11][140][141][142]

The armed forces of Brazil consist of the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy, and the Brazilian Air Force. With a total of 371,199 active personnel,[143] they comprise largest armed force in Latin America.[citation needed] The Army is responsible for land-based military operations and has 235,978 active personnel.[144] The Military Police (States' Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army by the constitution, but is under the control of each state's governor.[11] The Navy is responsible for naval operations and for guarding Brazilian territorial waters. It is the oldest of the Brazilian armed forces and the only navy in Latin America to operate an aircraft carrier, the NAe São Paulo (formerly FS Foch of the French Navy).[145] The Air Force is the aerial warfare branch of the Brazilian armed forces, and the largest air force in Latin America, with about 700 manned aircraft in service.[146]

States and municipalities

Main articles: States of Brazil and Municipalities of Brazil
See also: Regions of Brazil

Brazil is a federation composed of twenty-six States, one federal district (which contains the capital city, Brasília) and municipalities.[11] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can only be voted by the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.[11]

The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the application of federal funds in development projects.

Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.[11] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).

Geography

Main article: Geography of Brazil
See also: List of countries and outlying territories by total area
Topography map of Brazil.

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,[147] sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Suriname, Guyana and the French overseas department of French Guiana to the north. It shares a border with every country in South America except for Ecuador and Chile. It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.[8] Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.[147]

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada, China and the United States, and third largest in the Americas; with a total area of Template:Km2 to mi2 [148], including Template:Km2 to mi2 of water.[8] It spans three time zones; from UTC-4 in the western states, to UTC-3 in the eastern states (and the official time of Brazil), and UTC-2 in the Atlantic islands.[5]

Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between 200 metres (660 ft) and 800 metres (2,600 ft) in elevation.[149] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.[149] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.[149]

The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).[149] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.[149] In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at 2,994 metres (9,823 ft), and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.[8]

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.[150] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.[150]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Brazil

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.[8] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts five major climatic subtypes: equatorial, tropical, semiarid, highland tropical, temperate, and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.[151] Many regions have starkly different microclimates.[152][153]

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.[151] Temperatures average 25 °C (77 °F),[153] with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.[152]

Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.[152] This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a lower altitude.[151] In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme. The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than 800 millimetres (31 in) of rain,[154] most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year[155] and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.[152] Brazil's 1877-78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the most severe ever recorded in Brazil,[156] caused approximately half a million deaths.[157] The one from 1915 was devastating too.[158]

South of Bahia, near São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year .[151] The south enjoys temperate conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding 18 °C (64 °F);[153] winter frosts are quite common, with occasional snowfall in the higher areas.[151][152]

Flora and fauna

Main articles: Wildlife of Brazil and Deforestation in Brazil
The Macaw is a typical animal of Brazil. The country has one of the world's most diverse populations of birds and amphibians.
Amazon Rainforest, the largest tropical forest in the world.

Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon Rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world,[159] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity.[160] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions.[160]

The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Much of it, however, remains largely undocumented, and new species are regularly found.[citation needed] Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million.[160]

Larger mammals include pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes; peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos are abundant. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests.[160][161] Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.[162]

The natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water contamination, climate change, fire, and invasive species.[159] In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development.[163] Construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape.[162][164]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Brazil
An Embraer ERJ-135 commercial jet. Brazil is the worlds second largest aircraft producer.

Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's tenth largest economy at market exchange rates and the ninth largest in purchasing power parity (PPP), according to the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.[2][165][166] The Brazilian economy has been predicted to become one of the five largest in the world in the decades to come, the GDP per capita following and growing.[167] Its current GDP (PPP) per capita is $10,200, putting Brazil in the 64th position according to World Bank data. It has large and developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors, as well as a large labor pool.[14]

Brazilian exports are booming, creating a new generation of tycoons.[168] Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef.[169] The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRIC countries.[170]

Brazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998[171] and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Brazil temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.[172]

Brazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,[173] then a record sum. Brazil's central bank paid back the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.[174] One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period.[175] Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.[176] Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role of setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.[177]

Components and energy

Main articles: Agriculture in Brazil, Industry in Brazil, and Energy policy of Brazil
Itaipu Dam, the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation and second-largest by installed capacity.

Brazil's economy is diverse,[178] encompassing agriculture, industry, and many services.[168][179][180][181] The recent economic strength has been due in part to a global boom in commodities prices with exports from beef to soybeans soaring.[180][181] Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007,[182] a performance that puts agribusiness in a position of distinction in terms of Brazil's trade balance, in spite of trade barriers and subsidizing policies adopted by the developed countries.[vague][183][184]

The industry — from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables— accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product.[182] Industry, which is often technologically advanced, is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte.[185]

Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; nonrenewable energy is mainly produced from oil and natural gas.[186] A global power in agriculture and natural resources, Brazil experienced tremendous economic growth over the past three decades.[187] It is expected to become a major oil producer and exporter, having recently made huge oil discoveries.[188][189][190] The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.[191][192]

Science and technology

Main article: Brazilian science and technology
Brazilian National Laboratory of Synchrotron Light in Campinas.

Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes. But more than 73% of funding for basic research still comes from government sources.[193] Some of Brazil's most notable technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE. The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant capabilities[vague] in launch vehicles, launch sites and satellite manufacturing.[194]

Uranium is enriched at the Resende Nuclear Fuel Factory to fuel the country's energy demands and plans are underway to build the country's first nuclear submarine.[195] Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America[196] with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences.

Transport

Main article: Transport in Brazil
BR-116 highway in the outskirts of Fortaleza.
Recife Airport.

Brazil has a large and diverse transport network. Roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from 35,496 km (22,056 mi) in 1967 to 184,140 km (114,425 mi) in 2002.[197]

Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was 30,875 km (19,186 mi) in 2002, as compared with 31,848 km (19,789 mi) in 1970. Most of the railway system belongs to the Federal Railroad Corp., with a majority government interest; there are also seven lines which the government privatized in 1997.[198] The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Teresina, Fortaleza, and Salvador.

There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States.[199] São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic of the country and connecting the city with virtually all major cities across the world.[200]

Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul.[vague][201]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Brazil and Brazilian people
See also: Immigration to Brazil, Religion in Brazil, and Municipalities of Brazil
Colour/Race (2008)
White 48.43%
Brown (Multiracial) 43.80%
Black 6.84%
Yellow 0.58%
Amerindian 0.28%

The population of Brazil as recorded by the 2008 PNAD was approximately 190 million[202] (22.31 inhabitants per square kilometer), with a ratio of men to women. of 0.95:1[203] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.[204] The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.

Population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, due to a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years[205] and to 72.6 years in 2007.[206] It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950–1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050 [207] thus completing the demographic transition.[208]

According to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Brown (Multiracial), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Yellow; and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian, while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.[209]

In 2007, the National Indian Foundation reported the existence of 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.[210]

Most Brazilians descend from the country's indigenous peoples, Portuguese settlers, and African slaves.[211] Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500 miscegenation between these three groups has taken place. The brown population (as multiracial Brazilians are officially called; pardo in Portuguese)[212][213] is a broad category that includes Caboclos (descendants of Whites and Indians), Mulattoes (descendants of Whites and Blacks) and Cafuzos (descendants of Blacks and Indians).[211][212][213][214][215][216] Caboclos form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Central-Western regions.[217] A large Mulatto population can be found in the eastern coast of the northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba[216][218] and also in northern Maranhão,[219][220] southern Minas Gerais[221] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.[216][221] From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them from Portugal, Italy, Spain, Germany, Japan and the Middle-East.[222]

Christ the Redeemer, symbol of Brazilian Christianity.

In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%[223] and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.[224] Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.[225]

In 2006 nearly 50,000 people were murdered in Brasil.[226] More than 500,000 people have been killed by firearms in Brazil between 1979 and 2003, according to the UN report.[227]

Catholicism is dominant, making Brazil the largest Catholic nation in the world.[228] According to the 2000 Demographic Census (the PNAD survey does not inquire about religion), 73.57% of the population followed Roman Catholicism; 15.41% Protestantism; 1.33% Kardecist spiritism; 1.22% other Christian denominations; 0.31% Afro-Brazilian religions; 0.13% Buddhism; 0.05% Judaism; 0.02% Islam; 0.01% Amerindian religions; 0.59% other religions, undeclared or undetermined; while 7.35% have no religion.[229]

The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 19.5, 11.5, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.[230] Almost all of the state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina. There are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo (Campinas, Santos and the Paraíba Valley), Minas Gerais (Steel Valley), Rio Grande do Sul (Sinos Valley), and Santa Catarina (Itajaí Valley).[231]

 
Largest urban agglomerations in Brazil
Rank Name State Pop. Rank Name State Pop.
São Paulo
São Paulo
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro 		1 São Paulo São Paulo 21,314,716 11 Belém Pará 2,157,180
2 Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 12,389,775 12 Manaus Amazonas 2,130,264
3 Belo Horizonte Minas Gerais 5,142,260 13 Campinas São Paulo 2,105,600
4 Recife Pernambuco 4,021,641 14 Vitória Espírito Santo 1,837,047
5 Brasília Federal District 3,986,425 15 Baixada Santista São Paulo 1,702,343
6 Porto Alegre Rio Grande do Sul 3,894,232 16 São José dos Campos São Paulo 1,572,943
7 Salvador Bahia 3,863,154 17 São Luís Maranhão 1,421,569
8 Fortaleza Ceará 3,594,924 18 Natal Rio Grande do Norte 1,349,743
9 Curitiba Paraná 3,387,985 19 Maceió Alagoas 1,231,965
10 Goiânia Goiás 2,347,557 20 João Pessoa Paraíba 1,168,941

Language

Main articles: Languages of Brazil, Portuguese language, and Brazilian Portuguese
Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo, the first language museum in the world.

The official language of Brazil is Portuguese[9] which is spoken by almost all of the population and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. The exception to this is in the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira where Nheengatu, an indigenous language of South America, has been granted co-official status with Portuguese.[235] Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.[236]

Brazilian Portuguese has had its own development, influenced by the Amerindian and African languages.[237] As a result, the language is somewhat different, mostly in phonology, from the language of Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries. These differences are comparable to those between American and British English.[237]

In 2008, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of Portuguese into one international language, as opposed to two diverged dialects of the same language. All CPLP countries were given from 2009 until 2014 to adjust to the necessary changes.[238]

Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.[237] There are significant communities of German (mostly the Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian dialect, of Venetian origin) speakers in the south of the country, both of which, are influenced by the Portuguese language.[239][240]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Brazil

The core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese empire. Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and colonial architectural styles.[241] The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.[242] Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of Italian, German and other European immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil.[243] The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.[244]

Coffee has been one of the main beverages among Brazilians since the beginning of the 19th century.

Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's mix of native and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.[245] Examples are Feijoada, considered the country's national dish;[246][247] and regional foods such as vatapá, moqueca, polenta and acarajé. Brazil has a variety of candies such as brigadeiros ("brigadiers") and beijinhos ("kissies"). The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.

Brazilian art has developed since the 16th century into different styles that range from Baroque (the dominant style in Brazil until the early 19th century)[248][249] to Romanticism, Modernism, Expressionism, Cubism, Surrealism and Abstractionism.

Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Brazil.[245]

Brazilian cinema dates back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th century and has gained a new level of international acclaim in recent years.[250]

Brazilian music encompasses various regional styles influenced by African, European and Amerindian forms. It developed distinctive styles, among them samba, música popular Brasileira, choro, sertanejo, brega, forró, frevo, maracatu, bossa nova, Brazilian rock, and axé.

The most popular sport in Brazil is football (soccer). The Brazilian national football team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournament five times.[251] Basketball, volleyball, auto racing, and martial arts also attract large audiences. Though not as regularly followed or practiced, tennis, team handball, swimming, and gymnastics have found a growing number of enthusiasts over the last decades. Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football,[252] futsal (indoor football)[253] and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira,[254] Vale tudo,[255] and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.[256] In auto racing, Brazilian drivers have won the Formula One world championship nine times.[257][258][259]

Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1950 FIFA World Cup[260] and has been chosen to host the 2014 FIFA World Cup.[261] The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.[262] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963,[263] and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.[263] On 2 October 2009, Brazil was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games, the first to be held in South America.[264]

International rankings

Organization Survey Ranking
Institute for Economics and Peace [3] Global Peace Index[265] 85 out of 144
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 75 out of 182
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 75 out of 180
World Economic Forum Global Competitiveness Report 56 out of 133

See also

Bibliography

Notes

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  4. ^ UNDP Human Development Report 2009. "Table H: Human development index 2007 and its components" (PDF). UNDP. Retrieved 2009-10-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
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  6. ^ As on for example the national website.
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  9. ^ a b "People of Brazil". Central Intelligence Agency. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)
  10. ^ a b "Introduction of Brazil". Central Intelligence Agency. 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-03. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (help)
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  18. ^ Boxer, pp. 100–101.
  19. ^ a b Skidmore, p. 27.
  20. ^ Boxer, p. 101.
  21. ^ Boxer, p. 108
  22. ^ a b Boxer, p. 102.
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  47. ^ Lustosa, p. 208
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  50. ^ José Murilo de Carvalho, A Monarquia brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Ao Livro Técnico, 1993), p. 23
  51. ^ Calmon (2002), p. 189
  52. ^ Vainfas, p. 170
  53. ^ Lyra (v.1), p. 17
  54. ^ Carvalho 2007, p. 21
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  56. ^ Carvalho (2007), p. 43
  57. ^ Souza, p. 326
  58. ^ Janotti, pp. 171–172
  59. ^ Munro, p. 273
  60. ^ Lyra (v.1), pp. 164, 225, 272
  61. ^ Carvalho (2007), pp. 9, 222
  62. ^ Lyra (v.1), p. 166
  63. ^ Lyra (v.3), p. 62
  64. ^ Vainfas, p. 18
  65. ^ a b Munro, p. 280
  66. ^ George Ermakoff, Rio de Janeiro – 1840–1900 – Uma crônica fotográfica (Rio de Janeiro: G. Ermakoff Casa Editorial, 2006), p. 189
  67. ^ Schwarcz, p. 444
  68. ^ Vainfas, p. 201
  69. ^ Barman (1999), p. 399
  70. ^ Barman (1999), p. 130
  71. ^ Lyra (v.3), p. 126
  72. ^ Barman (1999), p. 361
  73. ^ Ricardo Salles, Nostalgia Imperial (Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks, 1996), p. 194 – However, the monarchist reaction after the fall of the empire and the subsequent exile of the Imperial Family "was not small and even less was its repression".
  74. ^ Lyra (v.3), p. 99
  75. ^ Schwarcz, pp. 450, 457
  76. ^ a b Barman (1999), p. 403
  77. ^ Barman (1999), p. 404
  78. ^ Skidmore, p. 153
  79. ^ Bueno, pp. 296–301
  80. ^ Skidmore, p. 154
  81. ^ Skidmore, pp. 155–156
  82. ^ Bueno, pp. 328 and 331
  83. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 249
  84. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 267
  85. ^ Skidmore, p. 162
  86. ^ Bueno, p. 336
  87. ^ Skidmore, p. 164
  88. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 272
  89. ^ Dietrich, Ana Maria in História Viva magazine, issue 67, year VI, 2009, p. 61
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  92. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 281
  93. ^ Skidmore, pp. 182–183
  94. ^ Bueno, pp. 346–347
  95. ^ Skidmore, pp. 188–194
  96. ^ Skidmore, p. 201
  97. ^ Skidmore, pp. 202–203
  98. ^ Skidmore, p. 204
  99. ^ Skidmore, pp. 204–205
  100. ^ Skidmore, pp. 209–210
  101. ^ Skidmore, p. 210
  102. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 397
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  109. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 455.
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  111. ^ Gaspari, A Ditadura Envergonhada, pp. 35–36.
  112. ^ Bueno, p. 382.
  113. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 460.
  114. ^ Fausto (2005), pp. 464–465.
  115. ^ Fausto (2005), pp. 465, 475.
  116. ^ The name of the current Brazilian currency came from an older currency that existed until 1942. In Portuguese it is called "Real", meaning "royal", as it originated in Portugal, then a monarchy.
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  118. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 474.
  119. ^ Fausto (2005), p. 502.
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  210. ^ "In Amazonia, Defending the Hidden Tribes", The Washington Post, 8 July 2007.
  211. ^ a b Enciclopédia Barsa vol. 4, p. 230.
  212. ^ a b Coelho (1996), p. 268.
  213. ^ a b Vesentini (1988), p. 117.
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References

  • Azevedo, Aroldo. O Brasil e suas regiões. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971. Template:Pt icon
  • Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. ISBN 1-8047-3510-7 Template:En icon
  • Boxer, Charles R.. O império marítimo português 1415–1825. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 8535902929 Template:Pt icon
  • Bueno, Eduardo. Brasil: uma História. São Paulo: Ática, 2003. Template:Pt icon ISBN 8508082134
  • Calmon, Pedro. História da Civilização Brasileira. Brasília: Senado Federal, 2002. Template:Pt icon
  • Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007. Template:Pt icon
  • Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996. Template:Pt icon
  • Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004. Template:Pt icon
  • Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987. Template:Pt icon
  • Fausto, Boris and Devoto, Fernando J. Brasil e Argentina: Um ensaio de história comparada (1850–2002), 2nd ed. São Paulo: Editoria 34, 2005. Template:Pt icon
  • Gaspari, Elio. A ditadura envergonhada. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. ISBN 8535902775 Template:Pt icon
  • Janotti, Aldo. O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história da nacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990. Template:Pt icon
  • Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Ascenção (1825–1870). v.1. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. Template:Pt icon
  • Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825–1891): Declínio (1880–1891). v.3. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. Template:Pt icon
  • Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. ISBN 8535908072 Template:Pt icon
  • Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981. Template:Pt icon
  • Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Republics; A History. New York: D. Appleton, 1942. Template:En icon
  • Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos. 2nd ed. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998. ISBN 8571648379 Template:Pt icon
  • Skidmore, Thomas E. Uma História do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2003. Template:Pt icon ISBN 8521903138
  • Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. Template:Pt icon ISBN 9788520008645
  • Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. ISBN 8573024410 Template:Pt icon
  • Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988. Template:Pt icon
  • Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república, 15th ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994. Template:Pt icon

Further reading

  • Alves, Maria Helena Moreira (1985). State and Opposition in Military Brazil. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
  • Amann, Edmund (1990). The Illusion of Stability: The Brazilian Economy under Cardoso. World Development (pp. 1805–1819).
  • "Background Note: Brazil". US Department of State.
  • Bellos, Alex (2003). Futebol: The Brazilian Way of Life. London: Bloomsbury Publishing plc.
  • Bethell, Leslie (1991). Colonial Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
  • Costa, João Cruz (1964). A History of Ideas in Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
  • Fausto, Boris (1999). A Concise History of Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
  • Furtado, Celso. The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  • Leal, Victor Nunes (1977). Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil. Cambridge: CUP.
  • Malathronas, John (2003). Brazil: Life, Blood, Soul. Chichester: Summersdale.
  • Martinez-Lara, Javier (1995). Building Democracy in Brazil: The Politics of Constitutional Change. Macmillan.
  • Prado Júnior, Caio (1967). The Colonial Background of Modern Brazil. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.
  • Schneider, Ronald (1995). Brazil: Culture and Politics in a New Economic Powerhouse. Boulder Westview.
  • Skidmore, Thomas E. (1974). Black Into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Wagley, Charles (1963). An Introduction to Brazil. New York, New York: Columbia University Press.
  • The World Almanac and Book of Facts: Brazil. New York, NY: World Almanac Books. 2006.
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