Jump to content

Japan

Edit links
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by AnomieBOT (talk | contribs) at 18:04, 13 April 2011 (Rescuing orphaned refs ("USGS9.0" from rev 423797455)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Japan (disambiguation).

Japan
日本国
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku
Anthem: 

Kimigayo (君が代)
Government Seal of Japan:
Seal of the Office of the Prime Minister and the Government of Japan
五七桐 ([Go-Shichi no Kiri] Error: {{nihongo}}: text has italic markup (help))
Location of Japan
Capital
and largest city
Tokyo (de facto)
Official languagesNone[1]
Recognised regional languagesAynu itak, Ryukyuan languages, Eastern Japanese, Western Japanese, and several other Japanese dialects
National languageJapanese
Ethnic groups
98.5% Japanese, 0.5% Korean, 0.4% Chinese, 0.6% other[2]
Demonym(s)Japanese
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy
• Emperor
Akihito
Naoto Kan (DPJ)
LegislatureDiet of Japan
• Upper house
House of Councillors
• Lower house
House of Representatives of Japan
Formation
February 11, 660 BC[3]
November 29, 1890
May 3, 1947

April 28, 1952
Area
• Total
377,944 km2 (145,925 sq mi)[4] (61st)
• Water (%)
0.8
Population
• 2011 estimate
127,960,000[5] (10th)
• 2004 census
127,333,002
• Density
337.1/km2 (873.1/sq mi) (36th)
GDP (PPP)2010 estimate
• Total
$4.308 trillion[6] (3rd)
• Per capita
$33,828[6] (24th)
GDP (nominal)2010 estimate
• Total
$5.390 trillion[6] (3rd)
• Per capita
$42,325[6] (17th)
Gini38.1 (2002)[7]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2010)Increase 0.884[8]
Error: Invalid HDI value (11th)
CurrencyInternational Symbol ¥ Pronounced (Yen)
Japanese Symbol 円 (or 圓 in Traditional Kanji) Pronounced (En) (JPY)
Time zoneUTC+9 (JST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+9 (not observed)
Date formatyyyy-mm-dd
yyyy年m月d日
Era yy年m月d日 (CE−1988)
Drives onleft
Calling code81
ISO 3166 codeJP
Internet TLD.jp

Japan (/[invalid input: 'En-us-Japan.ogg']dʒəˈpæn/; Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon, officially 日本国 Nippon-kokuⓘ or Nihon-koku) is an island nation in East Asia.[9] Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".

Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands.[10] The four largest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.

Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.

A major economic power,[2] Japan has the world's third-largest economy by nominal GDP[11] and by purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and fourth largest importer. Although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains an extensive modern military force in self-defense and peacekeeping roles. After Singapore, Japan has the lowest homicide (including attempted homicide) rate in the world.[12] According to both UN and WHO estimates, Japan has the longest life expectancy of any country in the world. According to the UN, it has the third lowest infant mortality rate.[13][14]

Etymology

Main article: Names of Japan

The English word Japan is an exonym. The Japanese names for Japan are Nippon (にっぽん) listenⓘ and Nihon (にほん) listenⓘ; both names are written using the kanji 日本. The Japanese name Nippon is used for most official purposes, including on Japanese yen, postage stamps, and for many international sporting events. Nihon is a more casual term and is used in contemporary speech. Japanese people refer to themselves as Nihonjin (日本人) and to their language as Nihongo (日本語). Both Nippon and Nihon mean "sun-origin" and are often translated as Land of the Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Japanese missions to Imperial China and refers to Japan's eastward position relative to China. Before Nihon came into official use, Japan was known as Wa (倭) or Wakoku (倭国).[15]

The English word for Japan came to the West via early trade routes. The early Mandarin or possibly Wu Chinese (吳語) word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 日本 'Japan' is Zeppen [zəʔpən]. The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang, was borrowed from a Chinese language, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in a 1565 letter, spelled Giapan.[16]

History

Main article: History of Japan

Prehistory and ancient history

An example of Jōmon pottery, 3000-2000 BC

A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of Japan. This was followed from around 14,000 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture, who include ancestors of both the contemporary Ainu people and Yamato people,[17][18] characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.[19] Decorated clay vessels from this period are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world. Around 300 BC, the Yayoi people began to enter the Japanese islands, intermingling with the Jōmon.[20] The Yayoi period, starting around 500 BC, saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farming,[21] a new style of pottery,[22] and metallurgy, introduced from China and Korea.[23]

The Japanese first appear in written history in the Chinese Book of Han. According to the Records of Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje, but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China.[24] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period.[25]

The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered on an imperial court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literature with the completion of the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720).[26] The smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.[27] In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto) in 794. This marked the beginning of the Heian period, during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and literature. Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem Kimigayo were written during this time.[28]

Feudal era

The Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 were successfully repelled

Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shoguns. The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.[29] The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo was himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336. The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war (the Ōnin War) began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period ("Warring States").[30]

During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (Nanban trade). Oda Nobunaga conquered many other daimyo using European technology and firearms; after he was assassinated in 1582, his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but following defeats by Korean and Ming Chinese forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.[31]

Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori, using his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).[32] The Tokugawa shogunate enacted measures like buke shohatto as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyo.[33] In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period.[34] The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contact with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.[35]

Modern era

The Meiji Emperor

On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and political crises. The resignation of the shogun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the Emperor (the Meiji Restoration).[36] Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.[37] Japan's population grew from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million in 1935.[38]

The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taishō democracy" overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to widen its influence and territorial holdings. It continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931; as a result of international condemnation of this occupation, Japan resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, and the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers.[39] In 1941, Japan negotiated the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact.[40]

The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). In 1940, the Empire then invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.[41] On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbor and declared war, bringing the US into World War II.[42][43] After the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender on August 15.[44] The war cost Japan and the rest of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere millions of lives and left much of the nation's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allies (led by the US) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese empire and restoring the independence of its conquered territories.[45] The Allies also convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East on May 3, 1946 to prosecute some Japanese leaders for war crimes. However, the bacteriological research units and members of the imperial family involved in the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme Allied Commander despite calls for trials for both groups.[46]

In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952[47] and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the second-largest economy in the world. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. In the beginning of the 21st century, positive growth has signaled a gradual economic recovery.[48] On March 11, 2011, Japan suffered the strongest earthquake in its recorded history.[49]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of Japan
Topographic map

Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The country, including all of the islands it controls, lies between latitudes 24° and 46°N, and longitudes 122° and 146°E. The main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshū, Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago.[50] About 73 percent of Japan is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use.[2][51] As a result, the habitable zones, mainly located in coastal areas, have extremely high population densities. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world.[52]

The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire. They are primarily the result of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south, and subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk Plate to the north. Japan was originally attached to the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent. The subducting plates pulled Japan eastward, opening the Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago.[53] Japan has 108 active volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century.[54] The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.[55] The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, a 9.0-magnitude[56] quake which hit Japan on March 11, 2011, and triggered a tsunami.[49]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Japan

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones: Hokkaido, Sea of Japan, Central Highland, Seto Inland Sea, Pacific Ocean, and Ryukyu Islands. The northernmost zone, Hokkaido, has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter. In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshū's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn wind. The Central Highland has a typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night; precipitation is light. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round. The Pacific coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.[57]

The average winter temperature in Japan is 5.1 °C (41.2 °F) and the average summer temperature is 25.2 °C (77.4 °F).[58] The highest temperature ever measured in Japan—40.9 °C (105.6 °F)—was recorded on August 16, 2007.[59] The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north until reaching Hokkaido in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[60]

Biodiversity

Sakura (Cherry blossom)

Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[61] Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife, including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the raccoon dog, and the Japanese giant salamander.[62]

Environment

Main article: Environmental issues in Japan

In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concern about the problem, the government introduced several environmental protection laws in 1970.[63] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy due to Japan's lack of natural resources.[64] Current environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation.[65]

Japan is one of the world's leaders in the development of new environment-friendly technologies, and is ranked 20th best in the world in the 2010 Environmental Performance Index.[66] As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference which created it, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.[67]

Politics

Main articles: Politics of Japan and Government of Japan
Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko

Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.[68] Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan; Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the throne.

Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives with 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,[2] with a secret ballot for all elected offices.[68] In 2009, the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan took power after 54 years of the liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party's rule.[69] The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government and is appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the Diet from among its members. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State. Naoto Kan was designated by the Diet to replace Yukio Hatoyama as the Prime Minister of Japan on June 2, 2010.[70] Although the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor, the Constitution of Japan explicitly requires the Emperor to appoint whoever is designated by the Diet. Emperor Akihito formally appointed Kan as the country's 94th Prime Minister on June 8.[71]

Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[72] However, since the late 19th century the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch; with post–World War II modifications, the code remains in effect.[73] Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature and has the rubber stamp of the Emperor. The Constitution requires that the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose legislation.[68] Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[74] The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes.[75]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Prefectures of Japan, Regions of Japan, Cities of Japan, Towns of Japan, and Villages of Japan

Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities, towns and villages.[76] The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.[77] In the following, the 47 prefectures are listed according to their regions.

Hokkaido

1. Hokkaido

Tōhoku

2. Aomori
3. Iwate
4. Miyagi
5. Akita
6. Yamagata
7. Fukushima

Kantō

8. Ibaraki
9. Tochigi
10. Gunma
11. Saitama
12. Chiba
13. Tokyo
14. Kanagawa

Chūbu

15. Niigata
16. Toyama
17. Ishikawa
18. Fukui
19. Yamanashi
20. Nagano
21. Gifu
22. Shizuoka
23. Aichi

Kansai

24. Mie
25. Shiga
26. Kyoto
27. Osaka
28. Hyōgo
29. Nara
30. Wakayama

Chūgoku

31. Tottori
32. Shimane
33. Okayama
34. Hiroshima
35. Yamaguchi

Shikoku

36. Tokushima
37. Kagawa
38. Ehime
39. Kōchi

Kyūshū and Okinawa

40. Fukuoka
41. Saga
42. Nagasaki
43. Kumamoto
44. Ōita
45. Miyazaki
46. Kagoshima
47. Okinawa

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Japan

Japan is a member of the G8, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March 2007[78] and with India in October 2008.[79] It is the world's third largest donor of official development assistance after the United States and France, donating US$9.48 billion in 2009.[80]

Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States; the US-Japan security alliance acts as the cornerstone of the nation's foreign policy.[81] A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 19 years, most recently for 2009 and 2010. It is one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.[82]

JDS Kongō (DDG-173) launching a Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile

Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with China over the EEZ around Okinotorishima.[83] Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over the latter's abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program (see also Six-party talks).[84]

Military

Main articles: Japan Self-Defense Forces and Ministry of Defense (Japan)

Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of any country in the world.[85] Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces.[86] The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force is a regular participant in RIMPAC maritime exercises.[87]

Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes. Japan's military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations; the deployment of troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.[86] Nippon Keidanren has called on the government to lift the ban on arms exports so that Japan can join multinational projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter.[88]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Japan
The Tokyo Stock Exchange

From 1868, the Meiji period launched economic expansion in Japan as Meiji rulers embraced the market economy.[89] Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time, and Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia.[90] The period of overall real economic growth from the 1960s to the 1980s has been called a "Japanese miracle": it averaged 7.5 percent in the 1960s and 1970s, and 3.2 percent in the 1980s and early 1990s.[91] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s during what the Japanese call the Lost Decade, largely because of the after-effects of the Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000.[2] The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005; GDP growth for that year was 2.8 percent, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.[92]

As of 2010, Japan is the third largest national economy in the world, after the United States and China, in terms of both nominal GDP and purchasing power parity.[93][94] As of January 2011, Japan's public debt was more than 200 percent of its annual gross domestic product, the largest of any nation in the world. The service sector accounts for three quarters of the gross domestic product.[95] Japan has a large industrial capacity, and is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronics, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods. Agricultural businesses in Japan cultivate 13 percent of Japan's land, and Japan accounts for nearly 15 percent of the global fish catch, second only to China.[2] As of 2010, Japan's labor force consisted of some 65.9 million workers.[96] Japan has a low unemployment rate of around four percent. Almost one in six Japanese, or 20 million people, lived in poverty in 2007.[97] Housing in Japan is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas.[98]

Toyota, one of the world's largest automakers. Japan is the second-largest producer of automobiles in the world.[99]

Japan's exports amounted to US$4,210 per capita in 2005. Japan's main export markets are China (18.88 percent), the United States (16.42 percent), South Korea (8.13 percent), Taiwan (6.27 percent) and Hong Kong (5.49 percent) as of 2009. Its main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[2] Japan's main import markets as of 2009 are China (22.2 percent), the US (10.96 percent), Australia (6.29 percent), Saudi Arabia (5.29 percent), United Arab Emirates (4.12 percent), South Korea (3.98 percent) and Indonesia (3.95 percent). Its main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries.[100] By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country.[101] Junichiro Koizumi's administration began some pro-competition reforms, and foreign investment in Japan has soared.[102]

Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the 2008 Ease of Doing Business Index and has one of the smallest tax revenues of the developed world. The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively common in the Japanese work environment.[103][101] Japanese companies are known for management methods like "The Toyota Way", and shareholder activism is rare.[104] Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota, Nintendo, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Sony, Panasonic, Toshiba, Sharp, Nippon Steel, Nippon Oil, and Seven & I Holdings Co.[105] It has some of the world's largest banks, and the Tokyo Stock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 and Topix indices) stands as the second largest in the world by market capitalization.[106] Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3 percent (as of 2006).[107]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Japan
H-II Transfer Vehicle

Japan is a leading nation in scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world.[108] Japan is a world leader in fundamental scientific research, having produced fifteen Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,[109] three Fields medalists,[110] and one Gauss Prize laureate.[111] Some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are in the fields of electronics, automobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots.[112]

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.[113] Japan's plans in space exploration include: launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki;[114][115] developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2013;[116][117] and building a moon base by 2030.[118] On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar explorer "SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as Kaguya, after the lunar princess of The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter.[119] Kaguya is the largest lunar mission since the Apollo program. Its purpose is to gather data on the moon's origin and evolution. It entered a lunar orbit on October 4,[120][121] flying at an altitude of about 100 km (62 mi).[122] The probe's mission was ended when it was deliberately crashed by JAXA into the Moon on 11 June 2009.[123]

Infrastructure

Main articles: Energy in Japan and Transport in Japan
Shinkansen or Bullet trains are a popular form of transport in Japan.[124]

As of 2008, 46.4 percent of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, 21.4 percent from coal, 16.7 percent from natural gas, 9.7 percent from nuclear power, and 2.9 percent from hydro power. Nuclear power produces 22.5 percent of Japan's electricity.[125] Given its heavy dependence on imported energy,[126] Japan has aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.[127]

Japan's road spending has been extensive.[128] Its 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation.[129] A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and is operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive; car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy efficiency. However, at just 50 percent of all distance traveled, car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries.[130]

Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities. Japanese trains are known for their punctuality.[131] There are 173 airports in Japan; the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's second-busiest airport.[132] The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport, Kansai International Airport and Chūbu Centrair International Airport.[133] Nagoya Port is the country's largest and busiest port, accounting for 10 percent of Japan's trade value.[134]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese people, and Racial issues in Japan

Japan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million.[2] Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with small populations of foreign workers.[135] Zainichi Koreans,[136] Zainichi Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese Brazilians,[137] and Japanese Peruvians are among the small minority groups in Japan.[138] In 2003, there were about 136,000 Western expatriates.[139] The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people; primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu[140] and Ryukyuan peoples, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.[141]

Japan has the longest life expectancy rate in the world.[142][143] The Japanese population is rapidly aging as a result of a post–World War II baby boom followed by a decrease in birth rates. In 2009, about 22.7 percent of the population was over 65, by 2050 almost 40 percent of the population will be aged 65 and over, as projected in December 2006.[144] The changes in demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in workforce population and increase in the cost of social security benefits like the public pension plan. A growing number of younger Japanese are preferring not to marry or have families.[145] Japan's population is expected to drop to 95 million by 2050,[144] demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[145] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[146][147] Japan has a steady flow of about 15,000 immigrants per year.[148] According to the UNHCR, in 2007 Japan accepted just 41 refugees for resettlement, while the US took in 50,000.[149]

Japan suffers from a high suicide rate.[150][151] In 2009, the number of suicides exceeded 30,000 for the twelfth straight year.[152] Suicide is the leading cause of death for people under 30.[153]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Japan
2005 Census
Rank Name Prefecture Pop. Rank Name Prefecture Pop.
Tokyo
Tokyo
Yokohama
Yokohama 		1 Tokyo Tokyo 8,483,050 11 Hiroshima Hiroshima 1,154,595 Osaka
Osaka
Nagoya
Nagoya
2 Yokohama Kanagawa 3,579,133 12 Sendai Miyagi 1,024,947
3 Osaka Osaka 2,628,776 13 Kitakyūshū Fukuoka 993,483
4 Nagoya Aichi 2,215,031 14 Chiba Chiba 924,353
5 Sapporo Hokkaidō 1,880,875 15 Setagaya Tokyo 841,399
6 Kōbe Hyōgo 1,525,389 16 Sakai Osaka 831,111
7 Kyōto Kyōto 1,474,764 17 Niigata Niigata 813,847
8 Fukuoka Fukuoka 1,400,621 18 Hamamatsu Shizuoka 804,067
9 Kawasaki Kanagawa 1,327,009 19 Shizuoka Shizuoka 713,716
10 Saitama Saitama 1,176,269 20 Sagamihara Kanagawa 701,568

Religion

Main article: Religion in Japan
Shinto Itsukushima Shrine UNESCO World Heritage Site

The highest estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population are Buddhists or Shintoists, including a large number of believers in a syncretism of both religions.[2][154] However, these estimates are based on people associated with a temple, rather than the number of people truly following the religion. Professor Robert Kisala (Nanzan University) suggests that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion.[155] Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.[156] Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature. Less than one percent of Japanese are Christian.[157] In addition, since the mid-19th century numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have emerged in Japan.[158]

Languages

Main article: Japanese language

More than 99 percent of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[2] It is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary indicating the relative status of speaker and listener. Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.[159]

Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in Okinawa; however, few children learn these languages.[160] The Ainu language, which is unrelated to Japanese or any other known language, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaido.[161] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.[162]

Education

Main articles: Education in Japan and Health care in Japan
The Yasuda Auditorium of University of Tokyo

Primary schools, secondary schools and universities were introduced in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[163] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and middle school, which together last for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, as of 2005 about 75.9 percent of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.[164] The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[165][166] The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as sixth best in the world.[167]

Health

In Japan, health care is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[168] Patients are free to select the physicians or facilities of their choice.[169]

Culture

The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkaku-ji)
Main article: Culture of Japan

Japanese culture has evolved greatly from the country's original Jōmon arts to its contemporary culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, dolls, lacquerware, pottery, ceramics), folklore, performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), and traditions (games, tea ceremony, Budō, architecture, gardens, katana).

Art

Main articles: Japanese art and Japanese aesthetics
The Great Wave off Kanagawa, by Hokusai

Japanese painting is one of the oldest of the Japanese arts, with early figurative paintings dating back to at least 300 BC. The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas. The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in a movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism.[170] Famous ukiyo-e artists included Hokusai and Hiroshige. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.[171] Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have been popular since the 1980s.[172]

Music

Main article: Music of Japan

Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the 14th century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.[173] Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, now forms an integral part of Japanese culture. The imperial court ensemble Gagaku has influenced the work of some modern Western composers.[174] Notable classical composers from Japan include Toru Takemitsu and Rentaro Taki. Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop, or Japanese popular music.[175] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity in Japan. A 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional pursuits such as flower arranging (ikebana) or tea ceremonies.[176]

Literature

Main article: Japanese literature
A 12th century illustrated handscroll of The Tale of the Genji

The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, and the 8th-century poetry book Man'yōshū, all written in Chinese characters.[177] In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[178] An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel.[179][180]

During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of Yomihon, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship. The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors—Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburo Oe (1994).[178]

A traditional Japanese breakfast

Cuisine

Main article: Japanese cuisine

Historically, the primary ingredient of Japanese cuisine has been Japanese rice. In the early modern era ingredients such as red meats that had previously not been widely used in Japan were introduced. Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties, known as kyōdo ryōri (郷土料理), many originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes with local ingredients. The Michelin Guide has awarded Japanese cities more Michelin stars than the rest of the world combined.[181]

Sports

Main article: Sport in Japan
Sumo wrestlers competing in Tokyo

Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.[182] Japanese martial arts such as judo, karate and kendo are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.[183] Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964. Japan has hosted the Winter Olympics twice: Nagano in 1998 and Sapporo in 1972.[184]

The Japanese professional baseball league was established in 1936.[185] Today baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro Suzuki, who plays for the Seattle Mariners.[186] Sadaharu Oh was well-known outside Japan, having hit more home runs during his career in Japan than Hank Aaron in the US.[187] Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football has also gained a wide following.[188] Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.[189] Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times.[190] Golf is also popular in Japan,[191] as are forms of auto racing like the Super GT series and Formula Nippon.[192]

See also

References

  1. ^ "法制執務コラム集「法律と国語・日本語」" (in Japanese). Legislative Bureau of the House of Councillors. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "World Factbook: Japan". CIA. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  3. ^ According to legend, Japan was founded on this date by Emperor Jimmu, the country's first emperor.
  4. ^ "Japan Statistical Yearbook 2010" (PDF). Statistics Bureau. p. 17. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  5. ^ "Official Japan Statistics Bureau estimate". Statistics Bureau. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  6. ^ a b c d "Japan". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  7. ^ "World Factbook: Gini Index". CIA. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  8. ^ "Human Development Report 2010" (PDF). UN. 2010. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
  9. ^ "Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications". UN Statistics Division. 1 April 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
  10. ^ "Facts and Figures of Japan 2007 01: Land" (PDF). Foreign Press Center Japan. Retrieved 4 July 2007.
  11. ^ Inman, James (21 January 2011). "China confirmed as World's Second Largest Economy". The Guardian. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
  12. ^ "Ninth United Nations survey of crime trends and operations of criminal justice systems" (PDF). UN Office on Drugs and Crime. pp. 1–9. Retrieved 1 December 2006.
  13. ^ "WHO: Life expectancy in Israel among highest in the world". Haaretz. May 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  14. ^ "Table A.17" (PDF). United Nations World Population Prospects, 2006 revision. UN. Retrieved 15 January 2011. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)
  15. ^ Piggott, Joan R. (1997). The emergence of Japanese kingship. Stanford University Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 0-8047-2832-1.
  16. ^ Mancall, Peter C. (2006). "Of the Ilande of Giapan, 1565". Travel narratives from the age of discovery: an anthology. Oxford University Press. pp. 156–157.
  17. ^ Matsumara, Hirofumi; Dodo, Yukio (2009). "Dental characteristics of Tohoku residents in Japan: implications for biological affinity with ancient Emishi". Anthropological Science. 117 (2): 95–105.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Hammer, Michael F.; et al. (2006). "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". Journal of Human Genetics. 51 (1): 47–58. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  19. ^ Travis, John. "Jomon Genes". University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  20. ^ Denoon, Donald; Hudson, Mark (2001). Multicultural Japan: palaeolithic to postmodern. Cambridge University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 0521003628.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ "Road of rice plant". National Science Museum of Japan. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  22. ^ "Kofun Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  23. ^ "Yayoi Culture". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  24. ^ Brown, Delmer M., ed. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–149.
  25. ^ Beasley, William Gerald (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-520-22560-0.
  26. ^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 64–79. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  27. ^ Hays, J.N. (2005). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. p. 31. ISBN 1-85109-658-2.
  28. ^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 79–87, 122–123. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  29. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 106–112. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
  30. ^ Sanson, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. pp. 42, 217. ISBN 0-8047-0525-9.
  31. ^ Turnbull, Stephen (2002). Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War. Cassel. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-304-35948-6.
  32. ^ Turnbull, Stephen (2010). Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Osprey Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-84603-960-7.
  33. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 142–143. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
  34. ^ Toby, Ronald P. (1977). "Reopening the Question of Sakoku: Diplomacy in the Legitimation of the Tokugawa Bakufu". Journal of Japanese Studies. 3 (2): 323–363.
  35. ^ Ohtsu, M. (1999). "Japanese National Values and Confucianism". Japanese Economy. 27 (2): 45–59.
  36. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 289–296. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
  37. ^ Matsusaka, Y. Tak (2009). "The Japanese Empire". In Tsutsui, William M. (ed.). Companion to Japanese History. Blackwell. pp. 224–241. ISBN 9781505116909. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  38. ^ Hiroshi, Shimizu (1999). Japan and Singapore in the world economy : Japan's economic advance into Singapore, 1870–1965. Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-415-19236-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  39. ^ "The Axis Alliance". iBiblio. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  40. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 442. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
  41. ^ Worth, Roland H., Jr. (1995). No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan and the Eruption of War in the Pacific. McFarland. pp. 56, 86. ISBN 0-7864-0141-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ "インドネシア独立運動と日本とスカルノ（２）". 馬 樹禮 (in Japanese). 産経新聞社. April 2005. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  43. ^ "The Kingdom of the Netherlands Declares War with Japan". iBiblio. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  44. ^ Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security. 18 (2): 154–201.
  45. ^ Watt, Lori (2010). When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan. Harvard University Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-674-05598-8.
  46. ^ Thomas, J.E. (1996). Modern Japan. Longman. pp. 284–287. ISBN 0-582-25962-2.
  47. ^ Coleman, Joseph (6 March 2006). "'52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA". Japan Times. Retrieved 3 April 2006. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  48. ^ "Japan scraps zero interest rates". BBC News Online. 14 July 2006. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
  49. ^ a b Fackler, Martin; Drew, Kevin (11 March 2011). "Devastation as Tsunami Crashes Into Japan". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 8–11. ISBN 0333710022. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  51. ^ "Japan". US Department of State. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  52. ^ "World Population Prospects". UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  53. ^ Barnes, Gina L. (2003). "Origins of the Japanese Islands" (PDF). University of Durham. Retrieved 11 August 2009.
  54. ^ "Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan". Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  55. ^ James, C.D. (2002). "The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire" (PDF). University of California Berkeley. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  56. ^ USGS analysis as of 2011-03-12
  57. ^ Karan, Pradyumna Prasad (2005). Japan in the 21st century. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 18–21, 41. ISBN 0-8131-2342-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  58. ^ "Climate". JNTO. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
  59. ^ "Gifu Prefecture sees highest temperature ever recorded in Japan – 40.9". Japan News Review Society. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
  60. ^ "Essential Info: Climate". JNTO. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
  61. ^ "Flora and Fauna: Diversity and regional uniqueness". Embassy of Japan in the USA. Archived from the original on 13 February 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
  62. ^ "The Wildlife in Japan" (PDF). Ministry of the Environment. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
  63. ^ "日本の大気汚染の歴史" (in Japanese). Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  64. ^ Sekiyama, Takeshi. "Japan's international cooperation for energy efficiency and conservation in Asian region" (PDF). Energy Conservation Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  65. ^ "Environmental Performance Review of Japan" (PDF). OECD. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  66. ^ "Environmental Performance Index: Japan". Yale University. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  67. ^ "Japan sees extra emission cuts to 2020 goal -minister". World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
  68. ^ a b c "The Constitution of Japan". House of Councillors of the National Diet of Japan. 3 November 1946. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  69. ^ Harden, Blaine (31 August 2009). "Ruling Party Is Routed In Japan". Washington Post. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  70. ^ "Diet votes in Kan as prime minister". Japan Times. 4 June 2010. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
  71. ^ Fackler, Martin (8 June 2010). "Focusing on Future, Premier in Japan Unveils Cabinet". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  72. ^ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. pp. 55–58. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0.
  73. ^ Kanamori, Shigenari (1 January 1999). "German influences on Japanese Pre-War Constitution and Civil Code". European Journal of Law and Economics. 7 (1): 93–95. doi:10.1023/A:1008688209052.
  74. ^ "The Japanese Judicial System". Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  75. ^ Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. p. 131. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0.
  76. ^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 84–85. ISBN 0333710022. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  77. ^ Mabuchi, Masaru (May 2001). "Municipal Amalgamation in Japan" (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
  78. ^ "Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  79. ^ "Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation between Japan and India". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 22 October 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  80. ^ "Net Official Development Assistance in 2009" (PDF). OECD. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  81. ^ Michael Green. "Japan Is Back: Why Tokyo's New Assertiveness Is Good for Washington". Real Clear Politics. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
  82. ^ "UK backs Japan for UNSC bid". Central Chronicle. Archived from the original on 21 February 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2007. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  83. ^ Schoenbaum, Thomas J., ed. (2008). Peace in Northeast Asia. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited. pp. 26–29.
  84. ^ Chanlett-Avery, Emma. "North Korea's Abduction of Japanese Citizens and the Six-Party Talks" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  85. ^ "The 15 countries with the highest military expenditure in 2009". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  86. ^ a b "Tokyo says it will bring troops home from Iraq". International Herald Tribune. 20 June 2006. Retrieved 28 March 2007. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  87. ^ "About RIMPAC". Government of Singapore. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  88. ^ "Japan business lobby wants weapon export ban eased". Reuters. 13 July 2010. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
  89. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 312–314. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
  90. ^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0333710022. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  91. ^ Ryan, Liam (1 January 2000). "The "Asian economic miracle" unmasked: The political economy of the reality". International Journal of Social Economics. 27 (7–10): 802–815. doi:10.1108/03068290010335235.
  92. ^ Masake, Hisane (2 March 2006). "A farewell to zero". Asia Times. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  93. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database; country comparisons". IMF. 6 October 2010. Retrieved 5 January 2011.
  94. ^ "World Factbook: Country Comparison :: GDP (purchasing power parity)". CIA. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  95. ^ "Manufacturing and Construction". Statistical Handbook of Japan. Statistics Bureau. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  96. ^ "Background Note: Japan". US State Department. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
  97. ^ "Japan Tries to Face Up to Growing Poverty Problem". The New York Times. 21 April 2010. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  98. ^ "2008 Housing and Land Survey". Statistics Bureau. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
  99. ^ "World Motor Vehicle Production by Country" (PDF). OICA. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  100. ^ Blustein, Paul (27 January 2005). "China Passes U.S. in Trade with Japan". The Washington Post. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
  101. ^ a b "Economic survey of Japan 2008". OECD. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  102. ^ "Foreign investment in Japan soars". BBC. 29 June 2005. Retrieved 16 January 2011. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |newspaper= (help)
  103. ^ "Japan's Economy: Free at last". The Economist. 20 July 2006. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  104. ^ "Activist shareholders swarm in Japan". The Economist. 28 June 2007. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  105. ^ "Japan 500 2007". Financial Times. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
  106. ^ "Market Data". New York Stock Exchange. 31 January 2006. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
  107. ^ "The Forbes 2000". Forbes. Retrieved 7 January 2011. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  108. ^ McDonald, Joe (4 December 2006). "China to spend $136 billion on R&D". BusinessWeek.
  109. ^ "Japanese Nobel Laureates". Kyoto University. 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
  110. ^ "Japanese Fields Medalists". Kyoto University. 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
  111. ^ "Dr. Kiyoshi Ito receives Gauss Prize". Kyoto University. 2009. Retrieved 7 November 2009.
  112. ^ "The Boom in Robot Investment Continues". UN Economic Commission for Europe. 17 October 2000. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
  113. ^ "Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Homepage". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 3 August 2006. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
  114. ^ "JAXA | Venus Climate Orbiter "AKATSUKI" (PLANET-C)". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
  115. ^ "ISAS | Venus Meteorology AKATSUKI (PLANET-C)". Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
  116. ^ "JAXA, Mercury Exploration Mission "BepiColombo"". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  117. ^ "ISAS, Mercury Exploration MMO (BepiColombo)". Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  118. ^ "Japan Plans Moon Base by 2030". MoonDaily. 3 August 2006. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  119. ^ ""KAGUYA" selected as SELENE's nickname". Retrieved 13 October 2007.
  120. ^ "Japan Successfully Launches Lunar Explorer "Kaguya"". Japan Corporate News Network. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  121. ^ "Japan launches first lunar probe". BBC News. 14 September 2007. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  122. ^ "JAXA, KAGUYA (SELENE) Image Taking of "Full Earth-Rise" by HDTV". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
  123. ^ "Japanese probe crashes into Moon". BBC News. 11 June 2009. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
  124. ^ Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge. pp. 61–68. ISBN 0-415-32052-6.
  125. ^ "Energy". Statistical Handbook of Japan 2010. Statistics Bureau. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  126. ^ "Can nuclear power save Japan from peak oil?". Our World 2.0. 2 February 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  127. ^ "Japan". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
  128. ^ "Japan's Road to Deep Deficit is Paved with Public Works". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  129. ^ "Transport". Statistical Handbook of Japan 2007. Statistics Bureau. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  130. ^ "Transport in Japan". International Transport Statistics Database. International Road Assessment Program. Retrieved 17 February 2009.(subscription required)
  131. ^ "Corporate Culture as Strong Diving Force for Punctuality- Another "Just in Time"". Hitachi. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
  132. ^ "Year to Date Passenger Traffic". Airports Council International. 11 November 2010. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
  133. ^ Nakagawa, Dai (2006). Transport Policy and Funding. Elsevier. p. 63. ISBN 0-08-044852-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  134. ^ "Port Profile". Port of Nagoya. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  135. ^ "'Multicultural Japan' remains a pipe dream". Japan Times. 27 March 2007. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  136. ^ "Japan-born Koreans live in limbo". The New York Times. 2 April 2005. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  137. ^ "An Enclave of Brazilians Is Testing Insular Japan". The New York Times. 1 November 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  138. ^ "'Home' is where the heartbreak is for Japanese-Peruvians". Asia Times. 16 October 1999. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  139. ^ "Registered Foreigners in Japan by Nationality" (PDF). Statistics Bureau. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2005. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  140. ^ Fogarty, Philippa (6 June 2008). "Recognition at last for Japan's Ainu". BBC. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
  141. ^ "The Invisible Race". Time. 8 January 1973. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  142. ^ "WHO: Life expectancy in Israel among highest in the world". Haaretz. May 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  143. ^ "Table A.17" (PDF). United Nations World Population Prospects, 2006 revision. UN. Retrieved 15 January 2011. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)
  144. ^ a b "Statistical Handbook of Japan 2010: Chapter 2—Population". Statistics Bureau. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  145. ^ a b Ogawa, Naohiro. "Demographic Trends and their implications for Japan's future". Transcript of speech delivered on 7 March 1997. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 14 May 2006.
  146. ^ Sakanaka, Hidenori (5 October 2005). "Japan Immigration Policy Institute: Director's message". Japan Immigration Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
  147. ^ French, Howard (24 July 2003). "Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 February 2007.
  148. ^ "帰化許可申請者数等の推移" (in Japanese). Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  149. ^ "Refugees in Japan". Japan Times. 12 October 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  150. ^ Strom, Stephanie (15 July 1999). "In Japan, Mired in Recession, Suicides Soar". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
  151. ^ Lewis, Leo (19 June 2008). "Japan gripped by suicide epidemic". The Times. Retrieved 20 September 2008.
  152. ^ "Suicides in Japan top 30,000 for 12th consecutive year". Japan Today. 25 December 2009. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  153. ^ Ozawa-de Silva, Chikako (2008). "Too Lonely to Die Alone: Internet Suicide Pacts and Existential Suffering in Japan". Cult Med Psychiatry. 32 (4): 516–551. doi:10.1007/s11013-008-9108-0. PMID 18800195. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  154. ^ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (15 September 2006). "International Religious Freedom Report 2006". US Department of State. Retrieved 4 December 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  155. ^ Kisala, Robert (2005). Wargo, Robert (ed.). The Logic Of Nothingness: A Study of Nishida Kitarō. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 0-8248-2284-6.
  156. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 72. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
  157. ^ Kato, Mariko (24 February 2009). "Christianity's long history in the margins". Japan Times.
  158. ^ Clarke, Peter, ed. (1993). The World's religions : understanding the living faiths. Reader's Digest. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-89577-501-6.
  159. ^ Miyagawa, Shigeru. "The Japanese Language". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  160. ^ Heinrich, Patrick (January 2004). "Language Planning and Language Ideology in the Ryūkyū Islands". Language Policy. 3 (2): 153–179. doi:10.1023/B:LPOL.0000036192.53709.fc.
  161. ^ "15 families keep ancient language alive in Japan". UN. Archived from the original on 6 January 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  162. ^ Ellington, Lucien (1 September 2005). "Japan Digest: Japanese Education". Indiana University. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 27 April 2006.
  163. ^ Ellington, Lucien (1 December 2003). "Beyond the Rhetoric: Essential Questions About Japanese Education". Foreign Policy Research Institute. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
  164. ^ "School Education" (PDF). MEXT. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  165. ^ "TOP – 100". Global Universities Ranking. 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2010.
  166. ^ "QS World University Rankings 2010". QS TopUniversities. 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2010.
  167. ^ "OECD's PISA survey shows some countries making significant gains in learning outcomes". OECD. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
  168. ^ Rodwin, Victor. "Health Care in Japan". New York University. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  169. ^ "Health Insurance: General Characteristics". National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
  170. ^ Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard (2010). Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African, and Pacific Art and the London Avant-Garde. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959369-9.
  171. ^ "A History of Manga". NMP International. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  172. ^ Herman, Leonard. "The History of Video Games". Gamespot. Retrieved 1 April 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  173. ^ Malm, William P. (2000). Traditional Japanese music and musical instruments (New ed.). Kodansha International. pp. 31–45. ISBN 978-4-7700-2395-7.
  174. ^ See for example, Olivier Messiaen, Sept haïkaï (1962), (Olivier Messiaen: a research and information guide, Routledge, 2008, By Vincent Perez Benitez, page 67) and (Messiaen the Theologian, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2010, page 243-65, By Andrew Shenton)
  175. ^ Campion, Chris (22 August 2005). "J-Pop History". The Observer. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
  176. ^ Martinez, D.P., ed. (1998). The worlds of Japanese popular culture: gender, shifting boundaries and global cultures (Repr. ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-521-63729-9.
  177. ^ "Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000)". Meiji Gakuin University. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
  178. ^ a b "Windows on Asia—Literature : Antiquity to Middle Ages: Recent Past". Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 28 December 2007.
  179. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 126–127. ISBN 1-4051-2359-1.
  180. ^ Royall, Tyler, ed. (2003). The Tale of Genji. Penguin Classics. pp. i–ii, xii. ISBN 0-14-243714-X.
  181. ^ "「ミシュランガイド東京・横浜・鎌倉2011」を発行　三つ星が14軒、 二つ星が54軒、一つ星が198軒に" (in Japanese). Michelin Japan. 24 November 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2011.
  182. ^ "Sumo: East and West". PBS. Retrieved 10 March 2007.
  183. ^ "Culture and Daily Life". Embassy of Japan in the UK. Archived from the original on 17 March 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
  184. ^ "Olympic History in Japan". Japanese Olympic Committee. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  185. ^ Nagata, Yoichi; Holway, John B. (1995). "Japanese Baseball". In Palmer, Pete (ed.). Total Baseball (4th ed.). Viking Press. p. 547.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  186. ^ Posnanski, Joe. "There has never been a player like Ichiro, and there likely never will". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  187. ^ Wallace, Bruce (4 July 2007). "Home run king and gentleman". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  188. ^ "Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan" (PDF). The Japan Forum. Retrieved 1 April 2007.
  189. ^ "Previous FIFA World Cups". FIFA. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  190. ^ "Japan's best for AFC Asian Cup". Asian Football Confederation. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
  191. ^ Varcoe, Fred. "Japanese Golf Gets Friendly". Metropolis. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  192. ^ Clarke, Len. "Japanese Omnibus: Sports". Metropolis. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved 1 April 2007. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
Further reading
  • Flath, The Japanese Economy, Oxford University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-19-877503-2)
  • Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0-312-23370-1)
  • Iwabuchi, Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism, Duke University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0-8223-2891-7)
  • Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0-674-00334-9)
  • Kato et al., A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times, Japan Library, 1997 (ISBN 1-873410-48-4)
  • Samuels, Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia, Cornell University Press, 2008 (ISBN 0-8014-7490-6)
  • Silverberg, Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times, University of California Press, 2007 (ISBN 0-520-22273-3)
  • Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-521-52925-5)
  • Varley, Japanese Culture, University of Hawaii Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-8248-2152-1)
Government
News media
Tourism
General information

Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Template:Link GA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA Template:Link FA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan&oldid=423895108"