Near-open central vowel
| Near-open central vowel | |
|---|---|
| ɐ | |
| IPA Number | 324 |
| Encoding | |
| Entity (decimal) | ɐ |
| Unicode (hex) | U+0250 |
| X-SAMPA | 6 |
| Braille |   |
| IPA: Vowels | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Legend: unrounded • rounded |
The near-open central vowel, or near-low central vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɐ⟩, a rotated lowercase letter a.
While the IPA does not specify the rounding of [ɐ],[2] its rounded variant has been reported to occur as a phoneme only in Sabiny, which contrasts overshort unrounded and overshort rounded near-open central vowels.[3][4]
Near-open central unrounded vowel
The near-open central unrounded vowel is the most common type of the near-open central vowel, and is thus typically transcribed simply as ⟨ɐ⟩, which is the convention used in this article. If its unroundedness needs to be specified, it can be done by adding the less rounded diacritic to the near-open central vowel symbol: ⟨ɐ̜⟩, by combining the lowered diacritic with the open-mid central unrounded vowel symbol: ⟨ɜ̞⟩, by combining the centralized diacritic with the near-open front unrounded vowel symbol: ⟨æ̈⟩, or by combining the mid-centralized diacritic with either the open front unrounded vowel symbol: ⟨a̽⟩, or with the open back unrounded vowel: ⟨ɑ̽⟩. The last two symbols are equivalent to the more complex symbols ⟨ä̝⟩ and ⟨ɑ̝̈⟩, respectively.
In some languages (such as Bengali, Cantonese or Cypriot Greek)[5][6][7] it is the only open vowel, in place of the more common open central unrounded vowel.
Features
- Its vowel height is near-open, also known as near-low, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to an open vowel, but is slightly more constricted – that is, the tongue is positioned similarly to a low vowel, but slightly higher.
- Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel.
- It is unrounded, which means that the lips are not rounded.
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bengali[5] | পা / pa | [pɐ] | 'leg' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Bengali phonology | |
| Bulgarian[8] | пара | [pɐˈra] | 'coin' | Unstressed allophone of /ɤ/ and /a/.[8] See Bulgarian phonology | |
| Burmese[9] | မတ် | [mɐʔ] | 'vertical' | Allophone of /a/ in syllables closed by a glottal stop and when nasalized; realized as fully open [ä] in open oral syllables.[10] | |
| Catalan | Barcelona metropolitan area[11][12] |
emmagatzemar | [ɐm(ː)ɐɣ̞ɐd͡z̺ɐˈmä] | 'to store' | Corresponds to [ə] in other dialects. See Catalan phonology |
| Chinese | Cantonese[6] | 沙 / saa1 | [sɐː˥] | 'sand' | Most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨aː⟩; the Cantonese vowel that is most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨ɐ⟩ is actually open-mid [ɜ].[6] See Cantonese phonology |
| Shanghainese[13] | [kɐʔ4] | 'to cut' | |||
| Cipu | Tirisino dialect[14] | pata! | [pɐ̀tɐ́] | 'beg!' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.[14] |
| Czech | Bohemian[15] | prach | [prɐx] | 'dust' | Possible realization of /a/.[15] See Czech phonology |
| Danish | Standard[16] | fatter | [ˈfa̝d̥ɐ] | 'understands' | May be realized as [ɒ̜̽] or [ə̠] instead.[16] See Danish phonology |
| Dutch | Standard Northern[17] | hart | [ɦɐrt] | 'hart' | Allophone of /ɑ/ before /r/; usually realized as a diphthong [ɐə̯] instead.[17] See Dutch phonology |
| Randstad[17] | |||||
| English | Australian[18] | nut | [nɐt] | 'nut' | ⟨ʌ⟩ may be used to transcribe this vowel. In Australia and New Zealand it may be fronted [ɐ̟] or somewhat lower [ä].[18][19] See English phonology, Australian English phonology and New Zealand English phonology |
| California[20] | |||||
| New Zealand[19][21] | |||||
| Received Pronunciation[22] | |||||
| Cultivated South African[23] | nurse | [nɐːs] | 'nurse' | Possible realization of the NURSE vowel /ɜː/.[23][24] See South African English phonology | |
| Older Received Pronunciation[24] | |||||
| Scottish[25] | stack | [stɐ̟k] | 'stack' | Fronted; corresponds to [æ] in other dialects, and also [ɑː] in some other dialects. | |
| Cockney[26][27] | stuck | 'stuck' | Fronted; may be [a] instead. | ||
| Inland Northern American[28] | bet | [bɐt] | 'bet' | Variation of /ɛ/ used in some places whose accents have undergone the Northern cities vowel shift. | |
| Filipino | tanso | [tɐnˈsɔ] | 'bronze' | ||
| Galician[29][30] | hora | [ˈɔɾɐ] | 'hour' | Unstressed allophone of /a/.[29][30] See Galician phonology | |
| German | Standard[31][32] | oder | 'or' | Phonetic realization of the sequence /ər/. The exact quality of the vowel varies from region to region; some regions retain the vowel+consonant realization.[33] See Standard German phonology | |
| Northern German accents[34] | kommen | [ˈkʰɐmən] | 'to come' | Local realization of /ɔ/; can be back [ɑ] instead.[34] See Standard German phonology | |
| Greek | Modern Standard[35][36] | ακακία / akakía | [ɐkɐˈc̠i.ɐ] | 'acacia' | Also described as open [ä];[37] most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Modern Greek phonology |
| Cypriot[7] | πάννα / panna | [ˈpɐnːɐ] | 'nappy' | Most often transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. | |
| Hausa[38] | [example needed] | Possible allophone of /a/, which can be as close as [ə] and as open as [ä].[38] | |||
| Hindustani[39] | दस/دَس | [ˈd̪ɐs] | 'ten' | Common realization of /ə/.[39] See Hindustani phonology | |
| Ibibio[40] | [dɐ́] | 'stand' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.[40] | ||
| Kaingang[41] | [ˈᵑɡɐ] | 'terra' | Varies between central [ɐ] and back [ɑ].[42] | ||
| Korean[43] | 하나 / hana | [hɐnɐ] | 'one' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. See Korean phonology | |
| Mapudungun[44] | karü | [ˈkɐ̝ʐɘ̝] | 'green' | Somewhat raised.[44] | |
| Mono[45] | da | [dɐ] | 'slap' | May be transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.[45] | |
| Northern Paiute | Mono Lake dialect[46] | pa’a | [pɐʔɐ] | 'high' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.[46] |
| Norwegian | Sandnes-mål[47] | baden | [ˈbɐːdən] | 'child' | |
| Portuguese | General Brazilian[48] | aranha-marrom | [aˈɾɐ̃ɲɐ maˈʁõ] | 'recluse spider' | In complementary distribution with [a];[48] corresponds to [ə] in European Portuguese.[49] See Portuguese phonology |
| Romanian | Moldavian dialects[50] | bărbat | [bɐrˈbat] | 'man' | Corresponds to [ə] in standard Romanian. See Romanian phonology |
| Russian | Standard Moscow[51] | голова | 'head' | Corresponds to [ʌ] in standard Saint Petersburg pronunciation;[51] occurs mostly immediately before stressed syllables. See Russian phonology | |
| Sabiny[3] | [example needed] | Contrasts overshort unrounded and overshort rounded near-open central vowels.[4] | |||
| Sandawe[52] | dtane | [tɐ́né] | 'pull' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.[52] | |
| Sema[53] | ala | [ɐ̀lɐ̀] | 'path' | Also described as open [ä].[54] | |
| Shipibo[55] | kani | [ˈkɐni̞] | 'went' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. | |
| Slovene | Standard[56][57] | brat | [bɾɐ́t̪] | 'brother' | Corresponds to short /a/ in traditional pronunciation.[57] See Slovene phonology |
| Tamambo[58] | calo | [xɐlo] | 'to fence' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.[58] | |
| Temne[59] | pam | [pɐ̀m] | 'contest' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩.[59] | |
| Ukrainian[60] | слива | [ˈslɪwɐ] | 'plum' | See Ukrainian phonology | |
| Upper Sorbian[61] | pjasć | [ˈpʲɐst͡ʃ] | 'fist' | Allophone of /a/ after soft consonants.[61] See Upper Sorbian phonology | |
| Vietnamese[62] | chếch | [cɐ̆jk̚] | 'askance' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ə̆⟩. See Vietnamese phonology | |
| Xumi | Lower[63] | [Htsʰɐ] | 'salt' | ||
| Upper[64] | [Htsɐ] | 'sinew' | |||
| Yine[65] | [sɐnɐ] | 'field' | Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨a⟩. | ||
Near-open central rounded vowel
| Near-open central rounded vowel | |
|---|---|
| ɐ̹ | |
| ɞ̞ |
The near-open central rounded vowel is an extremely rare sound, reported to occur as a phoneme only in the Sabiny language.[3]
If its roundedness needs to be specified, it can be done by adding the more rounded diacritic to the near-open central vowel symbol: ⟨ɐ̹⟩, by combining the lowered diacritic with the open-mid central rounded vowel symbol: ⟨ɞ̞⟩, or by combining the mid-centralized diacritic with either the open front rounded vowel symbol: ⟨ɶ̽⟩, or with the open back rounded vowel: ⟨ɒ̽⟩. The last two symbols are equivalent to the more complex symbols ⟨ɶ̝̈⟩ and ⟨ɒ̝̈⟩, respectively.
Features
- Its vowel height is near-open, also known as near-low, which means the tongue is positioned similarly to an open vowel, but is slightly more constricted – that is, the tongue is positioned similarly to a low vowel, but slightly higher.
- Its vowel backness is central, which means the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel.
- It is rounded, which means that the lips are rounded rather than spread or relaxed.
Occurrence
| Language | Word | IPA | Meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sabiny[3] | [example needed] | Contrasts overshort unrounded and overshort rounded near-open central vowels.[4] | |||
See also
Notes
- ^ While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
- ^ International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 166.
- ^ a b c d "UPSID 4)S". Retrieved 27 January 2016.
- ^ a b c "UPSID SEBEI". Retrieved 27 January 2016.
- ^ a b Khan (2010), p. 222.
- ^ a b c Zee (1999), p. 59.
- ^ a b Arvaniti (1999), p. 4.
- ^ a b Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56.
- ^ Watkins (2001), p. 293.
- ^ Watkins (2001), pp. 292–293.
- ^ Rafel (1999), p. 14.
- ^ Harrison (1997), pp. 2.
- ^ Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), p. 328.
- ^ a b McGill (2014), pp. 308–309.
- ^ a b Dankovičová (1999), p. 72.
- ^ a b Basbøll (2005), p. 58.
- ^ a b c Collins & Mees (2003), p. 130.
- ^ a b Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
- ^ a b Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
- ^ Ladefoged (1999), p. 42.
- ^ Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009).
- ^ Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 186.
- ^ a b Wells (1982), p. 615.
- ^ a b Wells (1982), p. 281.
- ^ Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
- ^ Wells (1982), p. 305.
- ^ Hughes & Trudgill (1979), p. 35.
- ^ Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (1997), A National Map of the Regional Dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved March 15, 2013
- ^ a b Regueira (2010), pp. 13–14.
- ^ a b Freixeiro Mato (2006), p. 112.
- ^ Kohler (1999), pp. 87–88.
- ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), pp. 34, 40–41.
- ^ Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), pp. 40–41.
- ^ a b Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
- ^ Arvaniti (2007), p. 25.
- ^ Lodge (2009), p. 89.
- ^ Trudgill (2009), p. 81.
- ^ a b Schuh & Yalwa (1999), pp. 90–91.
- ^ a b Ohala (1999), p. 102.
- ^ a b Urua (2004), p. 106.
- ^ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676–677, 682.
- ^ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676, 682.
- ^ Lee (1999), p. 121.
- ^ a b Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 92.
- ^ a b Olson (2004), p. 235.
- ^ a b Babel, Houser & Toosarvandani (2012), p. 240.
- ^ Ims (2010), p. 14.
- ^ a b Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
- ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995), p. 91.
- ^ Pop (1938), p. 29.
- ^ a b Yanushevskaya & Bunčić (2015), p. 225.
- ^ a b Eaton (2006), p. 237.
- ^ Teo (2012), p. 368.
- ^ Teo (2014), p. 28.
- ^ Valenzuela, Márquez Pinedo & Maddieson (2001), p. 282.
- ^ Jurgec (2007), p. 2.
- ^ a b Jurgec (2005), pp. 9, 12.
- ^ a b Riehl & Jauncey (2005), p. 257.
- ^ a b Kanu & Tucker (2010), p. 249.
- ^ Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
- ^ a b Šewc-Schuster (1984), p. 31.
- ^ Hoang (1965), p. 24.
- ^ Chirkova & Chen (2013), pp. 369–370.
- ^ Chirkova, Chen & Kocjančič Antolík (2013), p. 388.
- ^ Urquía Sebastián & Marlett (2008), p. 366.
References
- Arvaniti, Amalia (1999), "Cypriot Greek", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2): 173–178, doi:10.1017/S002510030000654X
- Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art" (PDF), Journal of Greek Linguistics, 8: 97–208, doi:10.1075/jgl.8.08arv, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-11, retrieved 2013-12-11
{{citation}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - Babel, Molly; Houser, Michael J.; Toosarvandani, Maziar (2012), "Mono Lake Northern Paiute", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 233–243, doi:10.1017/S002510031100051X
- Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
- Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 0-203-97876-5
- Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
- Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
- Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Xumi, Part 1: Lower Xumi, the Variety of the Lower and Middle Reaches of the Shuiluo River" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (3): 363–379, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000157[permanent dead link]
- Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya; Kocjančič Antolík, Tanja (2013), "Xumi, Part 2: Upper Xumi, the Variety of the Upper Reaches of the Shuiluo River" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (3): 381–396, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000169[permanent dead link]
- Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (PDF) (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004103406
- Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 341–350, doi:10.1017/S0025100307003192
- Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 25 (2): 90–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223
- Dankovičová, Jana (1999), "Czech", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 70–74, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
- Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
- Eaton, Helen (2006), "Sandawe", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 36 (2): 235–242, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002647
- Freixeiro Mato, Xosé Ramón (2006), Gramática da lingua galega (I). Fonética e fonoloxía (in Galician), Vigo: A Nosa Terra, ISBN 978-84-8341-060-8
- Harrison, Phil (1997), The Relative Complexity of Catalan Vowels and Their Perceptual Correlates (PDF), UCL Working Papers in Linguistics 9
- Hoang, Thi Quynh Hoa (1965), A phonological contrastive study of Vietnamese and English (PDF), Lubbock, Texas: Texas Technological College
- Hughes, Arthur; Trudgill, Peter (1979), English Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of British English, Baltimore: University Park Press
- Ims, Charlotte Sol (2010), Sandnes i skyggen av Stavanger - en sociolingvistisk undersøkelse av Sandnes-mål med utgangspunkt i utvalgte språklige variabler (PDF), Adger: Universitetet i Adger
- International Phonetic Association (1999), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2009), "Fonologia e prosódia do Kaingáng falado em Cacique Doble", Anais do SETA, 3, Campinas: Editora do IEL-UNICAMP: 675–685
- Jurgec, Peter (2007), Schwa in Slovenian is Epenthetic, Berlin
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Kanu, Sullay M.; Tucker, Benjamin V. (2010), "Temne", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (2): 247–253, doi:10.1017/S002510031000006X
- Khan, Sameer ud Dowla (2010), "Bengali (Bangladeshi Standard)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (2): 221–225, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000071
- Kohler, Klaus J. (1999), "German", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–89, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
- Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W (2004), Upton, Clive (ed.), A handbook of varieties of English, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter
- Ladefoged, Peter (1999), "American English", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 41–44
- Lee, Hyun Bok (1999), "Korean", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–122, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2
- Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
- McGill, Stuart (2014), "Cicipu", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44 (3): 303–318, doi:10.1017/S002510031400022X
- Ohala, Manjari (1999), "Hindi", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–103, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
- Olson, Kenneth S. (2004), "Mono" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (02): 233–238, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001744
- Pop, Sever (1938), Micul Atlas Linguistic Român, Muzeul Limbii Române Cluj
- Rafel, Joaquim (1999), Aplicació al català dels principis de transcripció de l'Associació Fonètica Internacional (PDF) (in Catalan) (3rd ed.), Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, ISBN 84-7283-446-8
- Regueira, Xosé Luís (2010), Dicionario de pronuncia da lingua galega (PDF), A Coruña: Real Academia Galega, ISBN 978-84-87987-77-9
- Riehl, Anastasia K.; Jauncey, Dorothy (2005), "Tamambo", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 255–259, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002197
- Roca, Iggy; Johnson, Wyn (1999), A Course in Phonology, Blackwell Publishing
- Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369
- Schuh, Russell G.; Yalwa, Lawan D. (1999), "Hausa", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 90–95, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Scobbie, James M.; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006), Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an overview, Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers
- Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina
- Teo, Amos B. (2012), "Sumi (Sema)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (03): 365–373, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000254
- Teo, Amos B. (2014), A phonological and phonetic description of Sumi, a Tibeto-Burman language of Nagaland (PDF), Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 978-1-922185-10-5
- Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999), "Bulgarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–57, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
- Trudgill, Peter (2009), "Greek Dialect Vowel Systems, Vowel Dispersion Theory, and Sociolinguistic Typology", Journal of Greek Linguistics, 9 (1): 80–97, doi:10.1163/156658409X12500896406041
- Urquía Sebastián, Rittma; Marlett, Stephen A. (2008), "Yine", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (3): 365–369, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003356
- Urua, Eno-Abasi E. (2004), "Ibibio", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 105–109, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001550
- Valenzuela, Pilar M.; Márquez Pinedo, Luis; Maddieson, Ian (2001), "Shipibo", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 31 (2): 281–285, doi:10.1017/S0025100301002109
- Watkins, Justin W. (2001), "Illustrations of the IPA: Burmese" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 31 (2): 291–295, doi:10.1017/S0025100301002122
- Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, 10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2, 0-52128541-0.
- Yanushevskaya, Irena; Bunčić, Daniel (2015), "Russian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (2): 221–228, doi:10.1017/S0025100314000395
- Zee, Eric (1999), "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65236-7