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===Child Population===
===Child Population within the age group of 0-6===
{| class="Child Population in the age group 0-6 by sex: Census 2011" <ref>{{cite web|title=Census of India|url=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>
{| class="Child Population in the age group 0-6 by sex: Census 2011" <ref>{{cite web|title=Census of India|url=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>
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Revision as of 15:43, 23 September 2011

This article is about the people from India. For Other uses, see Indian (disambiguation).
Demographics of {{{place}}}
Population of India, 1961-2003
Population1,210,193,422 (2011 est.) (2nd)
Growth rate1.41% (2009 est.) (93rd)
Birth rate22.22 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Death rate6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2009 est.)
Life expectancy69.89 years (2009 est.)
 • male67.46 years (2009 est.)
 • female72.61 years (2009 est.)
Fertility rate2.68 children born/woman (2010 est.) (82nd)
Infant mortality rate30.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)
Age structure
0–14 years31.1% (male 190,075,426/female 172,799,553) (2009 est.)
15–64 years63.6% (male 381,446,079/female 359,802,209) (2009 est.)
65 and over5.3% (male 29,364,920/female 32,591,030) (2009 est.)
Sex ratio
At birth1.12 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Under 151.10 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
15–64 years1.06 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
65 and over0.90 male(s)/female (2009 est.)
Nationality
Major ethnicSee Ethnic Groups of India
Language
OfficialSee Languages of India

The demographics of India are inclusive of the second most populous country in the world, with over 1.21 billion people (2011 census), more than a sixth of the world's population. Already containing 17.5% of the world's population, India is projected to be the world's most populous country by 2025, surpassing China, its population reaching 1.6 billion by 2050.[1][2] Its population growth rate is 1.41%, ranking 93rd in the world.

India has more than 50% of its population below the age of 25 and more than 65% hovers below the age of 35. It is expected that, in 2020, the average age of an Indian will be 29 years, compared to 37 for China and 48 for Japan; and, by 2030, India's dependency ratio should be just over 0.4.[3]

India has more than two thousand ethnic groups, and every major religion is represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages) as well as two language isolates (the Nihali language[4] spoken in parts of Maharashtra and the Burushaski language spoken in parts of Jammu and Kashmir).

Further complexity is lent by the great variation that occurs across this population on social parameters such as income and education. Only the continent of Africa exceeds the linguistic, genetic and cultural diversity of the nation of India.[5]

Salient features

India occupies 2.4% of the world's land area and supports over 17.5% of the world's population. India has more arable land area than any country except the United States,[6] and more water area than any country except Canada and the United States. Indian life revolves mostly around agriculture and allied activities in small villages, where the overwhelming majority of Indians live. As per the 2001 census, 72.2% of the population[7] lives in about 638,000 villages[8] and the remaining 27.8%[9] lives in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations.[10]

List of States and Union territories by demographics

Template:IndiaCensusPop

Rank State or union territory Population (2011) %[11] Rural Pop.[12] Urban Pop.[12] Area km²[13] Density (per km²) Area mi² Density (per mi²) Sex ratio
1 Uttar Pradesh 199,581,520 16.49% 131,658,339 34,539,582 240,928 828 93,022.8 2146 908
2 Maharashtra 112,372,972 9.29% 55,777,647 41,100,980 307,713 365 118,808.7 815 946
3 Bihar 103,804,637 8.58% 74,316,709 8,681,800 94,163 1102 36,356.5 2,855 916
4 West Bengal 91,347,736 7.55% 57,748,946 22,427,251 88,752 1030 34,267.3 2,666 908
5 Andhra Pradesh 84,665,533 7.00% 55,401,067 20,808,940 275,045 308 106,195.5 797 912
6 Tamil Nadu 72,138,958 5.96% 34,921,681 27,483,998 130,058 555 50,215.7 1,437 945
7 Madhya Pradesh 72,597,565 6.00% 44,380,878 15,967,145 308,245 236 119,014.1 610 930
8 Rajasthan 68,621,012 5.67% 43,292,813 13,214,375 342,239 201 132,139.2 519 926
9 Karnataka 61,130,704 5.05% 34,889,033 17,961,529 191,791 319 74,050.9 826 968
10 Gujarat 60,383,628 4.99% 31,740,767 18,930,250 196,024 308 75,685.3 798 918
11 Orissa 41,947,358 3.47% 31,287,422 5,517,238 155,707 269 60,118.8 698 905
12 Kerala 33,387,677 2.76% 23,574,449 8,266,925 38,863 859 15,005.1 2,225 1,084
13 Jharkhand 32,966,238 2.72% 20,952,088 5,993,741 79,714 414 30,777.7 1071 947
14 Assam 31,169,272 2.58% 23,216,288 3,439,240 78,438 397 30,285.1 1029 954
15 Punjab 27,704,236 2.29% 16,096,488 8,262,511 50,362 550 19,444.9 1,425 893
16 Haryana 25,353,081 2.09% 15,029,260 6,115,304 44,212 573 17,070.3 1,485 877
17 Chhattisgarh 25,540,196 2.11% 16,648,056 4,185,747 135,191 189 52,197.5 489 991
18 Jammu and Kashmir 12,548,926 1.04% 7,627,062 2,516,638 222,236 56 85,805.8 146 883
19 Uttarakhand 10,116,752 0.84% 6,310,275 2,179,074 53,483 189 20,649.9 490 963
20 Himachal Pradesh 6,856,509 0.57% 5,482,319 595,581 55,673 123 21,495.5 319 974
21 Tripura 3,671,032 0.30% 2,653,453 545,750 10,486 350 4,048.7 907 921
22 Meghalaya 2,964,007 0.24% 1,864,711 454,111 22,429 132 8,659.9 342 986
23 Manipurβ 2,721,756 0.22% 1,590,820 575,968 22,327 122 8,620.5 316 987
24 Nagaland 1,980,602 0.16% 1,647,249 342,787 16,579 119 6,401.2 309 931
25 Goa 1,457,723 0.12% 677,091 670,577 3,702 394 1,429.4 1020 968
26 Arunachal Pradesh 1,382,611 0.11% 870,087 227,881 83,743 17 32,333.4 43 920
27 Mizoram 1,091,014 0.09% 447,567 441,006 21,081 52 8,139.4 134 975
28 Sikkim 607,688 0.05% 480,981 59,870 7,096 86 2,739.8 222 889
UT1 Delhi 16,753,235 1.38% 944,727 12,905,780 11,297 9,340 572.6 29,258 866
UT2 Puducherry 1,244,464 0.10% 325,726 648,619 479 2,598 184.9 6,730 1,038
UT3 Chandigarh 1,054,686 0.09% 92,120 808,515 114 9,252 44.0 23,970 818
UT4 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 379,944 0.03% 239,954 116,198 8,249 46 3,185.0 119 878
UT5 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 342,853 0.03% 170,027 50,463 491 698 189.6 1,808 775
UT6 Daman and Diu 242,911 0.02% 100,856 57,348 112 2,169 43.2 5,623 618
UT7 Lakshadweep 64,429 0.01% 33,683 26,967 32 2,013 12.4 5,196 946
Total India 1,210,193,422 100.00% 742,490,639 286,119,689 3,287,240 382 1,269,210.5 954 940

Religious demographics

Main article: Religion in India

Template:Religion in India

India contains the majority of the world's Zoroastrians (even ahead of Iran), Sikhs, Hindus, Jains and Bahá'ís. India is also home to the third-largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia and Pakistan.

Religious majorities vary greatly by state. Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep are Muslim majority states; Nagaland, Mizoram and Meghalaya are Christian majority; Punjab is majority Sikh;[citation needed]

The table below summarises the findings of the 2001 census with regard to religion in India:

  1. All figures in %.
  2. Others including Bahá'ís, Jews, and Parsis.
  3. Tribal Animists (and non religious) are grouped under Others after 1926 (1931 census onwards)
Table 2: Census information for 2001*
Composition Hindus[14] Muslims[15] Christians[16] Sikhs[17] Buddhist[18] Jains[19] Others[20]
% total of population 2001 80.5% 13.4% 2.3% 1.9% 0.8% 0.4% 0.6%
10-Yr Growth % (est '91–'01)[21]* 20.3% 29.5% 22.6% 18.2% 24.5% 26.0% 103.1%
Sex ratio† (avg. 944) 935 940 1009 895 955 940 1000
Literacy rate (71.7% for Age 7 & above)[22] 75.5 60.0 90.3 70.4 73.0 95.0 50.0
Work Participation Rate 40.4 31.3 39.7 37.7 40.6 32.9 48.4
Rural sex ratio[21] 944 953 1001 895 958 937 995
Urban sex ratio[21] 922 907 1026 886 944 941 966
Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs) 925 950 964 786 942 870 976

N.B. Table excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur state.

* The data is "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Indian-administered Kashmir); 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir.

† No. of females/1000 males.

India's 2011 census shows a serious decline in the number of girls under the age of seven - activists fear eight million female foetuses may have been aborted between 2001 and 2011. [23]

Child Population within the age group of 0-6

State/UT Code India/State/UT Persons Males Females
01 Jammu & Kashmir 20,08,642 10,80,662 9,27,980
02 Himachal Pradesh 7,63,864 4,00,681 3,63,183
03 Punjab 29,41,570 15,93,262 13,48,308
04 Chandigarh 1,17,953 63,187 54,766
05 Uttarakhand 13,28,844 7,04,769 6,24,075
06 Haryana 32,97,724 18,02,047 14,95,677
07 NCT of Delhi 19,70,510 10,55,735 9,14,775
08 Rajasthan 1,05,04,916 55,80,212 49,24,704
09 Uttar Pradesh 2,97,28,235 1,56,53,175 1,40,75,060
10 Bihar 1,85,82,229 96,15,280 89,66,949
11 Sikkim 61,077 31,418 29,659
12 Arunachal Pradesh 2,02,759 1,03,430 99,329
13 Nagaland 2,85,981 1,47,111 1,38,870
14 Manipur 3,53,237 1,82,684 1,70,553
15 Mizoram 1,65,536 83,965 81,571
16 Tripura 4,44,055 2,27,354 2,16,701
17 Meghalaya 5,55,822 2,82,189 2,73,633
18 Assam 45,11,307 23,05,088 22,06,219
19 West Bengal 1,01,12,599 51,87,264 49,25,335
20 Jharkhand 52,37,582 26,95,921 25,41,661
21 Orissa 50,35,650 26,03,208 24,32,442
22 Chhattisgarh 35,84,028 18,24,987 17,59,041
23 Madhya Pradesh 1,05,48,295 55,16,957 50,31,338
24 Gujarat 74,94,176 39,74,286 35,19,890
25 Daman & Diu 25,880 13,556 12,324
26 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 49,196 25,575 23,621
27 Maharashtra 1,28,48,375 68,22,262 60,26,113
28 Andhra Pradesh 86,42,686 44,48,330 41,94,356
29 Karnataka 68,55,801 35,27,844 33,27,957
30 Goa 1,39,495 72,669 66,826
31 Lakshadweep 7,088 3,715 3,373
32 Kerala 33,22,247 16,95,935 16,26,312
33 Tamil Nadu 68,94,821 35,42,351 33,52,470
34 Puducherry 1,27,610 64,932 62,678
35 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 39,497 20,094 19,403
INDIA 15,87,89,287 8,29,52,135 7,58,37,152

Linguistic demographics

Main article: List of languages by number of native speakers in India

43% of the Hindus speak Hindi while the rest speak Assamese, Bangla, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi and other languages. Almost 45% of the Muslims speak Urdu while the rest speak Assamese, Bangla, Gujarati, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu and other languages. About one-third of the Christians speak Malayalam, one-sixth speak Tamil while the rest speak a variety of languages. In total, there are 1,652 languages and dialects spoken in India.[25]

Languages of India by number of native speakers as per the 2001 census[26]
Rank Language Speakers Percentage
1 Hindi dialects[27] 422,048,642 41.03%
2 Bengali 83,369,769 8.11%
3 Telugu 74,002,856 7.19%
4 Marathi 71,936,894 6.99%
5 Tamil 60,793,814 5.91%
6 Urdu 51,536,111 5.01%
7 Gujarati 46,091,617 4.48%
8 Kannada 37,924,011 3.69%
9 Malayalam 33,066,392 3.21%
10 Odia 33,017,446 3.21%
11 Punjabi 29,102,477 2.83%
12 Assamese 13,168,484 1.28%
13 Maithili 12,179,122 1.18%
14 Bhili/Bhilodi 9,582,957 0.93%
15 Santali 6,469,600 0.63%
16 Kashmiri 5,527,698 0.54%
17 Nepali 2,871,749 0.28%
18 Gondi 2,713,790 0.26%
19 Sindhi 2,535,485 0.25%
20 Konkani 2,489,015 0.24%
21 Dogri 2,282,589 0.22%
22 Khandeshi 2,075,258 0.20%
23 Kurukh 1,751,489 0.17%
24 Tulu 1,722,768 0.17%
25 Meitei (Manipuri) 1,466,705* 0.14%
26 Bodo 1,350,478 0.13%
27 Khasi 1,128,575 0.112%
28 Mundari 1,061,352 0.105%
29 Ho 1,042,724 0.103%

N.B. The percentage of speakers of each language for 2001 has been worked out on the total population of India (excluding Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur state due to cancellation of census results).

* Excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul of Senapati District.

Largest cities

Template:Largest cities of India

CIA World Factbook demographic statistics

The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.

Chart showing the Total Fertility Rate of Indian states (SRS survey 1996-98)[28]
Total Population

1,166,079,217 (July 2009 est. CIA)[29] 1,028.7 million (2001 Census final figures, March 1 enumeration and estimated 124,000 in areas of Manipur that could not be covered in the enumeration)

Map showing the population density of each district in India.
Rural Population

72.2%, male: 381,668,992, female: 360,948,755 (2001 Census)

Age structure

0–14 years: 30.8%, male: 188,208,196, female: 171,356,024
15–64 years: 64.3%, male: 386,432,921, female: 364,215,759
65+ years: 4.9%, male: 27,258,259, female: 30,031,289 (2007 est.)

Median age

25.1 years

Population growth rate

1.548% (2009 est.)

Birth rate

21.76 births/1,000 population (2009 est.)

Death rate

6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2009 est.)

Map showing the literacy rate of each district in India.
Literacy rate

71.7% (Age 7 & above) [22]

Percent of the population under the poverty line

22% (2006 est.)

Unemployment Rate

7.8%

Net migration rate

−0.05 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2007 est.)

Sex ratio

at birth: 1.12 male(s)/female
under 10 years: 1.14 male(s)/female
15–24 years: 1.09 male(s)/female
24–64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.908 male(s)/female
total population: 1.08 male(s)/female (2011 est.)

Infant mortality rate

total: 30.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.) male: 34.61 deaths/1,000 live births female: 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births

Life expectancy at birth

total population: 69.89 years
male: 67.46 years
female: 72.61 years (2007 est.)

Total fertility rate

2.72 children born/woman (2009 est.), although more up to date statistics indicate that India's TFR was 2.6 in 2008 [30] The TFR (Total number of children born per women) according to Religion in 2001 was :

Hindus — 2.0 Muslims — 2.4 Sikhs — 2.1 Christians — 2.1 Buddhists — 2.1 Jains — 1.4 Animists and Others — 2.99 Tribals — 3.16 Scheduled Castes — 2.89[citation needed]

Religions

Hindu 80.5% Muslim 13.4% Christian 2.3% Sikh 1.8% Buddhists 0.8% Jains 0.4% others 0.7% unspecified 0.1% (2001 Census) [31][32][33][34]

Scheduled Castes and Tribes

Scheduled Castes: 16.2% (2001 Census) Scheduled Tribes: 8.2% (2001 Census)

Languages: See Languages of India and List of Indian languages by total speakers. There are 216 languages with more than 10,000 native speakers in India. The largest of these is Hindi with some 337 million (the second largest being Bangla with some 207 million). 22 languages are recognized as official languages. In India, there are 1,652 languages and dialects in total.[25][35]

Population projections

India is projected to overtake China as the world's most populous nation by 2030. India's population growth has raised concerns that it would lead to widespread unemployment and political instability.[36][37]

Source:[38]

  • 2020: 1,326,093,000
  • 2030: 1,460,743,000
  • 2040: 1,571,715,000
  • 2050: 1,656,554,000

2020 Estimate

Source:[39]

Year Under 15 15–64 65+ Total
2000 361 604 45 1010
2005 368 673 51 1093
2010 370 747 58 1175
2015 372 819 65 1256
2020 373 882 76 1331

Ethnic groups

Template:Ethnic Groups of India The national Census of India does not recognize racial or ethnic groups within India,[40] but recognizes many of the tribal groups as Scheduled Castes and Tribes (see list of Scheduled Tribes in India).

Harry W. Blair has explained that

With British autocracy went a consuming interest in ethnography that produced very thorough census of caste during the Raj but as autocracy was replaced with democracy and elections, ethnographic passion was also replaced by an official egalitarianism that refused to countenance the reporting of caste in the government censuses for any groups other than the Scheduled Castes.[41]

It should be noted that Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman and Austro-Asiatic are mainly linguistic terms and denote speakers of these linguistic groups.

For a list of ethnic groups in the Republic of India (as well as neighboring countries) see ethnic groups of the Indian subcontinent or the tree diagram above.

Genetics

See also: Y-DNA haplogroups in South Asian populations

Y-chromosome DNA

[42]

Y-Chromosome DNA Y-DNA represents the male lineage, The Indian Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows where haplogroups R1a, H, R2, L & NOP comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes.[43]

  • H ~ 30%
  • R1a ~ 20%
  • R2 ~ 15%
  • L ~ 10%
  • NOP ~ 10% (Excluding R)
  • Other Haplogroups 15%

Mitochondrial DNA

[44]

Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA represents the female lineage. The Indian mitochondrial DNA is primarily made up of Haplogroup M[45]

See also

Government:

Lists:

Notes

References

  1. ^ BBC - India's population 'to be biggest' in the planet
  2. ^ United States Census Bureau - International Data Base (IDB)
  3. ^ India's demographic dividend
  4. ^ SIL International. "Ethnologue report for Language Isolate". Retrieved 2007-10-11.
  5. ^ India, a Country Study United States Library of Congress, Note on Ethnic groups
  6. ^ GM Crops Around the World – an accurate picture GM Freeze, Table 3
  7. ^ Rural-Urban distribution Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Rural-Urban Distribution. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26.
  8. ^ Number of Villages Census of India: Number of Villages Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26.
  9. ^ Rural-Urban distribution Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Rural-Urban Distribution. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26.
  10. ^ Urban Agglomerations and Towns Census of India: Urban Agglomerations and Towns. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26.
  11. ^ "Ranking of States and Union territories by population size : 1991 and 2001" (PDF). Government of India (2001). Census of India. pp. 5–6. Retrieved 2008-12-12.
  12. ^ a b "Population". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
  13. ^ "Area of India/state/district". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
  14. ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Hindus". Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  15. ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Muslims". Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  16. ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Christians". Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  17. ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Sikhs". Census of India 2001: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  18. ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Buddhists". Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  19. ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Jains". Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  20. ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Other religions". Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  21. ^ a b c "Census of India". Census of India. Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
  22. ^ a b http://mospi.gov.in/press_note_NSS_%20Report_no_532_19may10.pdf
  23. ^ Pandey, Geeta (2011-05-23). "India's unwanted girls". BBC News. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
  24. ^ [censusindia.gov.in "Census of India"]. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  25. ^ a b Mother Tongues of India According to the 1961 Census
  26. ^ Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2000, Census of India, 2001
  27. ^ includes Western Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Bihari languages, Rajasthani languages and Pahari languages.
  28. ^ National Population Policy of India
  29. ^ CIA World Factbook – India
  30. ^ [1]
  31. ^ Religious Composition Census of India: Census Data 2001: India at a glance >> Religious Composition. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved on 2008-11-26.
  32. ^ International Religious Freedom Report 2007 — India International Religious Freedom Report 2007. U.S. Department of State.
  33. ^ CIA's The World Factbook — India
  34. ^ Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs — Background Note: India
  35. ^ Rupert Goodwins. Smashing India's language barriers. ZDNet UK.
  36. ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/soutikbiswas/2011/03/indias_census_the_good_and_bad_news.html
  37. ^ "India set to overtake China as world's most populated country after adding 180m people in a decade". Daily Mail. London. 2011-03-31.
  38. ^ [2]
  39. ^ Based on P.N. Mari Bhat, "Indian Demographic Scenario 2025", Institute of Economic Growth, New Delhi, Discussion Paper No. 27/2001.
  40. ^ Kumar, Jayant. Census of India. 2001. September 4, 2006. Indian Census
  41. ^ Blair, Harry W. (1981). "Caste and the British Census in Bihar: Using Old Data to Study Contemporary Political Behavior". In Barrier, Norman Gerald (ed.). The Census in British India: New Perspectives. New Delhi: Manohar. p. 154. Retrieved 2011-08-28.
  42. ^ http://www.pnas.org/content/103/4/843.full
  43. ^ Hammer et al. 2005, S. Sahoo et al. 2006, R. Trivedi et al. 2007, Zhao et al. 2008
  44. ^ http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2148-5-26.pdf
  45. ^ Semino et al. 2000, Kivisild et al. 2003, Metspalu et al 2004, Rajkumar et al. 2005, Chandrasekar et al. 2007, Gonzalez et al. 2007
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