War in Afghanistan (2001–2021): Difference between revisions
No edit summary |
m JzG moved page War in Afghanistan (2001–14) to War in Afghanistan (2001–present) over a redirect without leaving a redirect: Per MRV discussion |
(No difference)
| |
Revision as of 21:52, 19 March 2015
 | This discussion was listed at Wikipedia:Move review on 1 February 2015. |
| War in Afghanistan | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of War in Afghanistan (1978–present), the Global War on Terrorism, and the Spillover of the War in North-West Pakistan | |||||||
 Clockwise from top-left: British Royal Marines take part in the clearance of Nad-e Ali District of Helmand Province; two F/A-18 strike fighters conduct combat missions over Afghanistan; an anti-Taliban fighter during an operation to secure a compound in Helmand Province; A French chasseur alpin patrols a valley in Kapisa Province; U.S. Marines prepare to board buses shortly after arriving in southern Afghanistan; Taliban fighters in a cave hideout; U.S. soldiers prepare to fire a mortar during a mission in the Paktika Province, US troops disembark from a helicopter, a MEDCAP centre in Khost Province, A soldier sleeps beside a coffin, Us and British troops in a 2007 exercise. | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
|
Coalition:  ISAF (2001–14)
|
Insurgent groups: | ||||||
2001 invasion: Northern Alliance United States United Kingdom Australia Canada |
2001 invasion: Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan al-Qaeda | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
George W. Bush Barack Obama Tony Blair Gordon Brown David Cameron Jean Chrétien Paul Martin Stephen Harper Matteo Renzi Silvio Berlusconi Romano Prodi Mario Monti Enrico Letta Angela Merkel Gerhard Schröder John F. Campbell Ashraf Ghani Hamid Karzai List of former ISAF Commanders |
Formerly: Osama bin Laden (KIA) | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
|
Afghan National Security Forces: 352,000[5] |
Taliban: 60,000 (tentative estimate)[6] al-Qaeda: 50–100[7][8] Haqqani network: 4,000–15,000[9][10][11] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
|
Coalition: | 25,500–40,500 killed[6][24] | ||||||
|
Civilians killed: 16,725–19,013 (2001–2013)[25] | |||||||
The 2001–14 phase of war in Afghanistan was the period in which the United States invaded the country after the September 11 attacks,[26] supported initially by close allies, and eventually by the wider North Atlantic Treaty Organization, beginning in 2003. The conflict is also known as the U.S. war in Afghanistan.[27][28] It followed the Afghan Civil War's 1996–2001 phase. Its public aims were to dismantle al-Qaeda, and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power.[29] Key allies supported the U.S. from the start, including the United Kingdom. In August 2003, NATO became involved as an alliance, taking the helm of the International Security Assistance Force. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government, via a ceremony in Kabul.[30][31]
U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda, bin Laden had already been wanted by the U.N. since 1999. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given what they deemed convincing evidence of his involvement in the 9/11 attacks[32] and ignored demands to shut down terrorist bases and hand over other terrorist suspects apart from bin Laden. The request was dismissed by the U.S. as a meaningless delaying tactic and it launched Operation Enduring Freedom on 7 October 2001 with the United Kingdom. The two were later joined by other forces, including the Northern Alliance.[33][34] The U.S. and its allies drove the Taliban from power and built military bases near major cities across the country. Most al-Qaeda and Taliban were not captured, escaping to neighboring Pakistan or retreating to rural or remote mountainous regions.[citation needed]
In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), to oversee military operations in the country and train Afghan National Security Forces. At the Bonn Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[35]
In 2003, NATO assumed leadership of ISAF, with troops from 43 countries. NATO members provided the core of the force.[36] One portion of U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained under direct U.S. command. Taliban leader Mullah Omar reorganized the movement, and in 2003, launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF.[37][38]
Though vastly outgunned and outnumbered, the Taliban insurgents, most notably the Haqqani Network and Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin, have waged asymmetric warfare with guerilla raids and ambushes in the countryside, suicide attacks against urban targets and turncoat killings against coalition forces. The Taliban exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government, among the most corrupt in the world, to reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. ISAF responded in 2006 by increasing troops for counterinsurgency operations to "clear and hold" villages and "nation building" projects to "win hearts and minds".[39][40]
While ISAF continued to battle the Taliban insurgency, fighting crossed into neighboring North-West Pakistan.[41] In 2004, the Pakistani Army began to clash with local tribes hosting al-Qaeda and Taliban militants. The US military launched drone attacks in Pakistan to kill insurgent leaders. This resulted in the start of an insurgency in Waziristan in 2007.
On 2 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbotabad, Pakistan. In May 2012, NATO leaders endorsed an exit strategy for withdrawing their forces. UN-backed peace talks have since taken place between the Afghan government and the Taliban.[42] In May 2014, the United States announced that its combat operations would end in 2014, leaving just a small residual force in the country until the end of 2016.[43]
As of 2015, tens of thousands of people have been killed in the war. Over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian contractors as well as over 15,000 Afghan National Security Forces have been killed. In October 2014, British forces handed over the last bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, officially ending their combat operations in the war.[44]
Historical background
Origins of Afghanistan's civil war
 |
The entry of the Soviet Union into Afghanistan in December 1979 prompted its Cold War rivals, the United States, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and China to support rebels fighting against the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. In contrast to the secular and socialist government, which controlled the cities, religiously-motivated mujahideen held sway in much of the countryside. Beside Rabbani, Hekmatyar, and Khan, other mujahideen commanders included Jalaluddin Haqqani. The CIA worked closely with Pakistan's Inter-Service Intelligence to funnel foreign support for the mujahideen. The war also attracted Arab volunteers, known as "Afghan Arabs", including Osama bin Laden.
After the withdrawal of the Soviet military from Afghanistan in May 1989, the PDPA regime under Najibullah held on until 1992. With the political stage cleared of Afghan socialists, the remaining Islamic warlords vied for power. By then, Bin Laden had left the country. The United States' interest in Afghanistan also diminished.
Warlord rule (1992–1996)
In 1992, Rabbani officially became president of the Islamic State of Afghanistan, but had to battle other warlords for control of Kabul. In late 1994, Rabbani's defense minister, Ahmad Shah Massoud defeated Hekmatyr in Kabul and ended ongoing bombardment of the capital.[45][46][47] Massoud tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation. Other warlords, including Ismail Khan in the west and Dostum in the north maintained their fiefdoms.
In 1994, Mullah Omar, a Pashtun, a mujahideen who taught at a Pakistani madrassa, returned to Kandahar and founded the Taliban. His followers were religious students, known as the Talib and they sought to end warlordism through strict adherence to Islamic law. By November 1994, the Taliban had captured all of Kandahar Province. They declined the government's offer to join in a coalition government and marched on Kabul in 1995.[48]
Taliban Emirate vs. Northern Alliance
The Taliban's early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of costly defeats.[49] Pakistan provided strong support to the Taliban.[50][51] Analysts such as Amin Saikal described the group as developing into a proxy force for Pakistan's regional interests, which the Taliban denied.[50]
On 27 September 1996, the Taliban, with military support by Pakistan and financial support from Saudi Arabia, seized Kabul and founded the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.[52] They imposed their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam in areas under their control, issuing edicts forbidding women to work outside the home, attend school, or to leave their homes unless accompanied by a male relative.[53] According to the Pakistani expert Ahmed Rashid, "between 1994 and 1999, an estimated 80,000 to 100,000 Pakistanis trained and fought in Afghanistan" on the side of the Taliban.[54][55]
Massoud and Dostum, former arch-enemies, created a United Front against the Taliban, commonly known as the Northern Alliance. In addition to Massoud's Tajik force and Dostum's Uzbeks, the United Front included Hazara factions and Pashtun forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul Haq and Haji Abdul Qadir. Abdul Haq also gathered a limited number of defecting Pashtun Taliban.[56] Both agreed to work together with the exiled Afghan king Zahir Shah.[55] The Northern Alliance received varying degrees of support from Russia, Iran, Tajikistan and India.
The Taliban captured Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998 and drove Dostum into exile.
The conflict was brutal. According the United Nations (UN), the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic massacres against civilians. UN officials stated that there had been "15 massacres" between 1996 and 2001. The Taliban especially targeted the Shiite Hazaras.[57][58] In retaliation for the execution of 3,000 Taliban prisoners by Uzbek general Abdul Malik Pahlawan in 1997, the Taliban executed about 4,000 civilians after taking Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998.[59][60]
By 2001, the Taliban controlled as much as 90% of the country, with the Northern Alliance confined to the country's northeast corner. Fighting alongside Taliban forces were some 28,000–30,000 Pakistanis and 2,000–3,000 Al Qaeda militants.[48][61][62][63] Many of the Pakistanis were recruited from madrassas.[61] A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department confirmed that "20–40 percent of [regular] Taliban soldiers are Pakistani." The document said that many of the parents of those Pakistani nationals "know nothing regarding their child's military involvement with the Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan". According to the U.S. State Department report and reports by Human Rights Watch, other Pakistani nationals fighting in Afghanistan were regular soldiers, especially from the Frontier Corps, but also from the army providing direct combat support.[51][64]
al-Qaeda
In August 1996, Bin Laden was forced to leave Sudan. He had founded Al-Qaeda in the late 1980s to support the mujahideen war against the Soviets, but became disillusioned by infighting among warlords. He grew close to Mullah Omar and moved Al Qaeda's operations to Jalalabad, eastern Afghanistan.
Under the Taliban, al-Qaeda was able to use Afghanistan as a place to train and indoctrinate fighters, import weapons, coordinate with other jihadists, and plot terrorist actions.[65] While al-Qaeda maintained its own camps in Afghanistan, it also supported training camps of other organizations. An estimated 10,000 and 20,000 men passed through these facilities before 9/11, most of whom were sent to fight for the Taliban against the United Front. A smaller number were inducted into al-Qaeda.[66]
After the August 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings were linked to bin Laden, President Bill Clinton ordered missile strikes on militant training camps in Afghanistan. U.S. officials pressed the Taliban to surrender bin Laden. In 1999, the international community imposed sanctions on the Taliban, calling for bin Laden to be surrendered. The Taliban repeatedly rebuffed these demands.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Special Activities Division paramilitary teams were active in Afghanistan in the 1990s in clandestine operations to locate and kill or capture Osama bin Laden. These teams planned several operations, but did not receive the order to proceed from President Clinton. Their efforts built relationships with Afghan leaders that proved essential in the 2001 invasion.[67]
Change in U.S. policy toward Afghanistan
During the Clinton administration, the U.S. tended to favor Pakistan and until 1998–1999 had no clear policy toward Afghanistan. In 1997, for example, the U.S. State Department's Robin Raphel told Massoud to surrender to the Taliban. Massoud responded that, as long as he controlled an area the size of his hat, he would continue to defend it from the Taliban.[48] Around the same time, top foreign policy officials in the Clinton administration flew to northern Afghanistan to try to persuade the United Front not to take advantage of a chance to make crucial gains against the Taliban. They insisted it was the time for a cease-fire and an arms embargo. At the time, Pakistan began a "Berlin-like airlift to resupply and re-equip the Taliban", financed with Saudi money.[68]
U.S. policy toward Afghanistan changed after the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. Subsequently, Osama bin Laden was indicted for his involvement in the embassy bombings. In 1999 both the U.S. and the United Nations enacted sanctions against the Taliban via United Nations Security Council Resolution 1267, which demanded the Taliban surrender Osama bin Laden for trial in the U.S. and close all terrorist bases in Afghanistan.[69] The only collaboration between Massoud and the US at the time was an effort with the CIA to trace bin Laden following the 1998 bombings.[70] The U.S. and the European Union provided no support to Massoud for the fight against the Taliban.
By 2001 the change of policy sought by CIA officers who knew Massoud was underway.[71] CIA lawyers, working with officers in the Near East Division and Counter-terrorist Center, began to draft a formal finding for President George W. Bush's signature, authorizing a covert action program in Afghanistan. It would be the first in a decade to seek to influence the course of the Afghan war in favor of Massoud.[52] Richard A. Clarke, chair of the Counter-Terrorism Security Group under the Clinton administration, and later an official in the Bush administration, allegedly presented a plan to incoming Bush National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice in January 2001.
A change in US policy was effected in August 2001.[52] The Bush administration agreed on a plan to start supporting Massoud. A meeting of top national security officials agreed that the Taliban would be presented with an ultimatum to hand over bin Laden and other al-Qaeda operatives. If the Taliban refused, the US would provide covert military aid to anti-Taliban groups. If both those options failed, "the deputies agreed that the United States would seek to overthrow the Taliban regime through more direct action."[72]
Northern Alliance on the eve of 9/11
Ahmad Shah Massoud was the only leader of the United Front in Afghanistan. In the areas under his control, Massoud set up democratic institutions and signed the Women's Rights Declaration.[73] As a consequence, many civilians had fled to areas under his control.[74][75] In total, estimates range up to one million people fleeing the Taliban.[76]
In late 2000, Massoud officially brought together this new alliance in a meeting in Northern Afghanistan to discuss "a Loya Jirga, or a traditional council of elders, to settle political turmoil in Afghanistan".[77] That part of the Pashtun-Tajik-Hazara-Uzbek peace plan did eventually develop. Among those in attendance was Hamid Karzai.[78][79]
In early 2001, Massoud, with other ethnic leaders, addressed the European Parliament in Brussels, asking the international community to provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan.[76] He said that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had introduced "a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the support of Pakistan and Osama bin Laden, the Taliban would not be able to sustain their military campaign for another year.[76] On this visit to Europe, he warned that his intelligence had gathered information about an imminent, large-scale attack on U.S. soil.[80]
On 9 September 2001, Massoud was critically wounded in a suicide attack by two Arabs posing as journalists, who detonated a bomb hidden in their video camera during an interview in Khoja Bahauddin, in the Takhar Province of Afghanistan.[81][82] Massoud died in the helicopter taking him to a hospital. The funeral, held in a rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of mourning Afghans.
September 11, 2001 attacks
On the morning of 11 September 2001, al-Qaeda carried out four coordinated attacks on U.S. soil. Four commercial passenger jet airliners were hijacked.[83][84] The hijackers – members of al-Qaeda's Hamburg cell –[85] intentionally crashed two of the airliners into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing everyone on board and thousands working in the buildings. Both buildings collapsed within two hours from fire damage related to the crashes, destroying nearby buildings and damaging others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C.. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, in rural Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washington, D.C., to target the White House, or the U.S. Capitol. No flights had survivors.
Nearly 3,000 people, including the 19 hijackers, died in the attacks.[86] According to the New York State Health Department, 836 responders, including firefighters and police personnel, had died as of June 2009.[86]
U.S. invasion of Afghanistan
The road to war
On 12 September, President Bush called the attacks more than just "acts of terror" but "acts of war" and resolved to pursue and conquer an "enemy" that would no longer be safe in "its harbors".[87] The Taliban ambassador to Pakistan, Abdul Salam Zaeef said on 13 September 2001, that the Taliban would consider extraditing bin Laden if there was solid evidence linking him to the attacks.[88] Though Osama bin Laden eventually took responsibility for the 9/11 attacks in 2004, he denied having any involvement in a statement issued on 17 September 2001, and by interview on 29 September 2001.[89][90]
The State Department, in a memo dated 14 September, demanded that the Taliban surrender all known al-Qaeda associates in Afghanistan, provide intelligence on bin Laden and his affiliates and expel all terrorists from Afghanistan.[91] On 18 September, the director of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence, Mahmud Ahmed conveyed these demands to Mullah Omar and the senior Taliban leadership, whose response was "not negative on all points".[92] Mahmud reported that the Taliban leadership was in "deep introspection" and waiting for the recommendation of a grand council of religious clerics that was assembling to decide the matter.[92] On 20 September, President Bush, in an address to Congress, demanded the Taliban deliver bin Laden and other suspected terrorists and destroy the al-Qaeda bases.[93]
On the same day, a grand council of over 1,000 Muslim clerics from across Afghanistan that had convened to decide bin Laden's fate, issued a fatwa, expressing sadness for the deaths in the 9/11 attacks, recommending that the Islamic Emirate "persuade" bin Laden to leave their country, and calling on the United Nations and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation to conduct an independent investigation of "recent events to clarify the reality and prevent harassment of innocent people".[94] The fatwa went on to warn that should the United States not agree with its decision and invade Afghanistan, "jihad becomes an order for all Muslims."[94] However, that very same day the Taliban ambassador to Pakistan said: "We will neither surrender Osama bin Laden nor ask him to leave Afghanistan." These maneuvers were dismissed by the U.S. as insufficient.[95]
On 21 September, Taliban representatives in Pakistan reacted to the U.S. demands with defiance. Zaeef said the Taliban were ready, if necessary, for war with the United States. His deputy Suhail Shaheen, warned that a U.S. invasion would share in the same fate that befell Great Britain and the Soviet Union in previous centuries. He confirmed that the clerics' decision "was only a recommendation" and bin Laden would not be asked to leave Afghanistan. But he suggested "If the Americans provide evidence, we will cooperate with them... In America, if I think you are a terrorist, is it properly justified that you should be punished without evidence?" he asked. "This is an international principle. If you use the principle, why do you not apply it to Afghanistan?" As formulated earlier by Mullah Omar, the demand for evidence was attached to a suggestion that bin Laden be handed over for trial before an Islamic court in another Muslim country.[96] He did not address the demands to hand over other suspected terrorists or shut down training camps.
On 24 September, Mahmoud told the U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan that while the Taliban was "weak and ill-prepared to face the American onslaught", "real victory will come through negotiations" for if the Taliban were eliminated, Afghanistan would revert to warlordism.[97] On 28 September, he led a delegation of eight Pakistani religious leaders to persuade Mullah Omar to accept having religious leaders from Islamic countries examine the evidence and decide bin Laden's fate but Mullah Omar refused.[98][99]
On 1 October, Mullah Omar agreed to a proposal by Qazi Hussain Ahmad, the head of Pakistan's most important Islamic party, the Jamaat-i-Islami, to have bin Laden taken to Pakistan where he would be held under house arrest in Peshawar by that party and tried by an international tribunal within the framework of sharia law. The proposal was said to have bin Laden's approval. Pakistan's president Pervez Musharraf blocked the plan because he could not guarantee bin Laden's safety.[100] On 2 October, Zaeef appealed to the United States to negotiate, "We do not want to compound the problems of the people, the country or the region." He pleaded, "the Afghan people need food, need aid, need shelter, not war." However he reiterated that bin Laden would not be turned over to anyone unless evidence was presented.[101]
A U.S. State Department spokesman in response to a question about sharing evidence with the Taliban stated "My response, first of all, is that strikes me as a request for delay and prevarication rather than any serious request. And second of all, they're already overdue. They are already required by the United Nations resolutions that relate to the bombings in East Africa to turn over al-Qaida, to turn over their leadership, and to shut down the network of operations in their country. There should be no further delay. There is no cause to ask for anything else. They are already under this international obligation, and they have to meet it."[102] The British Prime Minister Tony Blair called on the Taliban to "surrender the terrorists or surrender power".[103]
Nonetheless, some evidence of bin Laden's involvement in the 9/11 attacks was shown to Pakistan's government whose leaders later stated that the materials they had seen "provide[d] sufficient basis for indictment in a court of law".[104] Pakistan ISI chief Lieutenant General Mahmud Ahmed shared information provided to him by the U.S. with Taliban leaders.[105] On 4 October the British government publicly released a document summarizing the evidence linking bin Laden to the attacks.[106] The document stated that the Taliban had been repeatedly warned in the past about harboring bin Laden but refused to turn him over as demanded by the international community. Evidence had been supplied to the Taliban about bin Laden's involvement in the 1998 Embassy bombings, yet they did nothing.[107]
On 5 October, the Taliban offered to try bin Laden in an Afghan court, so long as the U.S. provided what it called "solid evidence" of his guilt.[108] The U.S. Government dismissed the request for proof as "request for delay or prevarication"; NATO commander George Robertson said the evidence was "clear and compelling".[103] On 7 October, as the U.S. aerial bombing campaign began, President Bush ignored questions about the Taliban's offer and said instead, "Full warning had been given, and time is running out."[109] The same day, the State Department gave the Pakistani Government one last message to the Taliban: Hand over all al-Qaeda leaders or "every pillar of the Taliban regime will be destroyed."[110]
On 11 October Bush told the Taliban "You still have a second chance. Just bring him in, and bring his leaders and lieutenants and other thugs and criminals with him."[111] On 14 October, Abdul Kabir, the Taliban's third ranking leader, offered to hand over bin Laden to a neutral third country if the U.S. government provided evidence of his guilt and halted the bombing campaign. He apparently did not respond to the demand to hand over other suspected terrorists apart from bin Laden. President Bush rejected the offer as non-negotiable.[112] On 16 October, Muttawakil, the Taliban foreign minister floated a compromise offer that dropped the demand for evidence.[113] However, Muttawakil was not part of the Taliban's inner circle, he wanted the bombing to stop so that he could try to persuade Mullah Omar to adopt a compromise.[114]
On 14 September 2001, Congress passed legislation titled Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists, which was signed on 18 September 2001 by President Bush. It authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces against those responsible for the 9/11 attacks and those who harbored them. The United States could also assert legality of the operation as self-defence under article 51 of the United Nations Charter.[115] Although the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) did not authorize the U.S.-led military campaign, it was widely (although not universally) perceived to be a legitimate form of self-defence under the UN Charter.[115][116]
2001: Overthrow of the Taliban
On 7 October 2001, the U.S. launched military operations in Afghanistan. Airstrikes were reported in Kabul, at the airport, at Kandahar (home of Mullah Omar), and in the city of Jalalabad.[117] The day before the bombing commenced, Human Rights Watch issued a report in which they urged that no military support be given to the Northern Alliance due to their human rights record.[118]
On the ground, teams from the CIA's Special Activities Division arrived first. They were soon joined by U.S. Army Special Forces from the 5th Special Forces Group and other units from United States Special Operations Command.[119][120][67][pages needed]
At 17:00 UTC, President Bush confirmed the strikes and Prime Minister Blair addressed his nation. Bush stated that Taliban military sites and terrorist training grounds would be targeted. Food, medicine and supplies would be dropped to "the starving and suffering men, women and children of Afghanistan".[121]
Earlier Bin Laden had released a video in which he condemned all attacks in Afghanistan.
UK and US special forces joined the Northern Alliance and other Afghan opposition groups to take Herat in November 2001. Canada and Australia also deployed forces. Other countries provided basing, access and overflight permission.
The U.S. was able to track and kill al-Qaeda's number three, Mohammed Atef with a bomb at his Kabul home between 14–16 November 2001, along with his guard Abu Ali al-Yafi'i and six others.[122][123]
Air campaigns
Training camps and Taliban air defenses were bombarded by U.S. aircraft, including Apache helicopter gunships from the 101st Combat Aviation Brigade. U.S. Navy cruisers and destroyers launched several Tomahawk Cruise Missiles.
The strikes initially focused on Kabul, Jalalabad and Kandahar. Within a few days, most Taliban training sites were severely damaged and air defenses were destroyed. The campaign focused on command, control, and communications targets. The front facing the Northern Alliance held, and no battlefield successes were achieved there. Two weeks into the campaign, the Northern Alliance demanded the air campaign focus more on the front lines.
The next stage began with carrier based F/A-18 Hornet fighter-bombers hitting Taliban vehicles in pinpoint strikes, while other U.S. planes began cluster bombing Taliban defenses. At the beginning of November, allied forces attacked front lines with daisy cutter bombs and AC-130 gunships.
By 2 November, Taliban frontal positions were devastated and a march on Kabul seemed possible. According to author Stephen Tanner,
After a month of the U.S. bombing campaign rumblings began to reach Washington from Europe, the Mideast, and Pakistan where Musharraf had requested the bombing to cease. Having begun the war with the greatest imaginable reservoir of moral authority, the U.S. was on the verge of letting it slip away through high-level attacks using the most ghastly inventions its scientists could come up with.[124]
Bush went to New York City on 10 November 2001 to address the United Nations. He said that not only was the U.S. in danger of further attacks, but so were all other countries in the world. Tanner observed, "His words had impact. Most of the world renewed its support for the American effort, including commitments of material help from Germany, France, Italy, Japan and other countries."[124]
Al-Qaeda fighters took over security in Afghan cities. The Northern Alliance troops planned to seize Mazar-i-Sharif, cutting off Taliban supply lines and enabling equipment to arrive from the north and then attack Kabul.
Areas most targeted
During the early months, the U.S. military had a limited presence on the ground. Special Forces and intelligence officers with a military background liaised with Afghan militias and advanced after the Taliban was disrupted by air power.[125][126][127]
The Tora Bora Mountains lie roughly east of Kabul, on the Pakistan border. American analysts believed that the Taliban and al-Qaeda had dug in behind fortified networks of caves and underground bunkers. The area was subjected to a heavy B-52 bombardment.[125][126][127][128]
U.S. and Northern Alliance objectives began to diverge. While the U.S. was continuing the search for Osama bin Laden, the Northern Alliance wanted to finish off the Taliban.
Battle of Mazar-i Sharif
Mazari-i Sharif was important because it is the home of the Shrine of Hazrat Ali or "Blue Mosque", a sacred Muslim site and because it is a significant transportation hub with two major airports and a major supply route leading into Uzbekistan.[129] Taking the city would enable humanitarian aid to alleviate a looming food crisis, which threatened more than six million people with starvation. Many of those in most urgent need lived in rural areas to the south and west of Mazar-i-Sharif.[129][130] On 9 November 2001, Northern Alliance forces, under the command of Dostum and Ustad Atta Mohammed Noor, overcame resistance crossing the Pul-i-Imam Bukhri bridge,[131][132] and seized the city's main military base and airport.
U.S. Special Forces Operational Detachment A-595, CIA paramilitary officers and United States Air Force Combat Control Team[133][134][135] on horseback and with close air support, took part in the push into Mazari Sharif. After a bloody 90-minute battle, Taliban forces withdrew after holding the city since 1998, triggering celebrations.[130][136]
The fall of the city was a "body blow"[136] to the Taliban and ultimately proved to be a "major shock",[137] since the U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) had originally believed that the city would remain in Taliban hands well into the following year[138] and any potential battle would require "a very slow advance".[139]
Following rumors that Mullah Dadullah was headed to recapture the city with as many as 8,000 fighters, a thousand U.S. troops of the 10th Mountain Division were airlifted into the city, providing the first solid position from which Kabul and Kandahar could be reached.[140] The U.S. Air Force now had an airport to allow them to fly more sorties for resupply missions and humanitarian aid.[136][141]
U.S.-backed forces began immediately broadcasting from Radio Mazar-i-Sharif, the former Taliban Voice of Sharia channel,[142] including an address from former President Rabbani.[143]
Fall of Kabul
On the night of 12 November, Taliban forces fled Kabul under cover of darkness. Northern Alliance forces arrived the following afternoon, encountering a group of about twenty fighters hiding in the city's park. This group was killed in a 15-minute gun battle. After these forces were neutralized, Kabul was in the hands of coalition forces.[144]
The fall of Kabul started a cascading collapse of Taliban positions. Within 24 hours, all Afghan provinces along the Iranian border had fallen, including Herat. Local Pashtun commanders and warlords had taken over throughout northeastern Afghanistan, including Jalalabad. Taliban holdouts in the north, mainly Pakistani volunteers, fell back to the northern city of Kunduz. By 16 November, the Taliban's last stronghold in northern Afghanistan was under siege. Nearly 10,000 Taliban fighters, led by foreign fighters, continued to resist. By then, the Taliban had been forced back to their heartland in southeastern Afghanistan around Kandahar.[145]
By 13 November, al-Qaeda and Taliban forces, possibly including bin Laden, were concentrating in Tora Bora, 50 kilometres (31 mi) southwest of Jalalabad. Nearly 2,000 al-Qaeda and Taliban fighters fortified themselves in positions within bunkers and caves. On 16 November the U.S. began bombing the mountain redoubt. Around the same time, CIA and Special Forces operatives were at work in the area, enlisting local warlords and planning an attack.[146]
Fall of Kunduz
As the bombardment at Tora Bora grew, the siege of Kunduz was continuing. After nine days of fighting and bombardment, Taliban fighters surrendered to Northern Alliance forces on 25–26 November. Shortly before the surrender, Pakistani aircraft arrived to evacuate intelligence and military personnel who had been aiding the Taliban's fight against the Northern Alliance. The airlift is alleged to have evacuated up to five thousand people, including Taliban and al-Qaeda troops.[147][148][149]
Battle of Qala-i-Jangi
On 25 November, as Taliban prisoners were moved into Qala-I-Janghi fortress near Mazar-I-Sharif, a few Taliban attacked their Northern Alliance guards. This incident triggered a revolt by 600 prisoners, who soon seized the southern half of the medieval fortress, including an armory stocked with small arms and crew-served weapons. Johnny Micheal Spann, a CIA operative who had been interrogating prisoners, was killed, marking America's first combat death.
The revolt was crushed after seven days of fighting involving a Special Boat Service unit, Army Special Forces, and Northern Alliance forces. AC-130 gunships and other aircraft provided strafing fire and launched bombs.[150] 86 Taliban survived, and around 50 Northern Alliance soldiers were killed. The revolt was the final combat in northern Afghanistan.
Consolidation: the taking of Kandahar
By the end of November, Kandahar was the Taliban's last stronghold, and was coming under increasing pressure. Nearly 3,000 tribal fighters, led by Karzai and Gul Agha Sherzai, the governor of Kandahar before the Taliban seized power, pressured Taliban forces from the east and cut off northern supply lines to Kandahar. The Northern Alliance loomed in the north and northeast.
Meanwhile, nearly 1,000 U.S. Marines, ferried in by CH-53E Super Stallion helicopters and C-130s, set up a Forward Operating Base known as Camp Rhino in the desert south of Kandahar on 25 November. This was the coalition's first base, and enabled other operating bases to form. The first significant combat involving U.S. ground forces occurred a day after Rhino was captured, when 15 Taleban armored vehicles approached the base and were attacked by helicopter gunships, destroying many of them. Meanwhile, airstrikes continued to pound Taliban positions inside the city, where Mullah Omar remained. Omar remained defiant although his movement controlled only 4 out of 30 Afghan provinces by the end of November. He called on his forces to fight to the death.
On 6 December, the U.S. government rejected amnesty for Omar or any Taliban leaders. On 7 December, Omar slipped out of Kandahar with a group of loyalists and moved northwest into the mountains of Uruzgan Province, thus reneging on the Taliban's promise to surrender their fighters and their weapons. He was last reported seen leaving in a convoy of motorcycles.
Other Taliban leaders fled to Pakistan through the remote passes of Paktia and Paktika Provinces. The border town of Spin Boldak surrendered on the same day, marking the end of Taliban control in Afghanistan. Afghan forces under Gul Agha seized Kandahar, while the U.S. Marines took control of the airport and established a U.S. base.
Battle of Tora Bora
Al-Qaeda fighters fought on at Tora Bora. A tribal militia steadily pushed bin Laden back across the difficult terrain, backed by Delta Force, UK Special Forces, and U.S. air strikes. The al-Qaeda forces agreed to a truce ostensibly to give them time to surrender their weapons. The truce was apparently a ruse to allow bin Laden and others to escape into Pakistan. On 12 December, fighting resumed, probably initiated by a rear guard buying time for the main force's escape through the White Mountains.
By 17 December, the last cave complex had been taken and its defenders overrun. U.S. and U.K. forces continued searching into January, but no sign of al-Qaeda leadership emerged. An estimated 200 al-Qaeda fighters were killed during the battle, along with an unknown number of tribal fighters. No American or British deaths were reported.
Diplomatic and humanitarian efforts
In December 2001 the United Nations hosted the Bonn Conference. The Taliban were excluded. Four Afghan opposition groups participated. Observers included representatives of neighbouring and other involved major countries.
The resulting Bonn Agreement created the Afghan Interim Authority that would serve as the "repository of Afghan sovereignty" and outlined the so-called Petersberg Process that would lead towards a new constitution and a new Afghan government.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1378 of 14 November 2001, included "Condemning the Taliban for allowing Afghanistan to be used as a base for the export of terrorism by the al-Qaeda network and other terrorist groups and for providing safe haven to Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda and others associated with them, and in this context supporting the efforts of the Afghan people to replace the Taliban regime".[151]
The United Nations World Food Programme temporarily suspended activities within Afghanistan at the beginning of the bombing attacks but resumed them after the fall of the Taliban.
Security force for Kabul
On 20 December 2001, the United Nations authorized an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), with a mandate to help the Afghans maintain security in Kabul and surrounding areas. It was initially established from the headquarters of the British 3rd Mechanised Division under Major General John McColl, and for its first years numbered no more that 5,000.[153] Its mandate did not extend beyond the Kabul area for the first few years.[154] Eighteen countries were contributing to the force in February 2002.
2002: Operation Anaconda
Following a Loya jirga, tribal leaders and former exiles established an interim government in Kabul under Hamid Karzai. U.S. forces established their main base at Bagram airbase just north of Kabul. Kandahar airport also became an important U.S. base. Outposts were established in eastern provinces to hunt for Taliban and al-Qaeda fugitives.
Al-Qaeda forces regrouped in the Shah-i-Kot Valley area, Paktia province, in January and February 2002. A Taliban fugitive in Paktia province, Mullah Saifur Rehman began reconstituting some of his militia forces. They totalled over 1,000 by the beginning of March 2002. The insurgents wanted to launch guerrilla attacks and possibly a major offensive, copying 1980s anti-Soviet fighters. The U.S. detected the buildup, and on 2 March 2002, U.S. and Afghan forces "Operation Anaconda" against them. Mujahideen forces, using small arms, rocket-propelled grenades, and mortars, were entrenched into caves and bunkers in the hillsides largely above 3,000 m (10,000 ft).
They used "hit and run" tactics, opening fire and then retreating to their caves and bunkers to weather the return fire and bombing. U.S. commanders initially estimated their opponents as an isolated pocket numbering fewer than 200. Instead the guerrillas numbered between 1,000–5,000, according to some estimates.[155] By 6 March, eight American, seven Afghan allied, and up to 400 Al Qaida opposing fighters had been killed.[156] Several hundred guerrillas escaped to the tribal areas in Waziristan. During Operation Anaconda and other missions during 2002 and 2003, special forces from Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, and Norway were also involved in operations.
In February 2002, the National Security Council met to decide whether to expand ISAF beyond Kabul. In a dispute between Powell and Rumsfeld (a pattern repeated often through the Bush Administration) Rumsfeld's view that the force should not be expanded prevailed.[157]
U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld's aimed to carry out operations in Afghanistan as quickly as possible, and leave as fast as possible. He thus wished to focus on kinetic counter-terrorism operations and building up a new Afghan Army.[28]
Post-Anaconda operations
Following the battle at Shahi-Kot, al-Qaeda fighters established sanctuaries on the Pakistani border, where they launched cross-border raids beginning in the summer of 2002. Guerrilla units, numbering between 5 and 25 men, regularly crossed the border to fire rockets at coalition bases, ambush convoys and patrols and assault non-governmental organizations. The area around the Shkin base in Paktika province saw some of the heaviest activity.
Meanwhile, Taliban forces remained in hiding in the rural regions of four southern provinces: Kandahar, Zabul, Helmand and Uruzgan. After Anaconda the Pentagon requested British Royal Marines, highly trained in mountain warfare, to be deployed. They conducted missions over several weeks with varying results. The Taliban avoided combat.[158]
In May 2002 Combined Joint Task Force 180 became the senior U.S. military headquarters in the country, under Lieutenant General Dan K. McNeill.
On September 5, 2002, a car bomb explosion killed 30 people and wounded 167 in Kabul.[159]
An insurgency gains strength
After evading coalition forces throughout mid-2002, Taliban remnants gradually regained confidence and prepared to launch the Taliban insurgency that Omar had promised.[160] During September, Taliban forces began a jihad recruitment drive in Pashtun areas in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pamphlets distributed in secret appeared in many villages in southeastern Afghanistan called for jihad.[161]
Small mobile training camps were established along the border to train recruits in guerrilla warfare.[162] Most were drawn from tribal area madrassas in Pakistan. Bases, a few with as many as 200 fighters, emerged in the tribal areas by the summer of 2003. Pakistani will to prevent infiltration was uncertain, while Pakistani military operations proved of little use.[163]
The Taliban gathered into groups of around 50 to launch attacks on isolated outposts, and then breaking up into groups of 5–10 to evade counterattacks. Coalition forces were attacked indirectly, through rocket attacks on bases and improvised explosive devices.
To coordinate the strategy, Omar named a 10-man leadership council, with himself as its leader.[163] Five operational zones were assigned to Taliban commanders such as Dadullah, who took charge in Zabul province.[163] Al-Qaeda forces in the east had a bolder strategy of attacking Americans using elaborate ambushes. The first sign of the strategy came on 27 January 2003, during Operation Mongoose, when a band of fighters were assaulted by U.S. forces at the Adi Ghar cave complex 25 km (15 mi) north of Spin Boldak.[164] 18 rebels were reported killed with no U.S. casualties. The site was suspected to be a base for supplies and fighters coming from Pakistan. The first isolated attacks by relatively large Taliban bands on Afghan targets also appeared around that time.
As the summer continued, Taliban attacks gradually increased in frequency. Dozens of Afghan government soldiers, NGO humanitarian workers, and several U.S. soldiers died in the raids, ambushes and rocket attacks. Besides guerrilla attacks, Taliban fighters began building up forces in the district of Dai Chopan in Zabul Province. The Taliban decided to make a stand there. Over the course of the summer, up to 1,000 guerrillas moved there. Over 220 people, including several dozen Afghan police, were killed in August 2003. In late August 2005, Afghan government forces attacked, backed by U.S. troops with air support. After a one-week battle, Taliban forces were routed with up to 124 fighters killed.
On 11 August 2003, NATO assumed control of ISAF.[154] On 31 July 2006, ISAF assumed command of the south of the country, and by 5 October 2006, of the east.[165] Once this transition had taken place, ISAF grew to a large coalition involving up to 46 countries, under a U.S. commander.
2006: Southern Afghanistan
From January 2006, a multinational ISAF contingent started to replace U.S. troops in southern Afghanistan. The British 16th Air Assault Brigade (later reinforced by Royal Marines) formed the core of the force, along with troops and helicopters from Australia, Canada and the Netherlands. The initial force consisted of roughly 3,300 British,[166] 2,300 Canadian,[167] 1,963 Dutch, 300 Australian,[168] 290 Danish[169] and 150 Estonian troops.[170] Air support was provided by U.S., British, Dutch, Norwegian and French combat aircraft and helicopters.
In January 2006, NATO's focus in southern Afghanistan was to form Provincial Reconstruction Teams with the British leading in Helmand while the Netherlands and Canada would lead similar deployments in Orūzgān and Kandahar, respectively. Local Taliban figures pledged to resist.[171]
Southern Afghanistan faced in 2006 the deadliest violence since the Taliban's fall. NATO operations were led by British, Canadian and Dutch commanders. Operation Mountain Thrust was launched on 17 May 2006, with. In July, Canadian Forces, supported by U.S., British, Dutch and Danish forces, launched Operation Medusa.
A combined force of Dutch and Australians launched a successful offensive between late April to mid July 2006 to push the Taliban out of the Chora and Baluchi areas.
On 18 September 2006 Italian special forces of Task Force 45 and airborne troopers of the 'Trieste' infantry regiment of the Rapid Reaction Corps composed of Italian and Spanish forces, took part in 'Wyconda Pincer' operation in the districts of Bala Buluk and Pusht-i-Rod, in Farah province. Italian forces killed at least 70 Taliban. The situation in RC-W then deteriorated. Hotspots included Badghis in the very north and Farah in the southwest.
Further NATO operations included the Battle of Panjwaii, Operation Mountain Fury and Operation Falcon Summit. NATO achieved tactical victories and area denial, but the Taliban were not completely defeated. NATO operations continued into 2007.
2007: Coalition offensive
In January and February 2007, British Royal Marines mounted Operation Volcano to clear insurgents from firing-points in the village of Barikju, north of Kajaki.[172] Other major operations during this period included Operation Achilles (March–May) and Operation Lastay Kulang. The UK Ministry of Defence announced its intention to bring British troop levels in the country up to 7,700 (committed until 2009).[173] Further operations, such as Operation Silver and Operation Silicon, took place to keep up the pressure on the Taliban in the hope of blunting their expected spring offensive.[174][175]
On 4 March 2007 U.S. Marines killed at least 12 civilians and injured 33 in Shinwar district, Nangrahar,[176] in a response to a bomb ambush. The event became known as the Shinwar Massacre.[177] The 120 member Marine unit responsible for the attack was asked[by whom?] to leave the country, because the incident damaged the unit's relations with the local Afghan population.[178]
Later in March 2007, the US added more than 3,500 troops.
On 12 May 2007, ISAF forces killed Mullah Dadullah. Eleven other Taliban fighters died in the same firefight.
During the summer, NATO forces achieved tactical victories at the Battle of Chora in Orūzgān, where Dutch and Australian ISAF forces were deployed.
On 16 August, eight civilians including a pregnant woman and a baby died when Polish soldiers shelled the village of Nangar Khel, Paktika Province. Seven soldiers have been charged with war crimes.
On 28 October about 80 Taliban fighters were killed in a 24-hour battle in Helmand.[179]
Western officials and analysts estimated the strength of Taliban forces at about 10,000 fighters fielded at any given time. Of that number, only 2,000 to 3,000 were highly motivated, full-time insurgents. The rest were part-timers, made up of alienated, young Afghans, angered by bombing raids or responding to payment. In 2007, more foreign fighters came than ever before, according to officials. Approximately 100 to 300 full-time combatants are foreigners, usually from Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Chechnya, various Arab countries and perhaps even Turkey and western China. They were reportedly more fanatical and violent, often bringing superior video-production or bombmaking expertise.[180]
On 2 November security forces killed a top-ranking militant, Mawlawi Abdul Manan, after he was caught crossing the border. The Taliban confirmed his death.[181] On 10 November the Taliban ambushed a patrol in eastern Afghanistan. This attack brought the U.S. death toll for 2007 to 100, making it the Americans' deadliest year in Afghanistan.[182]
The Battle of Musa Qala took place in December. Afghan units were the principal fighting force, supported by British forces.[183] Taliban forces were forced out of the town.
Reassessment and renewed commitment from 2008
Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said that while the situation in Afghanistan is "precarious and urgent", the 10,000 additional troops needed there would be unavailable "in any significant manner" unless withdrawals from Iraq are made. The priority was Iraq first, Afghanistan second.[184]
In the first five months of 2008, the number of U.S. troops in Afghanistan increased by over 80% with a surge of 21,643 more troops, bringing the total from 26,607 in January to 48,250 in June.[185] In September 2008, President Bush announced the withdrawal of over 8,000 from Iraq and a further increase of up to 4,500 in Afghanistan.[186]
In June 2008, British prime minister Gordon Brown announced the number of British troops serving in Afghanistan would increase to 8,030 – a rise of 230.[187] The same month, the UK lost its 100th serviceman.[188]
On 13 June, Taliban fighters demonstrated their ongoing strength, liberating all prisoners in Kandahar jail. The operation freed 1200 prisoners, 400 of whom were Taliban, causing a major embarrassment for NATO.[189]
On 13 July 2008, a coordinated Taliban attack was launched on a remote NATO base at Wanat in Kunar province. On 19 August, French troops suffered their worst losses in Afghanistan in an ambush.[190] Later in the month, an airstrike targeted a Taliban commander in Herat province and killed 90 civilians.
Late August saw one of NATO's largest operations in Helmand, Operation Eagle's Summit, aiming to bring electricity to the region.[191]
On 3 September, commandos, believed to be U.S. Army Special Forces, landed by helicopter and attacked three houses close to a known enemy stronghold in Pakistan. The attack killed between seven and twenty people. Local residents claimed that most of the dead were civilians. Pakistan condemned the attack, calling the incursion "a gross violation of Pakistan's territory".[192][193]
On 6 September, in an apparent reaction, Pakistan announced an indefinite disconnection of supply lines.[194]
On 11 September, militants killed two U.S. troops in the east. This brought the total number of U.S. losses to 113, more than in any prior year.[195] Several European countries set their own records, particularly the UK, who suffered 108 casualties.[12]
Taliban attacks on supply lines
In November and December 2008, multiple incidents of major theft, robbery, and arson attacks afflicted NATO supply convoys in Pakistan.[196][197][198] Transport companies south of Kabul were extorted for money by the Taliban.[198][199] These incidents included the hijacking of a NATO convoy carrying supplies in Peshawar,[197] the torching of cargo trucks and Humvees east of the Khyber pass[200] and a half-dozen raids on NATO supply depots near Peshawar that destroyed 300 cargo trucks and Humvees in December 2008.[201]
Issues with Pakistan
An unnamed senior Pentagon official told the BBC that at some point between 12 July and 12 September 2008, President Bush issued a classified order authorizing raids against militants in Pakistan. Pakistan said it would not allow foreign forces onto its territory and that it would vigorously protect its sovereignty.[202] In September, the Pakistan military stated that it had issued orders to "open fire" on U.S. soldiers who crossed the border in pursuit of militant forces.[203]
On 25 September 2008, Pakistani troops fired on ISAF helicopters. This caused confusion and anger in the Pentagon, which asked for a full explanation into the incident and denied that U.S. helicopters were in Pakistani airspace.
A further split occurred when U.S. troops apparently landed on Pakistani soil to carry out an operation against militants in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. 'Pakistan reacted angrily to the action, saying 20 innocent villagers had been killed by US troops'.[204] However, despite tensions, the U.S. increased the use of remotely piloted drone aircraft in Pakistan's border regions, in particular the Federally Administered Tribal Regions (FATA) and Balochistan; as of early 2009, drone attacks were up 183% since 2006.[205]
By the end of 2008, the Taliban apparently had severed remaining ties with al-Qaeda.[206] According to senior U.S. military intelligence officials, perhaps fewer than 100 members of al-Qaeda remained in Afghanistan.[207]
In a meeting with General Stanley McChrystal, Pakistani military officials urged international forces to remain on the Afghan side of the border and prevent militants from fleeing into Pakistan. Pakistan noted that it had deployed 140,000 soldiers on its side of the border to address militant activities, while the coalition had only 100,000 soldiers to police the Afghanistan side.[208]
2009: Southern Afghanistan
Northern Distribution Network
In response to the increased risk of sending supplies through Pakistan, work began on the establishment of a Northern Distribution Network (NDN) through Russia and Central Asian republics. Initial permission to move supplies through the region was given on 20 January 2009, after a visit to the region by General David Petraeus.[209] The first shipment along the NDN route left on 20 February from Riga, Latvia, then traveled 5,169 km (3,212 mi) to the Uzbek town of Termez on the Afghanistan border.[210] In addition to Riga, other European ports included Poti, Georgia and Vladivostok, Russia.[211] U.S. commanders hoped that 100 containers a day would be shipped along the NDN.[210] By comparison, 140 containers a day were typically shipped through the Khyber Pass.[212] By 2011, the NDN handled about 40% of Afghanistan-bound traffic, versus 30% through Pakistan.[211]
On 11 May 2009, Uzbekistan president Islam Karimov announced that the airport in Navoi (Uzbekistan) was being used to transport non-lethal cargo into Afghanistan. Due to the still unsettled relationship between Uzbekistan and the U.S. following the 2005 Andijon massacre and subsequent expulsion of U.S. forces from Karshi-Khanabad airbase, U.S. forces were not involved in the shipments. Instead, South Korea's Korean Air, which overhauled Navoi's airport, officially handled logistics.[213]
Originally only non-lethal resources were allowed on the NDN. In July 2009, however, shortly before a visit by new President Barack Obama to Moscow, Russian authorities announced that U.S. troops and weapons could use the country's airspace to reach Afghanistan.[214]
Human rights advocates were (as of 2009) concerned that the U.S. was again working with the government of Uzbekistan, which is often accused of violating human rights.[215] U.S. officials promised increased cooperation with Uzbekistan, including further assistance to turn Navoi into a regional distribution center for both military and civilian ventures.[216][217]
Increase in U.S. troops
In January, about 3,000 U.S. soldiers from the 3rd Brigade Combat Team of the 10th Mountain Division moved into the provinces of Logar and Wardak. Afghan Federal Guards fought alongside them. The troops were the first wave of an expected surge of reinforcements originally ordered by President Bush and increased by President Obama.[218]
In mid-February, it was announced that 17,000 additional troops would be deployed in two brigades and support troops; the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade of about 3,500 and the 5th Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, a Stryker Brigade with about 4,000.[219] ISAF commander General David McKiernan had called for as many as 30,000 additional troops, effectively doubling the number of troops.[220] On 23 September, a classified assessment by General McChrystal included his conclusion that a successful counterinsurgency strategy would require 500,000 troops and five years.[221]
In November, Ambassador Karl W. Eikenberry sent two classified cables to Washington expressing concerns about sending more troops before the Afghan government demonstrates that it is willing to tackle the corruption and mismanagement that has fueled the Taliban's rise. Eikenberry, a retired three-star general who in 2006–2007 commanded U.S. troops in Afghanistan, also expressed frustration with the relative paucity of funds set aside for development and reconstruction.[222] In subsequent cables, Eikenberry repeatedly cautioned that deploying sizable American reinforcements would result in "astronomical costs" – tens of billions of dollars – and would only deepen the Afghan government's dependence on the United States.
On 26 November, Karzai made a public plea for direct negotiations with the Taliban leadership. Karzai said there is an "urgent need" for negotiations and made it clear that the Obama administration had opposed such talks. There was no formal US response.[223][224]
On 1 December, Obama announced at the U.S. Military Academy in West Point that the U.S. would send 30,000 more troops.[225] Antiwar organizations in the U.S. responded quickly, and cities throughout the U.S. saw protests on 2 December.[226] Many protesters compared the decision to deploy more troops in Afghanistan to the expansion of the Vietnam War under the Johnson administration.[227]
Kunduz airstrike
On 4 September, during the Kunduz Province Campaign a devastating NATO air raid was conducted 7 kilometres southwest of Kunduz where Taliban fighters had hijacked civilian supply trucks, killing up to 179 people, including over 100 civilians.[228]
Operation Khanjar and Operation Panther's Claw
On 25 June US officials announced the launch of Operation Khanjar ("strike of the sword").[229] About 4000 U.S. Marines from the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade[230] and 650 Afghan soldiers[231] participated. Khanjar followed a British-led operation named Operation Panther's Claw in the same region.[232] Officials called it the Marines' largest operation since the 2004 invasion of Fallujah, Iraq.[230] Operation Panther's Claw was aimed to secure various canal and river crossings to establish a long-term ISAF presence.[233]
Initially, Afghan and American soldiers moved into towns and villages along the Helmand River[230] to protect the civilian population. The main objective was to push into insurgent strongholds along the river. A secondary aim was to bring security to the Helmand Valley in time for presidential elections, set to take place on 20 August.
Taliban gains
According to a 22 December briefing by Major General Michael T. Flynn, the top U.S. intelligence officer in Afghanistan, "The Taliban retains [the] required partnerships to sustain support, fuel legitimacy and bolster capacity."[234] The 23-page briefing states that "Security incidents [are] projected to be higher in 2010." Those incidents were already up by 300 percent since 2007 and by 60 percent since 2008, according to the briefing.[235] NATO intelligence at the time indicated that the Taliban had as many as 25,000 dedicated soldiers, almost as many as before 9/11 and more than in 2005.[236]
On 10 August McChrystal, newly appointed as U.S. commander in Afghanistan, said that the Taliban had gained the upper hand. In a continuation of the Taliban's usual strategy of summer offensives,[237] the militants aggressively spread their influence into north and west Afghanistan and stepped up their attack in an attempt to disrupt presidential polls.[238] Calling the Taliban a "very aggressive enemy", he added that the U.S. strategy was to stop their momentum and focus on protecting and safeguarding Afghan civilians, calling it "hard work".[239]
The Taliban's claim that the over 135 violet incidents disrupting elections was largely disputed. However, the media was asked to not report on any violent incidents.[240] Some estimates reported voter turn out as much less than the expected 70 percent. In southern Afghanistan where the Taliban held the most power, voter turnout was low and sporadic violence was directed at voters and security personnel. The chief observer of the European Union election mission, General Philippe Morillon, said the election was "generally fair" but "not free".[241]
Western election observers had difficulty accessing southern regions, where at least 9 Afghan civilians and 14 security forces were killed in attacks intended to intimidate voters. The Taliban released a video days after the elections, filming on the road between Kabul and Kandahar, stopping vehicles and asking to see their fingers. The video went showed ten men who had voted, listening to a Taliban militant. The Taliban pardoned the voters because of Ramadan.[242] The Taliban attacked towns with rockets and other indirect fire. Amid claims of widespread fraud, both top contenders, Hamid Karzai and Abdullah Abdullah, claimed victory. Reports suggested that turnout was lower than in the prior election.[243]
After Karzai's alleged win of 54 per cent, which would prevent a runoff, over 400,000 Karzai votes had to be disallowed after accusations of fraud. Some nations criticized the elections as "free but not fair".[244]
In December, an attack on Forward Operating Base Chapman, used by the CIA to gather information and to coordinate drone attacks against Taliban leaders, killed at least six CIA officers.
2010: American–British offensive and Afghan peace initiative
In public statements U.S. officials had previously praised Pakistan's military effort against militants during its offensive in South Waziristan in November 2009.[245] Karzai started peace talks with Haqqani network groups in March 2010,[246] and there were other peace initiatives including the Afghan Peace Jirga 2010. In July 2010, a U.S. Army report read: "It seems to always be this way when we go there [to meet civilians]. No one wants anything to do with us." A report on meeting up with school representatives mentioned students throwing rocks at soldiers and not welcoming their arrival, as had been reported on several occasions elsewhere.[247] President Zardari said that Pakistan had spent over 35 billion U.S. dollars during the previous eight years fighting against militancy.[248] According to the Afghan government, approximately 900 Taliban were killed in operations conducted during 2010.[249] Due to increased use of IEDs by insurgents the number of injured coalition soldiers, mainly Americans, significantly increased.[250] Beginning in May 2010 NATO special forces began to concentrate on operations to capture or kill specific Taliban leaders. As of March 2011, the U.S. military claimed that the effort had resulted in the capture or killing of more than 900 low- to mid-level Taliban commanders.[251][252] Overall, 2010 saw the most insurgent attacks of any year since the war began, peaking in September at more than 1,500. Insurgent operations increased "dramatically" in two-thirds of Afghan provinces.[253]
Troop surge
Deployment of additional U.S. troops continued in early 2010, with 9,000 of the planned 30,000 in place before the end of March and another 18,000 expected by June, with the 101st Airborne Division as the main source. U.S. troops in Afghanistan outnumbered those in Iraq for the first time since 2003.[254]
The CIA, following a request by General McChrystal, planned to increase teams of operatives, including elite SAD officers, with U.S. military special operations forces. This combination worked well in Iraq and was largely credited with the success of that surge.[255] The CIA also increased its campaign using Hellfire missile strikes on Al-Qaeda in Pakistan. The number of strikes in 2010, 115, more than doubled the 50 drone attacks that occurred in 2009.[256]
The surge in troops supported a sixfold increase in Special Forces operations.[257] 700 airstrikes occurred in September 2010 alone versus 257 in all of 2009. From July 2010 to October 2010, 300 Taliban commanders and 800 foot soldiers were killed.[258] Hundreds more insurgent leaders were killed or captured as 2010 ended.[257] Petraeus said, "We've got our teeth in the enemy's jugular now, and we're not going to let go."[259]
The CIA created Counter-terrorism Pursuit Teams (CTPT) staffed by Afghans at the war's beginning.[260][261] This force grew to over 3,000 by 2010 and was considered one of the "best Afghan fighting forces". Firebase Lilley was one of SAD's nerve centers.[261] These units were not only effective in operations against the Taliban and al-Qaeda forces in Afghanistan,[262] but have expanded their operations into Pakistan.[263] They were also important factors in both the "counterterrorism plus" and the full "counter-insurgency" options discussed by the Obama administration in the December 2010 review.[264]
WikiLeaks disclosure
On 25 July 2010, the release of 91,731 classified documents from the WikiLeaks organization was made public. The documents cover U.S. military incident and intelligence reports from January 2004 to December 2009.[265] Some of these documents included sanitised, and "covered up", accounts of civilian casualties caused by Coalition Forces. The reports included many references to other incidents involving civilian casualties like the Kunduz airstrike and Nangar Khel incident.[266] The leaked documents also contain reports of Pakistan collusion with the Taliban. According to Der Spiegel, "the documents clearly show that the Pakistani intelligence agency Inter-Services Intelligence (usually known as the ISI) is the most important accomplice the Taliban has outside of Afghanistan."[267]
Pakistan and U.S. tensions
Tensions between Pakistan and the U.S. were heightened in late September after several Pakistan Frontier Corps soldiers were killed and wounded. The troops were attacked by a U.S. piloted aircraft that was pursuing Taliban forces near the Afghan-Pakistan border, but for unknown reasons opened fire on two Pakistan border posts. In retaliation for the strike, Pakistan closed the Torkham ground border crossing to NATO supply convoys for an unspecified period. This incident followed the release of a video allegedly showing uniformed Pakistan soldiers executing unarmed civilians.[268] After the Torkham border closing, Pakistani Taliban attacked NATO convoys, killing several drivers and destroying around 100 tankers.[269]
2011: U.S. and NATO drawdown
Battle of Kandahar
The Battle of Kandahar was part of an offensive named after the Battle of Bad'r that took place on 13 March 624, between Medina and Mecca. The Battle followed an 30 April announcement that the Taliban would launch their Spring offensive.[270]
On 7 May the Taliban launched a major offensive on government buildings in Kandahar. The Taliban said their goal was to take control of the city. At least eight locations were attacked: the governor's compound, the mayor's office, the NDS headquarters, three police stations and two high schools.[271] The battle continued onto a second day. The BBC's Bilal Sarwary called it "the worst attack in Kandahar province since the fall of the Taliban government in 2001, and a embarrassment for the Western-backed Afghan government."[272]
Death of Osama bin Laden
On 2 May U.S. officials announced that al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden had been killed in Operation Neptune Spear, conducted by the CIA and U.S. Navy SEALs, in Pakistan. Crowds gathered outside the White House chanting "USA, USA" after the news emerged.[273]
Withdrawal
On 22 June President Obama announced that 10,000 troops would be withdrawn by the end of 2011 and an additional 23,000 troops would return by the summer of 2012. After the withdrawal of 10,000 U.S. troops, only 80,000 remained.[274] In July 2011 Canada withdrew its combat troops, transitioning to a training role.
Following suit, other NATO countries announced troop reductions. The United Kingdom stated that it would gradually withdraw its troops, however it did not specify numbers or dates.[275] France announced that it would withdraw roughly 1,000 soldiers by the end of 2012, with 3,000 soldiers remaining. Hundreds would come back at the end of 2011 and in the beginning of 2012, when the Afghan National Army took control of Surobi district. The remaining troops would continue to operate in Kapisa. Their complete withdrawal was expected by the end of 2014 or earlier given adequate security.[276]
Belgium announced that half of their force would withdraw starting in January 2012.[277] Norway announced it had started a withdrawal of its near 500 troops and would be completely out by 2014.[278] Equally, the Spanish Prime Minister announced the withdrawal of troops beginning in 2012, including up to 40 percent by the end of the first half of 2013, and complete withdrawal by 2014.[279]
2011 U.S.–NATO attack in Pakistan
After Neptune Spear, an accidental, direct attack on Pakistan's armed forces by ISAF forces occurred on 26 November, killing 24 Pakistani soldiers. Pakistan blocked NATO supply lines and ordered Americans to leave Shamsi Airfield. NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen said the attack was 'tragic' and 'unintended'. "This (regret) is not good enough. We strongly condemn the attacks and reserve the right to take action," said DG ISPR Major General Athar Abbas. "This could have serious consequences in the level and extent of our cooperation.[280]
2012: Strategic Agreement
Taliban attacks continued at the same rate as they did in 2011, remaining around 28,000 Taliban "enemy initiated" attacks.[281] In September 2012, the surge of American personnel that began in late 2009 ended.[282]
Reformation of the United Front (Northern Alliance)
In late 2011 the National Front of Afghanistan (NFA) was created by Ahmad Zia Massoud, Abdul Rashid Dostum and Haji Mohammad Mohaqiq in what many analysts have described as a reformation of the military wing of the United Front (Northern Alliance) to oppose a return of the Taliban to power.[283] Meanwhile, much of the political wing reunited under the National Coalition of Afghanistan led by Abdullah Abdullah becoming the main democratic opposition movement in the Afghan parliament.[284][285] Former head of intelligence Amrullah Saleh has created a new movement, Basej-i Milli (Afghanistan Green Trend), with support among the youth mobilizing about 10,000 people in an anti-Taliban demonstration in Kabul in May 2011.[286][287][288]
In January 2012, the National Front of Afghanistan raised concerns about the possibility of a secret deal between the US, Pakistan and the Taliban during a widely publicized meeting in Berlin. U.S. Congressman Louie Gohmert wrote, "These leaders who fought with embedded Special Forces to initially defeat the Taliban represent over 60-percent of the Afghan people, yet are being entirely disregarded by the Obama and Karzai Administrations in negotiations."[289] After the meeting with US congressmen in Berlin the National Front signed a joint declaration stating among other things:
"We firmly believe that any negotiation with the Taliban can only be acceptable, and therefore effective, if all parties to the conflict are involved in the process. The present form of discussions with the Taliban is flawed, as it excludes anti-Taliban Afghans. It must be recalled that the Taliban extremists and their Al-Qaeda supporters were defeated by Afghans resisting extremism with minimal human embedded support from the United States and International community. The present negotiations with the Taliban fail to take into account the risks, sacrifices and legitimate interests of the Afghans who ended the brutal oppression of all Afghans.[290]
— National Front Berlin Statement, January 2012
High-profile U.S. military incidents
Beginning in January 2012 incidents involving US troops[291][292][293][294][295][296] occurred which were described by The Sydney Morning Herald as "a series of damaging incidents and disclosures involving US troops in Afghanistan […]".[291] These incidents created fractures in the partnership between Afghanistan and ISAF,[297] raised the question whether discipline within U.S. troops was breaking down,[298] undermined "the image of foreign forces in a country where there is already deep resentment owing to civilian deaths and a perception among many Afghans that US troops lack respect for Afghan culture and people"[299] and strained the relations between Afghanistan and the United States.[292][293] Besides an incident involving US troops who posed with body parts of dead insurgents and an video apparently showing a US helicopter crew singing "Bye-bye Miss American Pie" before blasting a group of Afghan men with a Hellfire missile[299][300][301] these "high-profile U.S. military incidents in Afghanistan"[295] also included the 2012 Afghanistan Quran burning protests and the Panjwai shooting spree.
Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement
On 2 May 2012, Presidents Karzai and Obama signed a strategic partnership agreement between the two countries, after the US president had arrived unanounced in Kabul on the first anniversary of Osama bin Laden's death.[302] The U.S.-Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement, officially entitled the "Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement between the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the United States of America",[303] provides the long-term framework for the two countries' relationship after the drawdown of U.S. forces.[304] The Strategic Partnership Agreement went into effect on 4 July 2012, according to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on 8 July 2012 at the Tokyo Conference on Afghanistan.[305] On 7 July 2012, as part of the agreement, the U.S. designated Afghanistan a major non-NATO ally after Karzai and Clinton met in Kabul.[306] On 11 November 2012, as part of the agreement, the two countries launched negotiations for a bilateral security agreement.[307]
NATO Chicago Summit: Troops withdrawal and long-term presence
On 21 May 2012 the leaders of NATO-member countries endorsed an exit strategy during the NATO Summit.[35] ISAF Forces would transfer command of all combat missions to Afghan forces by the middle of 2013,[308] while shifting from combat to advising, training and assisting Afghan security forces.[309][310] Most of the 130,000 ISAF troops would depart by the end of December 2014.[308] A new NATO mission would then assume the support role.[309][311]
2013: Withdrawal
Karzai–Obama meeting
Karzai visited the U.S. in January 2012. At the time the U.S. Government stated its openness to withdrawing all of its troops by the end of 2014.[312] On 11 January 2012 Karzai and Obama agreed to transfer combat operations from NATO to Afghan forces by spring 2013 rather than summer 2013.[313][314] "What's going to happen this spring is that Afghans will be in the lead throughout the country", Obama said. "They [ISAF forces] will still be fighting alongside Afghan troops...We will be in a training, assisting, advising role." Obama added[314] He also stated the reason of the withdrawals that "We achieved our central goal, or have come very close...which is to de-capacitate al-Qaeda, to dismantle them, to make sure that they can't attack us again."[315]
Obama also stated that he would determine the pace of troop withdrawal after consultations with commanders.[316] He added that any U.S. mission beyond 2014 would focus solely on counterterrorism operations and training.[315][316] Obama insisted that a continuing presence must include an immunity agreement in which US troops are not subjected to Afghan law.[317] "I can go to the Afghan people and argue for immunity for U.S. troops in Afghanistan in a way that Afghan sovereignty will not be compromised, in a way that Afghan law will not be compromised," Karzai replied.[314]
Both leaders agreed that the United States would transfer Afghan prisoners and prisons to the Afghan government[314][318] and withdraw troops from Afghan villages in spring 2013.[318][319] "The international forces, the American forces, will be no longer present in the villages, that it will be the task of the Afghan forces to provide for the Afghan people in security and protection," the Afghan president said.[318]
Security transfer
On 18 June 2013 the transfer of security responsibilities was completed.[320][321][322][323] The last step was to transfer control of 95 remaining districts. Karzai said, "When people see security has been transferred to Afghans, they support the army and police more than before." NATO leader Rasmussen said that Afghan forces were completing a five-stage transition process that began in March 2011. "They are doing so with remarkable resolve," he said. "Ten years ago, there were no Afghan national security forces … now you have 350,000 Afghan troops and police."[320] ISAF remained slated to end its mission by the end of 2014.[323] Some 100,000 ISAF forces remained in the country.[321]
2014: Withdrawal continues and the insurgency increases
After 2013, Afghanistan has been shaken hard with suicide bombings by the Taliban. A clear example of this is a bombing of a Lebanese restaurant in the Wazir Akbar Khan area of Kabul on 18 February 2014. Among the dead in this attack was UN staff and the owner of the restaurant, who died protecting his business. 21 people altogether were killed. Meanwhile, the withdrawal continues with 200 more US troops alone coming home. The UK have halved their force and are slowing withdrawing with all but two bases being closed down. On 20 March 2014, more than 4 weeks after a bomb in a military bus by the Taliban rocked the city once again, a raid on the Serena hotel in Kabul by the Taliban resulted in the deaths of 9 people, including the 4 perpetrators. The attack came just 8 days after Swedish radio journalist Nils Horner was shot dead by the Taliban.
Despite the crisis in Crimea, by March 2014 Russia had not tried to exert pressure on the U.S. via the Northern Distribution Network supply line.[324] On 9 June 2014 a coalition air strike mistakenly killed five U.S. troops, an Afghan National Army member and an interpreter in Zabul Province.[325]
On 5 August 2014, a gunman in an Afghan military uniform opened fire on a number of U.S., foreign and Afghan soldiers, killing a U.S. general, Harold J. Greene[326] and wounding about 15 officers and soldiers including a German brigadier general and a large number of U.S. soldiers at Camp Qargha, a training base west of Kabul.[327]
Two longterm security pacts, the Bilaterial Security agreement between Afghanistan and the United States of America and the NATO Status of Forces Agreement between NATO and Afghanistan, were signed on September 30, 2014. Both pacts lay out the framework for the foreign troop involvement in Afghnistan after the year 2014.[328]
After 13 years Britain and the United States officially ended their combat operation in Afghanistan on October 26, 2014. On that day Britain handed over its last base in Afghanistan, Camp Bastion, while the United States handed over its last base, Camp Leatherneck, to Afghan forces.[329]
As early as November 2012, the U.S. and NATO were considering the precise configuration of their post-2014 presence in Afghanistan.[330][331] On 27 May 2014, President Barack Obama announced that U.S. combat operations in Afghanistan would end in December 2014 (see Withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan). 9,800 troops were to remain, training Afghan security forces and supporting counterterrorism operations against remnants of al-Qaeda. This force would be halved by the end of 2015, and consolidated at Bagram Air Base and in Kabul. All U.S. forces, with the exception of a "normal embassy presence," would be removed from Afghanistan by the end of 2016.[332]
On 28 December 2014 NATO officially ended combat operations in a ceremony held in Kabul.[30] Continued operations by United States forces within Afghanistan will continue under the name Operation Freedom's Sentinel;[333] this was joined by a new NATO mission under the name of Operation Resolute Support.[334] Operation Resolute Support, will involve 28 NATO nations, 14 partner nations, eleven thousand American troops, and eight hundred fifty German troops.[335]
The UK officially commemorated the end of its role in the Afghan war in a ceremony held in St Paul's cathedral on 13 March 2015. [336]
2015: Secretive war
Although there was a formal end of combat operations, American forces have increased raids against "Islamist militants", moving beyond counterterrorism missions. This is partially due to improved relations between the United States due to the Ghani presidency. Reasoning used for these raids include protecting American forces, which has been broadly interpreted.[337] One raid, a joint raid by American and Afghan forces arrested six Taliban connected to the 2014 Peshawar school massacre.[338] American Secretary of Defense Ash Carter traveled to Afghanistan in February 2015;[339] during a period when it was discussed that the U.S. would slow down its withdrawal from Afghanistan.[340] In February 2015, the headquarters element of America's 7th Infantry Division began to deploy to Afghanistan.[341] It will be joined by 10th Mountain Division's 2nd Brigade Combat Team, and 101st Combat Aviation Brigade.[342]
Impact on Afghan society
Civilian casualties
War casualty estimates vary. According to a UN report, the Taliban were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in 2009.[343] A UN report in June 2011 stated that 2,777 civilians were known to have been killed in 2010, (insurgents responsible for 75%).[344] A July 2011 UN report said "1,462 non-combatants died" in the first six months of 2011 (insurgents 80%).[345] In 2011 a record 3,021 civilians were killed, the fifth successive annual rise.[346] According to a UN report, in 2013 there were 2,959 civilian deaths with 74% being blamed on anti-government forces, 8% on Afghan security forces, 3% on ISAF forces, 10% to ground engagements between anti-Government forces and pro-Government forces and 5% of the deaths were unattributed.[347] 60% of Afghans have direct personal experience and most others report suffering a range of hardships. 96% have been affected either personally or from the wider consequences.[348]
According to Nicholas Kristoff, improved healthcare resulting from the war has saved hundreds of thousands of lives.[349]
Refugees
Since 2001, more than 5.7 million former refugees have returned to Afghanistan,[2][350][351] but 2.2 million others remained refugees in 2013.[352] In January 2013 the UN estimated that 547,550 were internally displaced persons, a 25% increase over the 447,547 IDPs estimated for January 2012[351][352][353]
Drug trade
From 1996–1999, the Taliban controlled 96% of Afghanistan's poppy fields and made opium its largest source of revenue. Taxes on opium exports became one of the mainstays of Taliban income. According to Rashid, "drug money funded the weapons, ammunition and fuel for the war." In The New York Times, the Finance Minister of the United Front, Wahidullah Sabawoon, declared the Taliban had no annual budget but that they "appeared to spend US$300 million a year, nearly all of it on war". He added that the Taliban had come to increasingly rely on three sources of money: "poppy, the Pakistanis and bin Laden".[354]
By 2000 Afghanistan accounted for an estimated 75% of the world's opium supply and in 2000 produced an estimated 3276 tonnes from 82,171 hectares (203,050 acres).[355] Omar then banned opium cultivation and production dropped to an estimated 74 metric tonnes from 1,685 hectares (4,160 acres).[356] Some observers say the ban – which came in a bid for international recognition at the United Nations – was issued only to raise opium prices and increase profit from the sale of large existing stockpiles. 1999 had yielded a record crop and had been followed by a lower but still large 2000 harvest. The trafficking of accumulated stocks continued in 2000 and 2001. In 2002, the UN mentioned the "existence of significant stocks of opiated accumulated during previous years of bumper harvests". In September 2001 – before 11 September attacks against the U.S. – the Taliban allegedly authorized Afghan peasants to sow opium again.[354]
Soon after the invasion opium production increased markedly.[357] By 2005, Afghanistan was producing 90% of the world's opium, most of which was processed into heroin and sold in Europe and Russia.[358] In 2009, the BBC reported that "UN findings say an opium market worth $65bn (£39bn) funds global terrorism, caters to 15 million addicts, and kills 100,000 people every year".[359]
Public education
As of 2013, 8.2 million Afghans attended school, including 3.2 million girls, up from 1.2 million in 2001, including fewer than 50,000 girls.[360][361]
War crimes
War crimes (a serious violation of the laws and customs of war giving rise to individual criminal responsibility)[362] have been committed by both sides, including civilian massacres, bombings of civilian targets, terrorism, use of torture and the murder of prisoners of war. Additional common crimes include theft, arson, and the destruction of property not warranted by military necessity.
Taliban
In 2011 The New York Times reported that the Taliban was responsible for 3⁄4 of all civilian deaths in the war in Afghanistan.[363][364] In 2013 the UN stated that the Taliban had been placing bombs along transit routes.[365]
Northern Alliance
In December 2001 the Dasht-i-Leili massacre took place, where between 250 and 3,000 Taliban fighters who had surrendered, were shot and/or suffocated to death in metal truck containers during transportation by Northern Alliance forces. Reports place U.S. ground troops at the scene.[366][367][368] The Irish documentary Afghan Massacre: The Convoy of Death investigated these allegations and claimed that mass graves of thousands of victims were found by UN investigators[369] and that the US blocked investigations into the incident.[370]
Coalition
On 21 June 2003, David Passaro, a CIA contractor and former United States Army Ranger, killed Abdul Wali, a prisoner at a U.S. base 16 km (10 mi) south of Asadabad, in Kunar Province. Passaro was found guilty of one count of felony assault with a dangerous weapon and three counts of misdemeanor assault. On 10 August 2009, he was sentenced to 8 years and 4 months in prison.[371][372]
In 2002, two unarmed civilian Afghan prisoners were tortured and later killed by U.S. armed forces personnel at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility (also Bagram Collection Point or B.C.P.) in Bagram, Afghanistan.[373] The prisoners, Habibullah and Dilawar, were chained to the ceiling and beaten, which caused their deaths.[374] Military coroners ruled that both the prisoners' deaths were homicides.[375] Autopsies revealed severe trauma to both prisoners' legs, describing the trauma as comparable to being run over by a bus. Fifteen soldiers were charged.
During the summer of 2010, ISAF charged five United States Army soldiers with the murder of three Afghan civilians in Kandahar province and collecting their body parts as trophies in what came to be known as the Maywand District murders. In addition, seven soldiers were charged with crimes such as hashish use, impeding an investigation and attacking the whistleblower, Specialist Justin Stoner.[376][377][378] Eleven of the twelve soldiers were convicted on various counts.[379]
A British Royal Marine Sergeant, identified as Sergeant Alexander Blackman from Taunton, Somerset,[380] was convicted at court martial in Wiltshire of having murdered an unarmed, reportedly wounded Afghan fighter in Helmand Province in September 2011.[381] In 2013, he received a life sentence from the court martial in Bulford, Wiltshire, and was dismissed with disgrace from the Royal Marines.[382][383]
On 11 March 2012, the Kandahar massacre occurred when sixteen civilians were killed and six wounded in the Panjwayi District of Kandahar Province, Afghanistan.[384][385] Nine of the victims were children,[385] and eleven of the dead were from the same family.[386] United States Army Staff Sergeant Robert Bales was taken into custody and charged with sixteen counts of premeditated murder. After pleading guilty to sixteen counts of premeditated murder, Bales was sentenced to life in prison without parole.[387]
Costs
The cost of the war reportedly was a major factor as U.S. officials considered drawing down troops in 2011.[388] A March 2011 Congressional Research Service report noted, 1) following the Afghanistan surge announcement in 2009, Defense Department spending on Afghanistan increased by 50%, going from $4.4 billion to $6.7 billion a month. During that time, troop strength increased from 44,000 to 84,000, and was expected to be at 102,000 for fiscal year 2011; 2) The total cost from inception to the fiscal year 2011 was expected to be $468 billion.[389] The estimate for the cost of deploying one U.S. soldier in Afghanistan is over US$1 million a year.[390]
Stability challenges
In a 2008 interview, the then-head U.S. Central Command General David H. Petraeus, insisted that the Taliban were gaining strength. He cited a recent uptick in attacks in Afghanistan and in neighboring Pakistan. Petraeus insisted that the challenges in Afghanistan were more complicated than the ones he had faced in Iraq during his tour and required removing widespread sanctuaries and strongholds.[391]
Observers have argued that the mission in Afghanistan is hampered by a lack of agreement on objectives, a lack of resources, lack of coordination, too much focus on the central government at the expense of local and provincial governments, and too much focus on the country instead of the region.[392]
In 2009, Afghanistan moved three places in Transparency International's annual index of corruption, becoming the world's second most-corrupt country just ahead of Somalia.[393] In the same month, Malalai Joya, a former member of the Afghan Parliament and the author of "Raising My Voice", expressed opposition to an expansion of the U.S. military presence and her concerns about the future. "Eight years ago, the U.S. and NATO – under the banner of women's rights, human rights, and democracy – occupied my country and pushed us from the frying pan into the fire. Eight years is enough to know better about the corrupt, mafia system of President Hamid Karzai. My people are crushed between two powerful enemies. From the sky, occupation forces bomb and kill civilians … and on the ground, the Taliban and warlords continue their crimes. It is better that they leave my country; my people are that fed up. Occupation will never bring liberation, and it is impossible to bring democracy by war."[394]
Pakistan plays a central role in the conflict. A 2010 report published by the London School of Economics says that Pakistan's ISI has an "official policy" of support to the Taliban.[395] "Pakistan appears to be playing a double-game of astonishing magnitude," the report states.[395] Amrullah Saleh, former director of Afghanistan's intelligence service, stated, "We talk about all these proxies [Taliban, Haqqanis] but not the master of proxies, which is the Pakistan army. The question is what does Pakistan's army want to achieve …? They want to gain influence in the region"[396] About the presence of foreign troops in Afghanistan he stated: "[T]hey fight for the U.S. national interest but … without them we will face massacre and disaster and God knows what type of a future Afghanistan will have."[396][397]
Afghan security forces
Afghan National Army
U.S. policy called for boosting the Afghan National Army to 134,000 soldiers by October 2010. By May 2010 the Afghan Army had accomplished this interim goal and was on track to reach its ultimate number of 171,000 by 2011.[398] This increase in Afghan troops allowed the U.S. to begin withdrawing its forces in July 2011.[399][400]
In 2010, the Afghan National Army had limited fighting capacity.[401] Even the best Afghan units lacked training, discipline and adequate reinforcements. In one new unit in Baghlan Province, soldiers had been found cowering in ditches rather than fighting.[402] Some were suspected of collaborating with the Taliban.[401] "They don't have the basics, so they lay down," said Capt. Michael Bell, who was one of a team of U.S. and Hungarian mentors tasked with training Afghan soldiers. "I ran around for an hour trying to get them to shoot, getting fired on. I couldn't get them to shoot their weapons."[401] In addition, 9 out of 10 soldiers in the Afghan National Army were illiterate.[403]
The Afghan Army was plagued by inefficiency and endemic corruption.[404] U.S. training efforts were drastically slowed by the problems.[405] U.S. trainers reported missing vehicles, weapons and other military equipment, and outright theft of fuel.[401] Death threats were leveled against U.S. officers who tried to stop Afghan soldiers from stealing. Afghan soldiers often snipped the command wires of IEDs instead of marking them and waiting for U.S. forces to come to detonate them. This allowed insurgents to return and reconnect them.[401] U.S. trainers frequently removed the cell phones of Afghan soldiers hours before a mission for fear that the operation would be compromised.[406] American trainers often spent large amounts of time verifying that Afghan rosters were accurate – that they are not padded with "ghosts" being "paid" by Afghan commanders who stole the wages.[407]
Desertion was a significant problem. One in every four combat soldiers quit the Afghan Army during the 12-month period ending in September 2009, according to data from the U.S. Defense Department and the Inspector General for Reconstruction in Afghanistan.[408]
Afghan National Police
The Afghan National Police provides support to the Afghan army. Police officers in Afghanistan are also largely illiterate. Approximately 17 percent of them tested positive for illegal drugs in 2010. They were widely accused of demanding bribes.[409] Attempts to build a credible Afghan police force were faltering badly, according to NATO officials.[410] A quarter of the officers quit every year, making the Afghan government's goals of substantially building up the police force even harder to achieve.[410]
.jpg)
Insider attacks
Beginning in 2011, insurgent forces in Afghanistan began using a tactic of insider attacks on ISAF and Afghan military forces. In the attacks, Taliban personnel or sympathizers belonging to, or pretending to belong to, the Afghan military or police forces attack ISAF personnel, often within the security of ISAF military bases and Afghan government facilities. In 2011, for example, 21 insider attacks killed 35 coalition personnel. Forty-six insider attacks killed 63 and wounded 85 coalition troops, mostly American, in the first 11 months of 2012.[411] The attacks continued but began diminishing towards the planned 31 December 2014 ending of combat operations in Afghanistan by ISAF. However, on 5 August 2014, a gunman in an Afghan military uniform opened fire on a number of international military personnel, killing a U.S. general and wounding about 15 officers and soldiers, including a German brigadier general and 8 U.S. troops, at a training base west of Kabul.[327]
Reactions
Domestic reactions
Polls of Afghans displayed strong opposition to the Taliban and significant support of the U.S. military presence. However the idea of permanent U.S. military bases was not popular in 2005.[412]
According to a May 2009 BBC poll, 69% of Afghans surveyed thought it was at least mostly good that the U.S. military came in to remove the Taliban – a decrease from 87% of Afghans surveyed in 2005. 24% thought it was mostly or very bad – up from 9% in 2005. The poll indicated that 63% of Afghans were at least somewhat supportive of a U.S. military presence in the country – down from 78% in 2005. Just 18% supported increasing the U.S. military's presence, while 44% favored reducing it. 90% of Afghans surveyed opposed the Taliban, including 70% who were strongly opposed. By an 82%–4% margin, people said they preferred the current government to Taliban rule.[413]
In a June 2009 Gallup survey, about half of Afghan respondents felt that additional U.S. forces would help stabilize the security situation in the southern provinces. But opinions varied widely; residents in the troubled South were mostly mixed or uncertain, while those in the West largely disagreed that more U.S. troops would help the situation.[414]
In December 2009, many Afghan tribal heads and local leaders from the south and east called for U.S. troop withdrawals. "I don't think we will be able to solve our problems with military force," said Muhammad Qasim, a Kandahar tribal elder. "We can solve them by providing jobs and development and by using local leaders to negotiate with the Taliban."[415] "If new troops come and are stationed in civilian areas, when they draw Taliban attacks civilians will end up being killed," said Gulbadshah Majidi, a lawmaker and close associate of Mr. Karzai. "This will only increase the distance between Afghans and their government."[416]
In late January 2010, Afghan protesters took to the streets for three straight days and blocked traffic on a highway that links Kabul and Kandahar. The Afghans were demonstrating in response to the deaths of four men in a NATO-Afghan raid in the village of Ghazni. Ghazni residents insisted that the dead were civilians.[417]
International reactions
Public opinion in 2001
When the invasion began in October 2001, polls indicated that about 88% of Americans and about 65% of Britons backed military action.[418]
A large-scale 37-nation poll of world opinion carried out by Gallup International in late September 2001 found that large majorities in most countries favored a legal response, in the form of extradition and trial, over a military response to 9/11: only three countries out of the 37 surveyed – the U.S., Israel and India – did majorities favor military action. In the other 34 countries surveyed, the poll found many clear majorities that favored extradition and trial instead of military action: in the United Kingdom (75%), France (67%), Switzerland (87%), Czech Republic (64%), Lithuania (83%), Panama (80%) and Mexico (94%).[419][420]
An Ipsos-Reid poll conducted between November and December 2001 showed that majorities in Canada (66%), France (60%), Germany (60%), Italy (58%), and the U.K. (65%) approved of U.S. airstrikes while majorities in Argentina (77%), China (52%), South Korea (50%), Spain (52%), and Turkey (70%) opposed them.[421]
Development of public opinion
In a 47-nation June 2007 survey of global public opinion, the Pew Global Attitudes Project found international opposition to the war. Out of the 47 countries surveyed, 4 had a majority that favoured keeping foreign troops: the U.S. (50%), Israel (59%), Ghana (50%), and Kenya (60%). In 41, pluralities wanted NATO troops out as soon as possible.[422] In 32 out of 47, clear majorities wanted war over as soon as possible. Majorities in 7 out of 12 NATO member countries said troops should be withdrawn as soon as possible.[422][423]
A 24-nation Pew Global Attitudes survey in June 2008 similarly found that majorities or pluralities in 21 of 24 countries want the U.S. and NATO to remove their troops from Afghanistan as soon as possible. Only in three out of the 24 countries – the U.S. (50%), Australia (60%), and Britain (48%) – did public opinion lean more toward keeping troops there until the situation has stabilized.[424][425]
Following that June 2008 global survey, however, public opinion in Australia and Britain diverged from that in the U.S. Aa majority of Australians and Britons now want their troops home. A September 2008 poll found that 56% of Australians opposed continuation of their country's military involvement.[426][427][428] A November 2008 poll found that 68% of Britons wanted their troops withdrawn within the next 12 months.[429][430][431]
In the U.S., a September 2008 Pew survey found that 61% of Americans wanted U.S. troops to stay until the situation has stabilized, while 33% wanted them removed as soon as possible.[432] Public opinion was divided over Afghan troop requests: a majority of Americans continued to see a rationale for the use of military force in Afghanistan.[433] A slight plurality of Americans favored troop increases, with 42%–47% favoring some troop increases, 39%–44% wanting reduction, and 7–9% wanting no changes. Just 29% of Democrats favored troop increases while 57% wanted to begin reducing troops. Only 36% of Americans approved of Obama's handling of Afghanistan, including 19% of Republicans, 31% of independents, and 54% of Democrats.[434]
In a December 2009 Pew Research Center poll, only 32 percent of Americans favored increasing U.S. troops in Afghanistan, while 40 percent favored decreasing them. Almost half of Americans, 49 percent, believed that the U.S. should "mind its own business" internationally and let other countries get along the best they can. That figure was an increase from 30 percent who said that in December 2002.[435]
An April 2011 Pew Research Center poll showed little change in American views, with about 50% saying that the effort was going very well or fairly well and only 44% supporting NATO troop presence in Afghanistan.[436]
Protests, demonstrations and rallies
The war has been the subject of large protests around the world starting with the large-scale demonstrations in the days leading up to the invasion and every year since. Many protesters consider the bombing and invasion of Afghanistan to be unjustified aggression.[437][438] The deaths of Afghan civilians caused directly and indirectly by the U.S. and NATO bombing campaigns is a major underlying focus of the protests.[439] In January 2009, Brave New Foundation launched Rethink Afghanistan, a national campaign for non-violent solutions in Afghanistan built around a documentary film by director and political activist Robert Greenwald.[440] Dozens of organizations planned (and eventually held) a national march for peace in Washington, D.C. on 20 March 2010.[441][442]
Human rights abuses
Multiple accounts document human rights violations in Afghanistan.[443]
Taliban
According to a report by the United Nations, the Taliban were responsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in 2009.[343] The Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIGRC) called the Taliban's terrorism against the Afghan civilian population a war crime.[39] According to Amnesty International, the Taliban commit war crimes by targeting civilians, including killing teachers, abducting aid workers and burning school buildings. Amnesty International said that up to 756 civilians were killed in 2006 by bombs, mostly on roads or carried by suicide attackers belonging to the Taliban.[444] Some religious leaders have condemned Taliban terrorist attacks and said these kinds of attacks are against Islamic ethics.[39]
NATO has alleged that the Taliban have used civilians as human shields. As an example, NATO pointed to the victims of NATO air strikes in Farah province in May 2009, during which the Afghan government claims up to 150 civilians were killed. NATO stated it had evidence the Taliban forced civilians into buildings likely to be targeted by NATO aircraft involved in the battle. A spokesman for the ISAF commander said: "This was a deliberate plan by the Taliban to create a civilian casualty crisis. These were not human shields; these were human sacrifices. We have intelligence that points to this."[445] The Taliban committed human rights violations against women in Afghanistan, according to the U.S. State Department.[446]
White phosphorus use
White phosphorus has been condemned by human rights organizations as cruel and inhumane because it causes severe burns. White phosphorus burns on the bodies of civilians wounded in clashes near Bagram were confirmed. The U.S. claims at least 44 instances in which militants have used white phosphorus in weapons or attacks.[447] In May 2009, the U.S. confirmed that Western military forces in Afghanistan use white phosphorus to illuminate targets or as an incendiary to destroy bunkers and enemy equipment.[448][449] US forces used white phosphorus to screen a retreat in the Battle of Ganjgal when regular smoke munitions were not available.[450] The Afghan government investigated the use of white phosphorus munitions.[451]
Environmental legacy
Since 1979 landmines, shells, bombs, and other unexploded ordnance has been left behind. In 2015 the NATO's International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was replaced by the US-led "Resolute Support" The director of the Mine Action Coordination Centre for Afghanistan (MACCA). ISAF stressed it had never used landmines.
See also
Column-generating template families
The templates listed here are not interchangeable. For example, using {{col-float}} with {{col-end}} instead of {{col-float-end}} would leave a <div>...</div> open, potentially harming any subsequent formatting.
| Type | Family | Handles wiki
table code?† |
Responsive/ mobile suited |
Start template | Column divider | End template |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Float | "col-float" | Yes | Yes | {{col-float}} | {{col-float-break}} | {{col-float-end}} |
| "columns-start" | Yes | Yes | {{columns-start}} | {{column}} | {{columns-end}} | |
| Columns | "div col" | Yes | Yes | {{div col}} | – | {{div col end}} |
| "columns-list" | No | Yes | {{columns-list}} (wraps div col) | – | – | |
| Flexbox | "flex columns" | No | Yes | {{flex columns}} | – | – |
| Table | "col" | Yes | No | {{col-begin}}, {{col-begin-fixed}} or {{col-begin-small}} |
{{col-break}} or {{col-2}} .. {{col-5}} |
{{col-end}} |
† Can template handle the basic wiki markup {| | || |- |} used to create tables? If not, special templates that produce these elements (such as {{(!}}, {{!}}, {{!!}}, {{!-}}, {{!)}})—or HTML tags (<table>...</table>, <tr>...</tr>, etc.)—need to be used instead.
References
- ^ Roggi, Bill (31 August 2009). "Pakistan's most-wanted: look at who isn't listed". The Long War Journal. Public Multimedia Inc. Retrieved 2 September 2009.
- ^ a b 2012 UNHCR country operations profile – Afghanistan unhcr.org
- ^ Knefel, John (7 January 2015). "Drone Rules in Afghanistan Go Unchanged, And Other Reasons the War Isn't Really Over". Rolling Stones. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
Tomei, Lizzy (22 January 2015). "It's 2015. Time for some new U.S. operations in Iraq and Afghanistan". The Week. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
Ackerman, Spencer (30 September 2014). "New Afghanistan pact means America's longest war will last until at least 2024". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
Munoz, Carlos (8 January 2015). "Expect more US casualties in Afghanistan, top NATO commander says". Stars & Stripes. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ a b "The continuing US war in Afghanistan". World Socialist Web Site. 30 December 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
- ^ "The Afghan National Security Forces Beyond 2014: Will They Be Ready?" (PDF). Centre for Security Governance. February 2014.
- ^ a b Akmal Dawi. "Despite Massive Taliban Death Toll No Drop in Insurgency". Voanews.com. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
- ^ Bill Roggio (26 April 2011). "How many al Qaeda operatives are now left in Afghanistan? – Threat Matrix". Longwarjournal.org. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ^ "Al Qaeda In Afghanistan Is Attempting A Comeback". The Huffington Post. 21 October 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ^ Rassler, Don; Vahid Brown (14 July 2011). "The Haqqani Nexus and the Evolution of al-Qaida" (PDF). Harmony Program. Combating Terrorism Center. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ Reuters. "Sirajuddin Haqqani dares US to attack N Waziristan, by Reuters, Published: September 24, 2011". Tribune. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
{{cite web}}:|author=has generic name (help) - ^ Perlez, Jane (14 December 2009). "Rebuffing U.S., Pakistan Balks at Crackdown". The New York Times.
- ^ a b "OEF: Afghanistan: Fatalities By Year". icasualties.org. 9 September 2005. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
- ^ OPERATION ENDURING FREEDOM (OEF) U.S. CASUALTY STATUS FATALITIES as of: December 30, 2014, 10 a.m. EDT
- ^ Number of Afghanistan UK Military and Civilian casualties (7 October 2001 to 30 November 2014)
- ^ "Over 2,000 Canadians were wounded in Afghan mission: report". National Post. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
- ^ a b "U.S. Department of Labor – Office of Workers' Compensation Programs (OWCP) – Defense Base Act Case Summary by Nation". Dol.gov. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ a b T. Christian Miller (23 September 2009). "U.S. Government Private Contract Worker Deaths and Injuries". Projects.propublica.org. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ Rod Nordland (3 March 2014). "War Deaths Top 13,000 in Afghan Security Forces". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
- ^ Rod Nordland (22 October 2014). "2,853 ANA troops killed in action since 2003". Afghanistan Times. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
- ^ Morello, Carol; Loeb, Vernon (6 December 2001). "Friendly fire kills 3 GIs". Post-Gazette. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ^ Terry McCarthy/Kunduz (18 November 2001). "A Volatile State of Siege After a Taliban Ambush". Time. Retrieved 2 October 2008.[dead link]
- ^ John Pike (9 December 2001). "VOA News Report". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "US Bombs Wipe Out Farming Village". Rawa.org. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Deadliest Year for the ANSF: Mohammadi
- ^ Brown University Watson Institute for International Studies (27 February 2001). "Afghan Civilians". Costs of War. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
- ^ Peter Dahl Thruelsen, From Soldier to Civilian: DISARMAMENT DEMOBILISATION REINTEGRATION IN AFGHANISTAN, DIIS REPORT 2006:7, 12, supported by Uppsala Conflict Database Project, Uppsala University.
- ^ "U.S. War in Afghanistan: 1999-Present". cfr.org. Council on Foreign Relations. 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
"U.S. War in Afghanistan". NBCNews.com. NBC News Digital. 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Lamothe, Dan (6 January 2015). "This new graphic shows the state of the U.S. war in Afghanistan". Washington post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Matt Doeden; Blake Hoena (1 January 2014). War in Afghanistan: An Interactive Modern History Adventure. Capstone. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4765-5221-7.
Michael Cox; Doug Stokes (9 February 2012). US Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-19-958581-6.
Robert M. Cassidy (Ph.D.) (2004). Peacekeeping in the Abyss: British and American Peacekeeping Doctrine and Practice After the Cold War. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-275-97696-5. - ^ a b David P. Auerswald; Stephen M. Saideman (5 January 2014). NATO in Afghanistan: Fighting Together, Fighting Alone. Princeton University Press. p. 87-88. ISBN 978-1-4008-4867-6.
- ^ Darlene Superville and Steven R. Hurst. "Updated: Obama speech balances Afghanistan troop buildup with exit pledge". cleveland.com. Associated Press. and Arkedis, Jim (23 October 2009). "Why Al Qaeda Wants a Safe Haven". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
- ^ a b "U.S. formally ends the war in Afghanistan". No. online. CBA News. Associated Press. 28 December 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
- ^ Sune Engel Rasmussen in Kabul (28 December 2014). "Nato ends combat operations in Afghanistan". Kabul: The Guardian. The Guardian. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ "Bush rejects Taliban offer to hand Bin Laden over". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 January 2015.
- ^ Vulliamy, Ed; Wintour, Patrick; Traynor, Ian; Ahmed, Kamal (7 October 2001). "After the September Eleventh Terrorist attacks on America, "It's time for war, Bush and Blair tell Taliban – We're ready to go in – PM|Planes shot at over Kabul"". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ "Canada in Afghanistan: 2001". National Post. Retrieved 7 June 2013.
- ^ a b Felbab-Brown, V. 2012. "Slip-Sliding on a Yellow Brick Road: Stabilization Efforts in Afghanistan." Stability: International Journal of Security and Development 1(1):4–19, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/sta.af
- ^ Rubin, Alyssa J. (22 December 2009). "NATO Chief Promises to Stand by Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "The Taliban Resurgence in Afghanistan".
- ^ Rothstein, Hy S (15 August 2006). Afghanistan: and the troubled future of unconventional warfare By Hy S. Rothstein. ISBN 978-81-7049-306-8.
- ^ a b c "AIHRC Calls Civilian Deaths War Crime". Tolonews. 13 January 2011.[dead link]
- ^ Starkey, Jerome (30 September 2010). "Karzai's Taliban talks raise spectre of civil war warns former spy chief". The Scotsman. Edinburgh.
- ^ Vira, Varun; Cordesman, Anthony (25 July 2011). "Pakistan: Violence versus Stability: A Net Assessment". Center for Strategic and International Studies.
- ^ Walsh, Declan; Nordland, Rod (10 September 2013). "Pakistan May Release Taliban Commander to Aid Afghan Peace Talks". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ DeYoung, Karen (27 May 2014). "Obama to leave 9,800 U.S. troops in Afghanistan". The Washington Post. Retrieved 29 May 2014.
- ^ Rogers, Simon; Chalabi, Mona (10 August 2010). "Afghanistan civilian casualties". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001" (PDF). Afghanistan Justice Project. 2005.
- ^ "Afghanistan: Further Information on Fear for Safety and New Concern: Deliberate and Arbitrary Killings: Civilians in Kabul". Amnesty International. 16 November 1995. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
- ^ "Afghanistan: escalation of indiscriminate shelling in Kabul". International Committee of the Red Cross. 1995.
- ^ a b c Marcela Grad (1 March 2009). Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader. Webster University Press. p. 310.
- ^ "II. BACKGROUND". Human Rights Watch.[dead link]
- ^ a b Amin Saikal. Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle and Survival (2006 1st ed.). I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd., London New York. p. 352. ISBN 1-85043-437-9.
- ^ a b "Documents Detail Years of Pakistani Support for Taliban, Extremists". National Security Archive. 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
- ^ a b c Coll 2004, p. 14.
- ^ "The Taliban's War on Women: A Health and Human Rights Crisis in Afghanistan" (PDF). Physicians for Human Rights. 1998.
- ^ Maley, William (2009). The Afghanistan wars. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-230-21313-5.
- ^ a b Peter Tomsen said that up until 9/11, Pakistani military and ISI officers, along with thousands of regular Pakistani armed forces personnel, had been involved in the fighting in Afghanistan.Tomsen, Peter (2011). Wars of Afghanistan. PublicAffairs. p. 322. ISBN 978-1-58648-763-8.
- ^ Tomsen, Peter (2011). Wars of Afghanistan. PublicAffairs. p. 565. ISBN 978-1-58648-763-8.
- ^ Newsday (October 2001). "Taliban massacres outlined for UN". Chicago Tribune.
- ^ Newsday (2001). "Confidential UN report details mass killings of civilian villagers". newsday.org. Retrieved 12 October 2001.[dead link]
- ^ Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada (February 1999). "Afghanistan: Situation in, or around, Aqcha (Jawzjan province) including predominant tribal/ethnic group and who is currently in control".
- ^ "Incitement of Violence Against Hazaras by Governor Niazi". Afghanistan: the Massacre in Mazar-I Sharif. Human Rights Watch. November 1998. Retrieved 27 December 2007.[dead link]
- ^ a b Ahmed Rashid (11 September 2001). "Afghanistan resistance leader feared dead in blast". The Telegraph. London.
- ^ Girardet 2011, p. 416.
- ^ Rashid 2000, p. 91.
- ^ "Pakistan's support of the taliban". Human Rights Watch. 2000.
- ^ 911 Commission 2004, p. 66.
- ^ 911 Commission 2004, p. 67.
- ^ a b Coll 2004.
- ^ "9/11 Represented a Dramatic Failure of Policy and People". U.S. Congressman Dana Rohrabacher. 2004.
- ^ "Security Council demands that Taliban turn over Osama bin Laden to appropriate authorities" (Press release). United Nations. 15 October 1999.
- ^ Risen 2008.
- ^ Coll 2004, p. 720.
- ^ Julian Borger (24 March 2004). "Bush team 'agreed plan to attack the Taliban the day before September 11'". The Guardian. London.
- ^ Marcela Grad. Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader (1 March 2009 ed.). Webster University Press. p. 310.
- ^ "Inside the Taliban 06 – N.G." YouTube. 11 November 2009. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
- ^ "Inside the Taliban". National Geographic. 2007.
- ^ a b c "Massoud in the European Parliament 2001". EU media. 2001.
- ^ "Council of Afghan opposition". Corbis. 2001.
- ^ Marcela Grad. Massoud: An Intimate Portrait of the Legendary Afghan Leader (1 March 2009 ed.). Webster University Press. p. 65.
- ^ Senior diplomat and Afghanistan expert Peter Tomsen wrote: "The 'Lion of Kabul' [Abdul Haq] and the 'Lion of Panjshir' [Ahmad Shah Massoud] … Haq, Massoud, and Karzai, Afghanistan's three leading moderates, could transcend the Pashtun—non-Pashtun, north-south divide."Tomsen, Peter (2011). Wars of Afghanistan. PublicAffairs. p. 566. ISBN 978-1-58648-763-8.
- ^ "Defense Intelligence Agency" (PDF). National Security Archive. 2001. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
- ^ "Taliban Foe Hurt and Aide Killed by Bomb". The New York Times. Afghanistan. 10 September 2001. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
- ^ Burns, John F. (9 September 2002). "Threats and Responses: Assassination; Afghans, Too, Mark a Day of Disaster: A Hero Was Lost". The New York Times. Afghanistan. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
- ^ Holmes, Stephen (2006). "Al Qaeda, 11 September 2001". In Diego Gambetta (ed.). Making sense of suicide missions. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929797-9.
- ^ Keppel, Gilles; Milelli, Jean-Pierre; Ghazaleh, Pascale (2008). Al Qaeda in its own words. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02804-3.
- ^ "Chapter of the 9/11 Commission Report detailing the history of the Hamburg Cell". 9/11 Commission.
- ^ a b "9 Years Later, Nearly 900 9/11 Responders Have Died, Survivors Fight for Compensation". FOX News. 11 September 2010. Retrieved 12 September 2010.
- ^ "Full text of President Bush's public remarks during a Cabinet meeting Wednesday, Sept. 12, 2001" PBS Newshour 12 September 2001
- ^ "Afghanistan's militia may "consider" extradition of bin-Laden", Radio Australia 13 September 2001
- ^ "Bin Laden says he wasn't behind attacks" CNN 17 January 2001
- ^ "Usama bin Laden Says the Al-Qa'idah Group had Nothing to Do with the September 11 Attacks". Ummat Karachi. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 14 June 2008.
- ^ "U.S. Department of State, Gameplan for Polmil Strategy for Pakistan and Afghanistan", September 14, 2001, Secret/NODIS" Document 6, The National Security Archive Accessed 26 April 2013
- ^ a b U.S. Department of State, Cable, "Deputy Secretary Armitage-Mamoud Phone Call – September 18, 2001", September 18, 2001, Confidential, 2 pp. Document 9, The National Security Archive Accessed 26 April 2013
- ^ "Specials Attacked Transcripts: Bush Address". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
- ^ a b " The Taliban clerics' statement on Bin Laden", Guardian 20 September 2001
- ^ Tyler Marshall, "Afghan Clerics Urge Bin Laden to Go – AFTER THE ATTACK Policy: Religious council's edict is applauded in the region. U.S. dismisses the move", Los Angeles Times, 21 September 2001
- ^ John F. Burns, "A NATION CHALLENGED: THE TALIBAN; Clerics Answer 'No, No, No!' and Invoke Fates of Past Foes" 22 September 2001
- ^ U.S. Department of State, Cable, "U.S. Embassy (Islamabad), Cable, "Mahmud Plans 2nd Mission to Afghanistan" September 24, 2001, Secret" Document 11, The National Security Archive Accessed 26 April 2013
- ^ U.S. Embassy (Islamabad), Cable, "Mahmud on Failed Kandahar Trip" September 29, 2001, Confidential" Document 12, The National Security Archive Accessed 26 April 2013
- ^ A NATION CHALLENGED: AFGHANISTAN; Pakistanis Fail in Last-Ditch Bid to Persuade Taliban to Turn Over bin Laden
- ^ "Pakistan blocks bin Laden trial" The Telegraph] 4 October 2001
- ^ Douglas Frantz, "A Nation Challenged: The Afghans; Taliban Say They Want to Negotiate With the U.S. Over bin Laden", New York Times 3 October 2001
- ^ State Dept. Daily Briefing 2 October 2001
- ^ a b Edward Epstein, "Blair warns Taliban / Tough talk from Britain's leader makes attack look likely soon", San Francisco Chronicle 3 October 2001
- ^ Dudley Altus, "Pakistan satisfied with U.S. evidence against bin Laden" Houston Chron. 5 October 2001
- ^ [1][dead link]. Archives.cnn.com. Retrieved on 29 October 2013.
- ^ A NATION CHALLENGED: EVIDENCE; British Detail bin Laden's Link to U.S. Attacks New York Times 5 October 2001
- ^ U.K. Documents Case Against Bin Laden 4 October 2001
- ^ "Taliban 'will try bin Laden if US provides evidence'". Guardian. London. 5 October 2001. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ "U.S. rejects Taliban offer to try bin Laden", CNN 7 October 2001
- ^ " U.S. Department of State, Cable, "Message to Taliban", October, 2001, Secret/Nodis/Eyes Only" Document 16, The National Security Archive Accessed 26 April 2013
- ^ The President's News Conference 11 October 2001
- ^ "Bush rejects Taliban offer to hand Bin Laden over", Guardian 14 October 2001
- ^ Rory McCarthy, "New offer on Bin Laden", The Guardian, 16 October 2001
- ^ A NATION CHALLENGED: THE MULLAHS; Taliban Envoy Talks of a Deal Over bin Laden New York Times 16 October 2001
- ^ a b Smith and Thorp, Ben and Arabella (26 February 2010). "The legal basis for the invasion of Afghanistan" (PDF). House of Commons Library. International Affairs and Defence Section.
- ^ "September 11, 2001 : Attack on America Statement Made Today by Secretary-General Kofi Annan on Military Strikes in Afghanistan; October 8, 2001".
- ^ "Defense officials: Air operation to last 'several days'". CNN. 7 October 2001. Archived from the original on 8 March 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Afghan opposition's 'record of brutality'". BBC News. 19 October 2001. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
- ^ Gary Schroen, First In: An Insider's Account of How the CIA Spearheaded the War on Terror in Afghanistan, 2005
- ^ Berntsen and Pezzulla (2005), Jawbreaker
- ^ "australianpolitics.com". Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ World News Connection, Al-Qa'ida member recalls US bombardment, accuses Taliban of betrayal, 29 October 2003
- ^ Associated Press, "Taliban confirms death of Osama bin Laden's military chief in US strike", Houston Chronicle, 17 November 2001
- ^ a b Tanner, Stephen (2002). "12 – The Americans". Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the War against the Taliban (2009 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America: Da Capo Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-306-81826-4. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- ^ a b "U.S. jets hit suspected bin Laden camp". Colby Free Press. 15 October 2001.
- ^ a b Refet Kaplan (5 November 2001). "Massive American Bombing on Taliban Front Lines". Fox News.
- ^ a b David Rohde (28 October 2001). "Waging a Deadly Stalemate on Afghanistan's Front Line". New York Times.
- ^ Pepe Escobar (7 December 2001). "Taking a spin in Tora Bora". Asia Times.
- ^ a b New York Times, The Battle for Mazar-i-Sharif, 10 November 2001
- ^ a b "Opposition troops closing in on Mazari Sharif". Canada: CBC. 7 November 2001. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ Cahlink, George. Building a Presence, 15 December 2002
- ^ Special Warfare Journal, "The Liberation of Mazar e Sharif: 5th SF group conducts UW in Afghanistan", 1 June 2002
- ^ "Fronlines", 2 August 2002
- ^ Call 2010, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Wolfowitz, Paul, Speech on 14 November 2001[dead link]
- ^ a b c Karon, Tony (9 November 2001). "Rebels: Mazar-i-Sharif is Ours". Time. Retrieved 2 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ Call, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Maloney, Sean M. Afghanistan: From here to eternity? Spring 2004
- ^ Topeka Capital Journal, Taliban: Key city has fallen, 10 November 2001
- ^ Khan, M. Ismail. Dawn, Mazar falls to Alliance: Taliban says they're regrouping[dead link], 10 November 2001 and Crane, Conrad. Facing the Hydra: Maintaining Strategic Balance while Pursuing a Global War Against Terrorism, May 2002
- ^ Dolan 2005, p. 150.
- ^ Clandestine Radio Watch, Afghan Balkh radio from Balkh Province, Mazar-e Sharif, inDari 10, 1 November (via BBCM via DXLD 1–169)[dead link]
- ^ The Guardian, Taliban lose grip on Mazar i Sharif, 7 November 2001
- ^ Dobbins, James. "Our Man in Kabul" Foreign Affairs. 4 November 2009.
- ^ Poolos, Alexandra. "Afghanistan: Seizure of Kabul Catches World by Surprise" INS News. 13 November 2001
- ^ Tyrangiel, Josh. "Inside Tora Bora: The Final Hours?"[dead link] Time, 16 December 2001
- ^ Seymour M. Hersh (28 January 2002). "The Getaway". The New Yorker. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "msnbc.com". Retrieved 27 September 2007.[dead link]
- ^ "Kunduz celebrates end of siege". BBC News. 26 November 2001. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ Alex Perry (8 April 2007). "Inside the Battle at Qala-i-Jangi". Time Magazine. Retrieved 9 April 2007.[dead link]
- ^ "UN Security Council resolution 1378 (2001)". United Nations. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ Logo of ISAF. Pashto writing: کمک او همکاری (Komak aw Hamkari) meaning "Help and Cooperation".
- ^ ISAF in Afghanistan CDI, Terrorism Project – 14 February 2002.
- ^ a b "ISAF Chronology". Nato.int. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ "Operation Anaconda costs 8 U.S. lives". CNN. 4 March 2002. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
- ^ "Operation Anaconda entering second week". CNN. 8 March 2002. Retrieved 28 February 2007.[dead link]
- ^ Seth Jones, 'In the Graveyard of Empires,' Norton & Company, 2009, 114-115. See also Maley in Maley & Schmeidl, 'Reconstructing Afghanistan,' 2015, 104, and reference in B. Greener, 'The New International Policing'
- ^ "U.S. remains on trail of bin Laden, Taliban leader". CNN. 14 March 2002. Retrieved 29 January 2014.[dead link]
- ^ "35 killed in Kabul suicide bomb attack". China Daily. Associated Press. 18 June 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
- ^ Gall, Carlotta (13 November 2004). "Asia: Afghanistan: Taliban Leader Vows Return". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
- ^ "Leaflet War Rages in Afghan Countryside". Associated Press. 14 February 2003. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
- ^ Tohid, Owias (27 June 2003). "Taliban regroups – on the road". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
- ^ a b c Tohid, Owias and Baldauf, Scott (8 May 2003). "Taliban appears to be regrouped and well-funded". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 28 February 2007.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "globalsecurity.org". Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "afnorth.nato.int". Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "UK troops take over Afghan duties". BBC News. 1 May 2006. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Canada set for longer Afghan stay". BBC News. 16 May 2006. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Australia outlines Afghan force". BBC News. 8 May 2006. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Denmark". centcom.mil. Archived from the original on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "defensenews.com". Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Taleban vow to defeat UK troops". BBC News. 7 June 2006. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "British Ministry of Defence". Retrieved 27 September 2007.[dead link]
- ^ "British Ministry of Defence". Retrieved 27 September 2007.[dead link]
- ^ "British Ministry of Defence". Retrieved 27 September 2007.[dead link]
- ^ "British Ministry of Defence". Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Pentagon inquiry finds U.S. Marine unit killed Afghan civilians".
- ^ Gall, Carlotta (15 April 2007). "Marines' Actions in Afghanistan Called Excessive' Actions in Afghanistan Called Excessive". The New York Times.
- ^ "Marine Unit Is Told To Leave Afghanistan". The Washington Post. 24 March 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
- ^ "Battle 'kills dozens of Taleban'". BBC News. 28 October 2007. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ^ [2] Rodhde, David, "Foreign Fighters of Harsher Bent Bolster Taliban", The New York Times, 30 October 2007. Retrieved 9 November 2007.
- ^ "Afghan forces 'kill top militant'". BBC News. 2 November 2007. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ^ "6 U.S. troops die in Afghan ambush". CNN. 10 November 2007. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ ""Time is now right" for retaking Musa Qaleh – Browne". Defence News. British Ministry of Defence. 7 December 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.[dead link]
- ^ Karen DeYoung; Jonathan Weisman (23 July 2008). "Obama Shifts the Foreign Policy Debate". The Washington Post. p. A08. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ "U.S. Forces in Afghanistan" (PDF). Research Services Report for Congress. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ The Guardian. 'Bush announces withdrawal of 8,000 troops from Iraq'. [3] Retrieved on 1 October 2008
- ^ "Extra UK troops for Afghanistan". BBC News. 16 June 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ "Brown in tribute to Afghan dead". BBC News. 9 June 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ "Insurgent attack frees hundreds from Kandahar prison". CBC News. 14 June 2008.
- ^ "Afghan ambush kills French troops". BBC News. 19 August 2008. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
- ^ Leithead, Alastair (2 September 2008). "UK troops in huge turbine mission". BBC News. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
- ^ Pakistan reacts with fury after up to 20 die in 'American' attack on its soil The Guardian Retrieved on 12 September 2008
- ^ "Pakistan fury over 'US assault'". BBC News. 4 September 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ Pakistan cuts supply lines to Nato forces Retrieved on 12 September 2008
- ^ "US deaths in Afghanistan makes 2008 deadliest year", Washington Times. Retrieved on 14 September 2008[dead link]
- ^ "Militant attack burns NATO supply containers". CNN. 7 December 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ a b Zein Basravi (12 December 2008). "Police: Militants destroy NATO trucks". CNN. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ a b "tax: allied supply convoys pay their enemies, The Times, 12 December 2008". Liveleak.com. 21 September 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ^ "Attacks expose weakness of key Afghanistan supply route, AFP". Google. 11 December 2008. Retrieved 2 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ Oppel, Richard A. (24 December 2008). "Amid Taliban Rule, a NATO Supply Line Is Choked, 24 December 2008". The New York Times. Khyber Pass; Pakistan; Peshawar (Pakistan); Pakistan; Afghanistan. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ Salman Masood (3 February 2009). "Bridge Attack Halts NATO Supplies to Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "'Another US strike' hits Pakistan". BBC News. 12 September 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ "Pakistan: Shoot GIs on cross-border raids – Pakistan – MSNBC.com". MSNBC.com. 16 September 2008. Retrieved 2 October 2008.
- ^ "Pakistan fires on Nato aircraft". BBC News. 25 September 2008. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ Turin, Dustin (23 March 2009). "Can the U.S. Win in Afghanistan?". Student Pulse. Retrieved 22 November 2009.
- ^ Nic Robertson. "Sources: Taliban split with al Qaeda, seek peace". CNN. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Partlow, Joshua. In Afghanistan, Taliban surpasses al-Qaeda" 11 November 2009
- ^ "Pakistani military outpacing coalition?". United Press International. 18 February 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ Oppel, Richard A. (20 January 2009). "U.S. secures new supply routes to Afghanistan". The New York Times. Afghanistan;Khyber Pass;Russia. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ a b Daly, John CK (27 May 2009). "Second-Chance Logistics". ISN Security Watch.
- ^ a b "To Afghanistan, on the slow train". CNN. 29 November 2011. Archived from the original on 5 December 2011. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
- ^ "Northern Distribution Network Delivers". EurasiaNet. 18 March 2009.
- ^ Tynan, Deirdre (11 May 2009). "Karimov Gives Washington the Air Base it Needs for Afghan Operations". EurasiaNet.
- ^ Baker, Peter (3 July 2009). "Russia Opens Route for U.S. to Fly Arms to Afghanistan". The New York Times.
- ^ "Afghanistan's northern neighbours: Road blocks". The Economist. 5 March 2009.
- ^ "US Ambassador Norland Promises to Increase Cooperation with Tashkent". EurasiaNet. 4 June 2009.
- ^ "Ambassador Explores Commercial Developments in Navoi". U.S. Embassy in Uzbekistan. 13 May 2009.
- ^ Jason Straziulo (16 February 2009). "Newest US troops in Afghanistan seeing combat in dangerous region south of Kabul". Chicago Tribune. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 21 February 2009. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "Obama OKs 17,000 more US troops for Afghanistan". International Herald Tribune. 29 March 2009. Retrieved 2 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ Page, Susan (16 February 2009). "Obama OKs adding Afghanistan forces". USA Today. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
- ^ "Tom Andrews: Classified McChrystal Report: 500,000 Troops Will Be Required Over Five Years in Afghanistan". Huffington Post. 24 September 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Jaffe, Greg; Wilson, Scott; DeYoung, Karen (15 January 2007). "U.S. envoy resists troop increase, cites Karzai as problem". The Washington Post. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "IPS Inter Press Service". Ipsnews.net. Retrieved 9 February 2010.[dead link]
- ^ "Right after interviewing Karzai". CNN. 5 February 2010. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Baker, Peter (5 December 2009). "How Obama Came to Plan for 'Surge' in Afghanistan". New York Times. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
- ^ "Anti-war Leaders Blast Escalation of Afghanistan War". Fight Back! News. 1 December 2009.
- ^ "Obama's Afghanistan decision evokes LBJ's 1965 order on Vietnam buildup"
- ^ Matthias Gebauer (6 August 2010). "Germany to Pay $500,000 for Civilian Bombing Victims". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 9 August 2010.
- ^ Chandrasekaran, Rajiv. "A Fight for Ordinary Peace" The Washington Post 12 July 2009
- ^ a b c Chandrasekaran, Rajiv (2 July 2009). "Marines Deploy on Major Mission". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 July 2009.
- ^ Gaskell, Stephanie. "U.S. Marines launch Operation Khanjar – largest military offensive since 2004 battle of Fallujah" New York Daily News 2 July 2009
- ^ "UK forces in major Afghan assault". BBC News. 23 June 2009.
- ^ "3 SCOTS launch massive air assault". UK Ministry of Defence.
- ^ "Slide 1" (PDF). Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Peter Bergen (25 January 2010). "U.S. intelligence briefing: Taliban increasingly effective". CNN. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ O'Hanlon, Michael E."Staying Power: The U.S. Mission in Afghanistan Beyond 2011", The Brookings Institution, September/October 2010.
- ^ "Taliban warn of summer offensive" Reuters. 27 July 2007
- ^ Salahuddin, Sayed and Tait, Paul."Afghan leader sees peaceful poll, troops ambushed" Reuters. 11 August 2009
- ^ Dreazen, Yochi J. and Spiegel, Peter."Taliban Now Winning" The Wall Street Journal 10 August 2009
- ^ "Kabul urges polls attacks blackout" Al-Jazeera. 10 August 2009
- ^ Entous, Adam and Shalizi, Hamid. "Afghan election fair, but not free: EU" Reuters. 22 August 2009
- ^ "Voters targeted after Afghan polls". Al Jazeera. 24 August 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ Sheerin, Jude (20 August 2009). "As it happened: Afghan election 2009". BBC News. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ "'Fraud proof' found in Afghan polls" Al-Jazeera. 11 September 2009
- ^ "U.S. praises Pakistani military efforts". United Press International. 18 November 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ "Karzai holds peace talks with insurgents". TVNZ. Reuters. 22 March 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ Simon Tisdall (26 July 2010). "Afghan war logs: How the US is losing the battle for hearts and minds". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
- ^ "U.S. Security Advisor, Pakistani president discuss fight against militancy". People's Daily Online. Xinhua. 12 February 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ Gall, Carlotta (1 April 2011). "Losses In Pakistani Haven Strain Afghan Taliban". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ Perry, Tom, "U.S. Troops In Afghanistan Suffer More Critical Injuries", Los Angeles Times, 7 April 2011, p. 4.
- ^ Vanden Brook, Tom (7 March 2011). "U.S.: Raids have taken out 900 Taliban leaders". USA Today. Retrieved 15 October 2012.
- ^ Vanden Brook, Tom, "U.S.: Raids Have Taken Out 900 Taliban Leaders", USA Today, 8 March 2011, p. 6.
- ^ Nordland, Rod (24 January 2011). "An Uncharacteristically Upbeat General in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ "Afghan troop numbers to eclipse Iraq soon". United Press International. 25 March 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ Miller, Greg (20 September 2009). "CIA expanding presence in Afghanistan". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Tony Capaccio (31 January 2011). "U.S. Said to Reduce Civilian Deaths After Increasing CIA Pakistan Strikes". Bloomberg. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ a b Eric Schmitt (26 December 2010). "Taliban Fighters Appear Blunted in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Washington. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Adam Levine (15 October 2010). "What the numbers say about progress in Afghanistan". The Guardian. Washington. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Rod Nordland (24 January 2011). "An Uncharacteristically Upbeat General in Afghanistan". The New York Times. Kabul. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Whitlock, Craig (22 September 2010). "Book tells of secret CIA teams staging raids into Pakistan". The Seattle Times.
- ^ a b Whitlock, Craig; Miller, Greg (23 September 2010). "Paramilitary force is key for CIA". The Washington Post.
- ^ Woodward 2010, p. 8.
- ^ Woodward 2010, p. 367.
- ^ Woodward 2010, p. 160.
- ^ Schmitt, Eric (25 July 2010). "The War Logs – Interactive Feature". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
- ^ Declan Walsh (4 March 2007). "Afghanistan war logs: How US marines sanitised record of bloodbath". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
- ^ Gebauer, Matthias; Goetz, John; Hoyng, Hans; Koelbl, Susanne; Rosenbach, Marcel; Schmitz, Gregor Peter (25 July 2010). "Explosive Leaks Provide Image of War from Those Fighting It: The Secret Enemy in Pakistan". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
- ^ Perlez, Jane; Cooper, Helene (30 September 2010). "Signaling Tensions, Pakistan Shuts NATO Route". The New York Times.
- ^ [4][dead link]
- ^ Rubin, Alissa J. (1 May 2011). "Taliban Say Offensive Will Begin Sunday". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "Taliban Attack Afghan Government Offices in South". The New York Times. Associated Press. 7 May 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
- ^ "Afghanistan: Taliban's Kandahar raid into second day". BBC. BBC. 8 May 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
- ^ "Al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden dead – Obama". BBC News. 2 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ Landler, Mark; Cooper, Helene (22 June 2011). "Obama Will Speed Pullout From War in Afghanistan". The New York Times.
- ^ Nick Hopkins (21 June 2011). "Afghanistan withdrawal: UK to 'make up' its own mind". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ Willsher, Kim (24 June 2011). "French troops Afghanistan: France to gradually withdraw troops from Afghanistan". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
"French troops Afghanistan: Nicolas Sarkozy announces France to withdraw 1,000 troops from Afghanistan by end of 2012". The Telegraph. London. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
"Afghanistan : Sarkozy confirme le retrait de 1 000 soldats français d'ici à fin 2012 (french)/ Sarkozy confirms that 1.000 soldiers will be withdrawn by the end of 2012". Le Monde. 12 July 2011. Retrieved 17 September 2011. - ^ "Belgium to halve troops in Afghanistan". Sydney Morning Herald. 26 June 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ NTB (25 June 2011). "Norge trapper ned i Afghanistan". DN.no. Retrieved 2 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ "Spain withdraw its troops from Afghanistan in 2015". Ytwhw.com. 27 June 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ "Nato attack can have grave consequences: DG ISPR". The News International. 29 November 2011.
- ^ Robert Burns (26 February 2013). "APNEWSBREAK: Taliban Attacks Not Down After All". Associated Press. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
"Nato admits 'error' in claim of fall in Taliban attacks". BBC News. 26 February 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Jennifer Griffin; Justin Fishel (26 February 2013). "US military acknowledges reported drop in Taliban attacks was incorrect". Fox News. Associated Press. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Phil Stewart (26 February 2013). "Afghan insurgent attacks misreported, did not fall in 2012: NATO". Reuters. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
Ackerman, Spencer (26 February 2013). "'Data-Entry Error' Led Military to Falsely Claim Taliban Attacks Are Down". Wired. Retrieved 4 March 2013. - ^ Chandrasekaren, Rajiv (25 September 2015). "The Afghan Surge is Over". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
- ^ "There is more to peace than Taliban". Asia Times. 12 January 2012.
- ^ "Afghan opposition says new parliament can check Karzai". Reuters. 24 November 2010.
- ^ "2010 Afghan Parliamentary Election: Checks and Balances of Power". Khaama Press. 9 December 2010.
- ^ "Govt Opposition Warn of Taking to Streets". Tolo TV. 5 May 2011.
- ^ Rubin, Alissa J. (5 May 2011). "Thousands of Afghans Rally in Kabul". The New York Times.
- ^ "Anti-Taliban rally". BBC Persian. 5 May 2011.
- ^ "Afghan Northern Alliance Allies Betrayed by Obama Administration; Meet with U.S. Congressmen in Berlin". Representative Louis Gohmert. 9 January 2012.
- ^ "Rep. Rohrabacher Leads Bipartisan Delegation's Afghanistan Strategy Session With National Front Leaders in Berlin". Representative Dana Rohrabacher. 9 January 2012.[dead link]
- ^ a b Wright, Jessica (19 April 2012). "Leaders condemn US troops in body-parts photos". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- ^ a b "Photos of Soldiers Posing With Body Parts Add Strain to a Taxed Relationship". The New York Times. 18 April 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ a b Gordts, Eline (18 April 2012). "U.S. Soldiers Pose With Bodies Of Suicide Bombers In Afghanistan". The Huffington Post. Reuters. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
- ^ "Obama calls for Afghan body abuse punishment". BBC. 18 April 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- ^ a b "Photos just latest issue hounding U.S. military in Afghanistan". CNN. 18 April 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- ^ Fantz, Ashley (19 April 2012). "How will leaked photos impact U.S. mission in Afghanistan?". CNN. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- ^ Sommerville, Quentin (19 April 2012). "Dismantling US bases as the Taliban fight on". BBC. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- ^ Thom Shanker; Graham Bowley (18 April 2012). "Images of G.I.'s and Remains Fuel Fears of Ebbing Discipline". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
- ^ a b Emma Graham-Harrison (6 July 2012). "'Bye-bye, Miss American Pie' – then US helicopter appears to fire on Afghans". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
- ^ Bates, Daniel (5 July 2012). "The moment a U.S. helicopter strike blasts an Afghan man to pieces... as the pilot sings 'Bye, bye Miss American Pie'". The Daily Mail. London. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
- ^ Anissa Haddadi (6 July 2012). "US Helicopter Pilot Sings 'American Pie' as Missile Blows up 'Innocent Afghan Farmer' [VIDEO]". International Business Times. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
- ^ Landler, Mark (1 May 2012). "Obama Signs Pact in Kabul, Turning Page in Afghan War". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
- ^ "Enduring Strategic Partnership Agreement between the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the United States of America". Scribd. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
- ^ Sweet, Lynn (1 May 2012). "U.S.-Afgan strategic agreement: Roadmap to Chicago NATO Summit. Briefing transcript". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
- ^ Clinton, Hillary (8 July 2012). "Press Releases: Intervention at the Tokyo Conference on Afghanistan" (Press release). NewsRoomAmerica.com. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
- ^ CNN Wire Staff (7 July 2012). "U.S. designates Afghanistan a major ally, creates defense ties". CNN. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
{{cite news}}:|author=has generic name (help) - ^ "Afghanistan, US launch negotiations on Bilateral Security Agreement (BSA)". DiploNews. 15 November 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2012.[dead link]
- ^ a b "NATO sets "irreversible" but risky course to end Afghan war". Reuters. Reuters. 21 May 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ a b "Chicago NATO Summit 2012 Declaration". NATO. Defence Talk – Global Defense, Aerospace & Military Portal. 21 May 2012. Retrieved 20 June 2012.
- ^ Scott Wilson and Karen DeYoung (21 May 2012). "NATO leaders agree on framework to wind down Afghan mission". The Washington Post. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ Elise Labott and Mike Mount (22 May 2012). "NATO accepts Obama timetable to end war in Afghanistan by 2014". CNN. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ Mark Landler and Michael S. Gordon (8 January 2012). "U.S. Is Open to Withdraw Afghan Force After 2014". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ "The Afghan War's Last Chapter?". The New York Times. 12 January 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ a b c d "Obama, Karzai agree to accelerate military transition". CNN. 12 January 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ a b Scott Wilson and David Nakamur (11 January 2013). "Obama announces reduced U.S. role in Afghanistan starting this spring". The Washington Post. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ a b Christi Parsons and Kathleen Hennessey (11 January 2013). "Obama moves up deadline for Afghans to take lead security role". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ "US to speed up Afghan troop transition". Al Jazeera English. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ a b c "US troops will end 'most' Afghanistan combat this spring". BBC News US & Canada. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ Mark Landler and Michael S. Gordon (11 January 2013). "Obama Accelerates Transition of Security to Afghans". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
- ^ a b "Bomb blast hits Afghanistan on security handover day". Deutsche Welle. Deutsche Welle. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ a b "Deadly blast marks Afghan security handover". Al Jazeera English. Al Jazeera English. 18 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ "Karzai announces Afghan security handover". Agence France-Presse. Global Post. 18 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ a b Hodge, Nathan (18 June 2013). "Blast Mars Day of Security Handover in Kabul". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ "Punish Russia? Why some Pentagon officials would prefer restraint.," The Christian Science Monitor, 4 March 2014.
- ^ "Jet bombing kills seven including five US troops in Afghanistan". Washington Post. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
- ^ Shapira, Ian (14 August 2014). "Mourners gather at Arlington Cemetery for burial of general killed in Afghanistan". Washington Post. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
- ^ a b "American army officer killed, many wounded in Afghan insider attack". Afghanistan Sun. Retrieved 7 August 2014.
- ^ Declan Walsh and Azam Ahmed (30 September 2014). "Mending Alliance, U.S. and Afghanistan Sign Long-Term Security Agreement". The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Sudarsan Raghavan and Karen DeYoung (30 September 2014). "U.S. and Afghanistan sign vital, long-delayed security pact". The Washington Post. The Washington Post. Retrieved 26 October 2014. - ^ Syal, Ryan (26 October 2014). "UK troops hand over Camp Bastion to Afghan forces, ending 13-year campaign". The Guardian. The Guardian. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
Kay Johnson, Raissa Kasolowsky, Michael Perry and Kevin Liffey. "Britain ends combat role in Afghanistan, last US Marines hand over base". Reuters. Reuters. Reuters. Retrieved 26 October 2014.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Loyn, David (26 October 2014). "What have British troops achieved in Afghanistan?". BBC News Asia. BBC News Asia. Retrieved 26 October 2014. - ^ Gordon, Michael R. (26 November 2012). "Time Slipping, U.S. Ponders Afghan Role After 2014". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
- ^ DeYoung, Karen (5 December 2012). "U.S. reducing plans for large civilian force in post-2014 Afghanistan". The Washington Post. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
- ^ Landler, Mark (27 May 2014). "U.S. Will Complete Afghan Pullout by End of 2016, Obama Says". The New York Times.
- ^ "Resolute Support". Afghan War News. Afghan War News. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
Lamothe, Dan (29 December 2014). "Meet Operation Freedom's Sentinel, the Pentagon's new mission in Afghanistan". Washington Post. Retrieved 2 January 2015. - ^ "Afghanistan marks takeover of security responsibility from NATO". Deutsche Welle. 1 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
"18 Suspected insurgents slain in NATO airstrike in Afghanistan". Fox News Latino. Reuters. 3 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
"Afghans Take Over Country's Security". Voice of America. 1 January 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2015. - ^ Gabriel Domínguez (6 January 2015). "What can NATO's new Afghanistan mission achieve?". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ Estelle Shirbon (13 March 2015). "Led by the Queen, Britain commemorates end of Afghan war". Reuters UK Edition. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
- ^ Rosenberg, Matthew; Schmitt, Eric; Mazzetti, Mark (12 February 2015). "U.S. Is Escalating a Secretive War in Afghanistan". New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ^ Craig, Tim (12 February 2015). "U.S. forces, Afghan troops arrest Taliban militants wanted for school massacre". Washington Post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ^ Stewart, Phil (20 February 2015). "New Defense Secretary Ash Carter goes to Afghanistan to ensure 'lasting success' as US troops withdraw". Business Insider. Reuters. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- ^ Rampton, Roberta (11 February 2015). "Obama administration weighs Afghan request to slow withdrawal of U.S. troops". Reuters. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Ryan, Missy (10 February 2015). "White House weighs adjusting Afghan exit plan to slow withdrawal of troops". Washington Post. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Eberspacher, Sarah (21 February 2015). "New Defense Secretary Carter says U.S. may slow Afghan troop withdrawal". The Week. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
Gul, Ayaz (21 February 2015). "New Pentagon Chief in Kabul Talks With Afghan President". Voice of America. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
"U.S. commander proposes slower Afghan withdrawal". The Japan Times. Agence France-Presse. 13 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015. - ^ Adam Ashton (24 February 2015). "Army to send headquarters group to Kandahar in first sign of revision to Afghan withdrawal plan". McClatchy. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
- ^ Gary Walts (26 February 2015). "Fort Drum brigade prepares for deployment to Afghanistan". The Post-Standard. Syracuse Media Group. Associated Press. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
Tan, Michelle (27 February 2015). "Army announces new Afghanistan deployments". ArmyTimes. Gannett. Retrieved 28 February 2015. - ^ a b "UN: Taliban Responsible for 76% of Deaths in Afghanistan". The Weekly Standard. 10 August 2010.
- ^ "Afghanistan: Attack on Logar hospital kills dozens". BBC News. 25 June 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
- ^ "Afghan civilian deaths rise, insurgents responsible for most casualties – UN". U.N. News Centre. 14 July 2011. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
- ^ Damien Pearse and agencies (4 February 2012). "Afghan civilian death toll reaches record high". Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
- ^ Civilian casualties in Afghanistan up 14 per cent last year, says new UN report UN.org.
- ^ Afghanistan, Opinion survey 2009, by ICRC and Ipsos
- ^ Kristof, Nicholas D., "A Merciful War", The New York Times, 1 February 2002. "Now aid is pouring in and lives are being saved on an enormous scale. UNICEF, for example, has vaccinated 734,000 children against measles over the last two months, in a country where virtually no one had been vaccinated against the disease in the previous 10 years. Because measles often led to death in Afghanistan, the vaccination campaign will save at least 35,000 children's lives each year. ... Heidi J. Larson of UNICEF says that if all goes well, child and maternal mortality rates will drop in half in Afghanistan over the next five years. That would mean 112,000 fewer children and 7,500 fewer pregnant women dying each year."
- ^ Afghan Refugees, Costs of War, http://costsofwar.org/article/afghan-refugees, 2012
- ^ a b Numbers taken from UNHCR, "2011 UNHCR Country Operations Profile—Afghanistan", http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e486eb6
- ^ a b 2013 UNHCR country operations profile – Afghanistan, http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486eb6.html
- ^ Afghans fleeing war find misery in urban slums Feb. 2012, Amnesty International
"Afghan refugees abandoned by their own government, report finds: About half a million Afghans who fled homes because of violence are living in desperate conditions, says Amnesty", The Guardian, 23 February 2012 - ^ a b Chouvy, Pierre-Arnaud (2010). Opium: uncovering the politics of the poppy. Harvard University Press. pp. 52ff.
- ^ Thourni, Francisco E. (2006). Frank Bovenkerk (ed.). The Organized Crime Community: Essays in Honor of Alan A. Block. Springer. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-387-39019-2.
- ^ Lyman, Michael D. (2010). Drugs in Society: Causes, Concepts and Control. Elsevier. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-4377-4450-7.
- ^ "Is Afghanistan's Drug Trade Paying Al Qaeda?". ABC News. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Afghanistan riddled with drug ties". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
- ^ "Afghan opium fuels 'global chaos'". BBC News. 21 October 2009. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ ISAF Spokesman Discusses Progress in Afghanistan[dead link]. International Security Assistance Force/NATO. 25 July 2011.
- ^ Successes and challenges in Afghan girls' education BBC News. 11 October 2012.
- ^ Gary D. Solis (15 February 2010). The Law of Armed Conflict: International Humanitarian Law in War. Cambridge University Press. pp. 301–303. ISBN 978-1-139-48711-5.
- ^ Rod Nordland (10 February 2011). "Afghan Rights Groups Shift Focus to Taliban". The New York Times. p. A6. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ Kegley, Charles W.; Shannon L Blanton (2011). World Politics: Trend and Transformation. Cengage. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-495-90655-1.
- ^ Spencer Ackerman (19 February 2013). "Afghanistan Gets Safer for Civilians as U.N. Warns Taliban of 'War Crimes'". Wired. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
"This is a war crime and people will be held responsible in the future for this war crime," said Ján Kubiš, the U.N.'s man in Afghanistan.
- ^ Harding, Luke (14 September 2002). "Afghan Massacre Haunts Pentagon". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
- ^ "Starved, hurt and buried alive in Afghanistan". Independent Online. 2 May 2002. Archived from the original on 7 August 2009. Retrieved 7 August 2009.
- ^ Dasht-e-Leili Photos; Sheberghan Prison and Pit Locations at Dasht-e-Leili, Physicians for Human Rights, Retrieved 19 February 2012
- ^ "As possible Afghan war-crimes evidence removed, U.S. silent". McClatchy Newspapers. 12 November 2008.
- ^ "US blocked probes into Afghan prisoner killings". AFP. 10 July 2009.[dead link]
- ^ Weigl, Andrea (14 February 2007). "Passaro will serve 8 years for beating". The News and Observer. Archived from the original on 19 April 2013.
- ^ Dunbar, Elizabeth (14 February 2007). "Passaro Sentenced To 8-plus Years". Star News. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- ^ Tim Golden (20 May 2005). "In U.S. Report, Brutal Details of 2 Afghan Inmates' Deaths". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 November 2010.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ White, Josh (12 March 2005). "2 Died After '02 Beatings by U.S. Soldiers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 September 2007.
- ^ Golden, Tim (22 May 2005). "Army Faltered in Investigating Detainee Abuse". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 September 2007.
- ^ Barbara Starr (10 September 2010). "Army: 12 soldiers killed Afghans, mutilated corpses". CNN. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
- ^ "Additional charges filed in Afghan civilians' deaths". Seattle Times. 24 August 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
- ^ Hal Bernton (8 September 2010). "Stryker soldiers allegedly took corpses' fingers". Seattle Times. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ^ "US military drops 'kill team' charges against soldier". The Guardian. London. 4 February 2012.
- ^ "Marine convicted of Afghan murder named". BBC News. 5 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
- ^ "Marine guilty of Afghanistan murder". BBC News. 8 November 2013. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
- ^ Drury, Ian; Williams, David (6 December 2013). "Casualty of war: Royal Marine who murdered Taliban fighter jailed for life". Daily Mail. London. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
- ^ Morris, Nigel (6 December 2013). "Royal Marine Sgt Alexander Blackman jailed for life for murder of Afghan insurgent". The Independent. London. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
- ^ "Army drops one charge against soldier accused in Afghan massacre". Reuters. 1 June 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
- ^ a b "No one asked their names". Al Jazeera. 19 March 2012. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
- ^ Taimoor Shah; Graham Bowley (12 March 2012). "An Afghan Comes Home to a Massacre". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
- ^ Jack Healy (23 August 2013). "Soldier Sentenced to Life Without Parole in Deaths of Afghan Civilians". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
- ^ Cooper, Helene (21 June 2011). "Cost of Wars a Rising Issue as Obama Weighs Troop Levels". The New York Times.
- ^ "Cost of Iraq, Afghanistan and Anti-Terrorism Operations". Journalist's Resource.org.
- ^ "Analysis of the FY2011 Defense Budget" (PDF). Retrieved 10 April 2014.
- ^ Carlotta Gall (1 October 2008). "Insurgents in Afghanistan Are Gaining, Petraeus Says". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
- ^ "Afghanistan: Changing the Frame, Changing the Game. Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center". Belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2 August 2011.
- ^ "Research – CPI – Overview". Transparency.org. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ Lupick, Travis (12 November 2009). "Suspended Afghan MP Malalai Joya wants NATO's mission to end". Straight.com. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ a b "Discussion Papers" (PDF). Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ a b "Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Conference 2010, Amrullah Saleh speech". 2010.
- ^ see video
- ^ O'Hanlon, Michael E. "A Bright Spot Among Afghan Woes", The Brookings Institution, 19 May 2010.
- ^ What Mr. Obama changed. The Washington Post. 3 December 2009.
- ^ Al Pessin (9 December 2009). "Afghan Forces Could Start to Lead Soon, Big Challenges Remain". Voice of America. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ a b c d e Cahn, Dianna (9 December 2009). "Troops fear corruption outweighs progress of Afghan forces". Stripes.com. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "U.S. trainers bemoan Afghan corruption". UPI.com. 9 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "Illiteracy undermines Afghan army – Air Force News, news from Iraq". Air Force Times. 14 September 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "U.S. surge is big, Afghan army is crucial". MSNBC. Associated Press. 5 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "Corruption, indiscipline slow Afghan training". Army Times. 11 October 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "Training Afghanistan troops gets tough for U.S. troops as trust issues worsen". Daily News. New York. 13 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Filkins, Dexter (2 December 2009). "With Troop Pledge, New Demands on Afghans". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
- ^ [5][dead link]
- ^ "For U.S., Vast Challenge To Expand Afghan Forces". NPR. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ a b Nordland, Rod (2 February 2010). "With Raw Recruits, Afghan Police Buildup Falters". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ Burns, Robert, (Associated Press), "AP IMPACT: An insider attack: Trust cost 2 lives", Yahoo! News, 5 December 2012
- ^ "Permanent U.S. bases? Afghans see an election issue". International Herald Tribune. 27 April 2005. Retrieved 3 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ "Afghan Poll 2009" (PDF). BBC News. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ "Gallup poll". Gallup.com. 30 September 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ Gopal, Anand (1 December 2009). "Karzai Aides, Tribal Leaders Say Surge Is Wrong Strategy". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ Trofimov, Yaroslav (11 September 2010). "Karzai Divides Afghanistan in Reaching Out to Taliban". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ epaper.orlandosentinel.com[dead link]
- ^ AEI 2008.
- ^ "World Opinion Opposes the Attack on Afghanistan". Globalpolicy.org. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ "Strange Victory: A critical appraisal of Operation Enduring Freedom and the Afghanistan war".
- ^ AEI 2008, p. 157.
- ^ a b "47-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey p.24, p.116" (PDF). Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ Survey Reports (27 June 2007). "Global Unease With Major World Powers". Pewglobal.org. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ Survey Reports (12 June 2008). "June 2008 Pew Global Attitudes Project Survey". Pewglobal.org. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ Survey Reports (12 June 2008). "24-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Project Survey p.8, p.29". Pewglobal.org. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ "Australians lose faith in Afghan war effort".[dead link]
- ^ "Government losing support for Afghanistan campaign".
- ^ Flitton, Daniel (30 September 2008). "Opposition mounts against Afghan war". The Age. Australia.
- ^ "Britons call for troop withdrawal". BBC News. 13 November 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ "Most Britons wanted troops out of Afghanistan: poll". Google. 12 November 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ "Britons Would Leave Afghanistan in 2009". Angus-reid.com. 22 November 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2011.[dead link]
- ^ Views on Iraq and Afghanistan[dead link]
- ^ "Public Divided Over Afghan Troop Requests, But Still Sees Rationale for War". Pew Research Center Publications. 5 November 2009.
- ^ "In U.S., More Support for Increasing Troops in Afghanistan". Gallup.com. 25 November 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ "U.S. Seen as Less Important, China as More Powerful: Overview – Pew Research Center for the People & the Press". People-press.org. 3 December 2009. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
- ^ "Goal of Libyan Operation Less Clear to Public". Pew Research Center. 5 April 2011.
- ^ Adams, Harold J. Protesters oppose sending more troops to Afghanistan.[dead link] Louisville Courier-Journal. 6 December 2009.
- ^ "Anti-war protesters arrested outside West Point". Wcax.com. Retrieved 9 February 2010.[dead link]
- ^ "Anti-war protesters arrested outside West Point". Poughkeepsie Journal. 2 December 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- ^ Stelter, Brian (23 March 2009). "Released on Web, a Film Stays Fresh". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
- ^ "20 March – Anti-War March on Washington:". Pephost.org. Retrieved 9 February 2010.[dead link]
- ^ Janie Lorber (20 March 2010). "Saturday Word: Health Care (and Finance)". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "Enduring Freedom:Abuses by U.S. Forces in Afghanistan". 2004.
- ^ "Taliban attack civilians to spread fear: Amnesty". Reuters. 24 April 2007. Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2007.
- ^ Carter, Sara A.; Gertz, Bill (12 May 2009). "Afghan commander's aide blames deaths on Taliban". Washington Times. p. 1. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ^ "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices". 2003.
- ^ Straziuso, Jason (11 May 2009). "U.S.: Afghan Militants Use White Phosphorus". guardian.co.uk. London. Associated Press. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ^ "EXCLUSIVE – Afghan girl's burns show horror of chemical strike". Reuters India. 8 May 2009. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ^ Chivers, C. J. (19 April 2009). "Pinned Down, a Sprint to Escape Taliban Zone". New York Times. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
- ^ Jonathan S. Landay. "'We're pinned down:' 4 U.S. Marines die in Afghan ambush". McClatchy.
- ^ Synovitz, Ron (13 May 2009). "Investigation Launched Into White Phosphorus Claims In Afghanistan". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 2 December 2009.
Sources
- Coll, Steve (2004). Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-59420-007-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Girardet, Edward (2011). Killing the Cranes: A Reporter's Journey Through Three Decades of War in Afghanistan (3 August 2011 ed.). Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 416.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - 911 Commission (20 September 2004). "National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States". Archived from the original on 11 February 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Risen, James (4 September 2008). State of War: The Secret History of the CIA and the Bush Administration. Simon & Schuster UK. ISBN 978-1-84737-511-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Auerswald, David P. & Stephen M. Saideman, eds. NATO in Afghanistan: Fighting Together, Fighting Alone (Princeton U.P. 2014) This book breaks down the history of the U.S. effort in Afghanistan down by deployed commander. Also useful in this fashion are Kaplan, "The Insurgents", and "A Different Kind of War."
- Stewart, Richard W. (2004). Operation Enduring Freedom. BG John S. Brown. United States Army. p. 46.
- AEI (24 July 2008). "America and the War on Terror". AEI Public Opinion Study.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Call, Steve (15 January 2010). Danger Close. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-304-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Woodward, Bob (27 September 2010). Obama's Wars. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-7251-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
Further reading
- "Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War". by Robert Gates. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.
- "U.S. War in Afghanistan". Council on Foreign Relations. 2014.
External links
| |||||||||
| Participants |
| ||||||||
| Conflicts |
| ||||||||
| Related |
| ||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||
| Life and legacy |   | ||||||
| Elections |
| ||||||
| Public image | |||||||
| Books |
| ||||||
| Popular culture | |||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||
- Pages at move review
- War in Afghanistan (2001–14)
- 21st century in Afghanistan
- Wars involving France
- Wars involving Poland
- Wars involving Germany
- Wars involving the United Kingdom
- Wars involving the United States
- Wars involving Australia
- Afghanistan–United States relations
- Afghanistan–Pakistan relations
- Conflicts in 2001
- Conflicts in 2002
- Conflicts in 2003
- Conflicts in 2004
- Conflicts in 2005
- Conflicts in 2006
- Conflicts in 2007
- Conflicts in 2008
- Conflicts in 2009
- Conflicts in 2010
- Conflicts in 2011
- Conflicts in 2012
- Conflicts in 2013
- Conflicts in 2014
- 2001 in Afghanistan
- 2002 in Afghanistan
- 2003 in Afghanistan
- 2004 in Afghanistan
- 2005 in Afghanistan
- 2006 in Afghanistan
- 2007 in Afghanistan
- 2008 in Afghanistan
- 2009 in Afghanistan
- 2010 in Afghanistan
- 2011 in Afghanistan
- 2012 in Afghanistan
- 2013 in Afghanistan
- 2014 in Afghanistan
- Invasions of Afghanistan
- Invasions by the United States
- Invasions by Australia
- Invasions by Canada
- Invasions by the United Kingdom
- Wars involving Georgia (country)