Jump to content

Punjabi language

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Shirinla (talk | contribs) at 10:35, 13 July 2013. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Punjabi
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ, پنجابی, पंजाबी
Pañjābī
The word Punjabi in Gurmukhi, Devanagari and Shahmukhi
Native toIndia, Pakistan
RegionEastern Punjab, Western Punjab
EthnicityPunjabis
Native speakers
100 million (2010)[1]
Gurmukhi (Brahmic)
Shahmukhī alphabet (Perso-Arabic)
Devanagari
Punjabi Braille
Official status
Official language in
 India (Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh, secondary officially recognized language in the states of Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir, & West Bengal)
 Pakistan (Pakistani province of Punjab and Azad Kashmir)
Regulated byNo official regulation
Language codes
ISO 639-1pa
ISO 639-2pan
ISO 639-3Either:
pan – Indian Punjabi
pnb – Pakistani Punjabi
Distribution of native Punjabi and Lahnda speakers in India and Pakistan
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Punjabi /pʌnˈdʒɑːbi/[3] (Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬੀ; Devanagari: पंजाबी; Shahmukhi: پنجابی) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by 130 million (2013 estimate) native speakers world wide making it the 10th most widely spoken language in the world. Mostly inhabitants of the historical Punjab region; now divided between in India and Pakistan speak this language. Amongst the Indo-Aryan languages it's unusual because it's the only tonal language.[4][5][6][7]

Punjabi is spoken by the majority of the population in Pakistan,[8] and 11th most widely spoken in India[9] and the 3rd-most natively spoken language in Indian Subcontinent. Punjabi is also currently the 3rd most spoken language in the United Kingdom[10] and the third most spoken language in Canada.[11][12] Significant presence in UAE, Saudi Arab, USA and Austrailia.

The influence of Punjabi as a cultural language in the Indian Subcontinent is increasing day by day due to Bollywood. Most Bollywood movies now have Punjabi vocabulary mixed in, along with a few songs fully sung in Punjabi. At any point in time, Punjabi songs in Bollywood movies now account for more than 50% of the top of the charts listings.[13][14][15]

Main article: Dialects of the Punjab

Punjabi consists of many dialects that form a dialect continuum. The dialects that comprise this continuum eventually merge with Hindi in India and Sindhi in Pakistan. The dialects enjoy a relatively high level of mutual intelligibility and can be differentiated slightly with respect to their lexicons. In India, the key dialects of Punjabi are: Majhi, Doabi, Malwai, and Powadhi. In Pakistan, the key dialects are Majhi, Pothohari, Hindko, and Multani. Following the work presented in Grierson’s (1905) Linguistic Survey of India, a number of Indic scholars have further divided Punjabi into two principal languages – Western Punjabi or Lahnda and Eastern Punjabi. This decision, however, is controversial and by no means reflects the majority view in Indic linguistics.[16] Modern linguists Nataliia Ivanovna Tolstaia write that in practice there is no contrast between Eastern or western Punjabi to the extent that it could be termed as such as different languages and speakers of Eastern or western Punjabi alike use same literary language that is why many Punjabi scholars are inclined to regard both as a form of single language Punjabi.[17]

Standard dialect

The Majhi is Punjabi's prestige dialect because it is standard of written Punjabi. It is spoken in the heart of Punjab in historical region of Majha which spans Lahore, Sheikhupura, Kasur, Okara, Nankana Sahib, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Wazirabad, Sialkot, Narowal, Gujrat, Pakpattan, Hafizabad, Mandi Bahauddin Districts of Pakistan Punjab Province and also in major cities of Pakistani Punjab. In India it is spoken in Amritsar, Tarn Taran Sahib and Gurdaspur Districts of the State of Punjab and sizeable population also in major cities of State of Punjab and parts outside of the State of Punjab, as in Dehli, Haryana and Uttaranchal.

Eastern Punjabi dialect

These dialects are spoken mainly in Indian Punjab

  • Malwi (Faridkot,Ludhiana, Ambala, Bathinda, Ganganagar, Malerkotla, Fazilka, Ferozepur, Northern Haryana, Hisar, Sirsa and Kurukshetra)
  • Pwadhi (Kharar, Kurali, Ropar, Nurpurbedi, Morinda, Pail, Rajpura, Samrala, Pinjore, Kalka, Ismailabad, Pehowa to Bangar in Fatehabad district)
  • Doabi (Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur district).
  • Other dialects spoken in Indian Punjab include Bhatiani, Bilaspuri, Bagri, Kangri and Chambiali
Dialects of Punjabi

Western Punjabi dialects

Western Punjabi (Lahnda) dialects spoken in Western Parts of Pakistani Punjab are

In Indo-Aryan dialectology generally, the presence of transitional dialects creates problems in assigning some dialects to one or another "language".[34][35][36] Northern dialects Hindko of Hazara/Kohati/Peshaweri and are now classified as a separate language Hindko.Jummu's Dogri is also classified as a separate languages. Similarly Southern dialects of Western Punjabi (Multani, Derawali and Riasti) are now also classified as a separate language Saraiki. However this sepration is controversial, and Saraiki, Hindko and Dogri are considered by many as a dialect of Punjabi because of mutual intelligibility and morphologies and syntax similar to Standard Punjabi. This is a view held by many local linguists such as Dulai, K Narinder, Gill, Harjeet Singh Gill, A Henry. Gleason (Jr), Koul, N Omkar, Siya Madhu Bala, Afzal Ahmed Cheema, Aamir Malik, Amar Nath [37][38][39][40] as well as modern linguistics publications such as US National Advisory Committee based the UCLA Language Materials Project (LMP) along with foreign linguists such as Cardona and Nataliia Ivanovna Tolstaia.[16][17][41][42]

Etymology

The word Punjabi is derived from the word Punjab, a xenonym or exonym which means means "the Five Waters" in Persian (panj āb). Panj is cognate with Sanskrit pañca "five" and refers to five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River. The historical Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries. One of the five, the Beas River, is a tributary of another, the Sutlej.

Punjabi was originally written in one of two separate standardised scripts: Gurmukhī and Devanagari. The word Gurmukhi translates into 'Guru's mouth',[43] The Muslims in the region later created the Shahmukhī, meaning "from the King's mouth", based on the Persian abjad[44]

History

Punjabi is an Indo-Aryan language. It is a descendant of the Shauraseni language, which was the chief language of mediaeval northern India.[45][46][47]

Punjabi emerged as an independent language in the 12th century.[citation needed] Fariduddin Ganjshakar is generally recognised as the first major poet of the Punjabi language,.[48]

Gyan Ratnavali, Janamsakhi, written by Bhai Mani Singh

The Sikh religion originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region and Punjabi is the predominant language spoken by Sikhs.[49] Most portions of the Guru Granth Sahib use the Punjabi language written in Gurmukhi, though Punjabi is not the only language used in Sikh scriptures. The Janamsakhis, stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), are early examples of Punjabi prose literature. Guru Nanak himself composed Punjabi verse incorporating vocabulary from Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and other Indic languages as characteristic of the Gurbani tradition. Punjabi Sufi poetry developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1628–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (son of Hazrat Mai Safoora Qadiriyya, whom Ali Haider had given great tribute) and Bulleh Shah (1680–1757). In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose kafi.[50]

Punjabi Sufi poetry also influenced other Punjabi literary traditions particularly the Punjabi Qissa, a genre of romantic tragedy which also derived inspiration from Indic, Persian and Quranic sources. The qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qissas. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiban by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), Sassui Punnhun by Hashim Shah (1735?–1843?), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892).

Heroic ballads known as vaar enjoy a rich oral tradition in Punjabi. Prominent examples of heroic or epic poetry include Guru Gobind Singh's in Chandi di Var (1666–1708). The semi-historical Nadir Shah Di Vaar by Najabat describes the invasion of India by Nadir Shah in 1739. The Jangnama, or 'War Chronicle,' was introduced into Punjabi literature during the Mughal period; the Punjabi Jangnama of Shah Mohammad (1780–1862) recounts the First Anglo-Sikh War of 1845–46.

Modern Punjabi

Gurmukhi alphabetic excluding vowels.

Majhi-Standard Punjabi is the written standard for Punjabi in both parts of Punjab. In Pakistan, Punjabi is generally written using the Shahmukhī script, created from a modification of the Persian Nastaʿlīq script. In India, Punjabi is most often rendered in the Gurumukhī, though it is often written in the Devanagari or Latin scripts due to influence from Hindi and English, India's two primary official languages at the Union-level.

In India, Punjabi is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It is the first official language of the Indian State of Punjab. In Pakistan, Punjabi has not been granted official status at the national level though it is the most spoken language and is the provincial language of Punjab, Pakistan, the second largest and the most populous province of Pakistan.

Official recognition

Punjabi is one of the languages recognised by the Indian constitution at the state level, in Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and West Bengal. There is no such recognition in Pakistan. According to Dr Manzur Ejaz, "In Central Punjab, Punjabi is amazingly still neither an official language of the province nor it is used as medium of education at any level in Pakistan. There are only two daily newspapers published in Punjabi in the Central areas of Punjab. Only a few monthly literary magazines constitute Punjabi press in Pakistan".[citation needed]

Punjabi in modern culture

Punjabi is becoming more acceptable among Punjabis in modern media and communications. Punjabi has always been an integral part of Indian Bollywood cinema. In recent years a trend of Bollywood songs written totally in Punjabi can be observed. Punjabi pop and folk songs are very popular both in India and Pakistan at the national level. A number of television dramas based on Punjabi characters are telecast by different channels. The number of students opting for Punjabi literature has increased in Pakistani Punjab. Punjabi cinema in India has also seen a revival and more and more Punjabi movies are being produced. In India, number of student opting for Punjabi Literature as optional subject in IAS examinations has increased along with success rate of the students. Punjabi music is very popular in modern times.[51]

Geographic distribution

Pakistan

File:Punjabadmin.jpg
Administrative divisions of Punjab Pakistan
See also: Languages of Pakistan

Punjabi is the most widely-spoken language in Pakistan. Punjabi is the provincial language in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken as a native language by over 44.15% of Pakistanis. About 70.0% of the people of Pakistan speak Punjabi as either their first or second language, and for some as their third language. Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province of Pakistan, is the largest Punjabi-speaking city in the world. 86% of the total population of Lahore is native Punjabi and Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan, is 71% native Punjabis.

Census History of Punjabi speakers in Pakistan[52]
Year Population of Pakistan Percentage Punjabi speakers
1951 33,740,167 57.08% 22,632,905
1961 42,880,378 56.39% 28,468,282
1972 65,309,340 56.11% 43,176,004
1981 84,253,644 48.17% 40,584,980
1998 132,352,279 44.15% 58,433,431
Provinces of Pakistan by Punjabi speakers (2008)
Rank Division Punjabi speakers Percentage
– Pakistan 76,335,300 44.15%
1 Punjab 70,671,704 75.23%
2 Sindh 3,592,261 6.99%
3 Islamabad Capital Territory 1,343,625 71.66%
4 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 396,085 0.97%
5 Balochistan 318,745 2.52%
6 Federally Administered Tribal Areas 12,880 0.23%

In the 1981 National Census of Pakistan the Saraiki, Pothohari and Hindko dialects of the Lahnda language were accorded the status of separate languages, which explains the decrease of the percentage of Punjabi speakers.

India

Districts of Indian Punjab along with their headquarters
See also: States of India by Punjabi speakers

Punjabi is spoken as a native language by 3% of Indians. Punjabi is the official language of the Indian states of Punjab and Haryana. Some of its major urban centres are Ludhiana, Amritsar, Chandigarh, Jalandhar and Patiala.

Census history of Punjabi speakers in India
Year Population of India Punjabi speakers in India Percentage
1971 548,159,652 14,108,443 2.57%
1981 665,287,849 19,611,199 2.95%
1991 838,583,988 23,378,744 2.79%
2001 1,028,610,328 29,102,477 2.83%
2011 1,210,193,422 33,038,280 2.73%

The Punjabi diaspora

Southall Station (United Kingdom) sign in Punjabi, in the Gurmukhī script

Punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers, such as the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, where it is the second-most-commonly used language,[53] and Canada, where it is the fourth-most-spoken language.[54]

There were 76 million Punjabi speakers in Pakistan in 2008,[55] 33 million in India in 2011,[56] 1.3 million in the UK in 2000,[53] 368,000 in Canada in 2006,[57] and smaller numbers in other countries.

Phonology

Vowels
Front Near-front Central Near-back Back
Close iː ਈ uː ਊ
Close-mid eː ਏ ɪ ਇ ʊ ਉ oː ਓ
Mid ə ਅ
Open-mid ɛː ਐ ɔː ਔ
Open aː ਆ

The long vowels (the vowels with [ː]) also have nasalised versions.

Consonants
Bilabial Labio-
dental 		Dental/
Alveolar 		Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m ਮ n ਨ ɳ ਣ ɲ ਞ ŋ ਙ
Plosive and
Affricate 		voiceless p ਪ t̪ ਤ ʈ ਟ t͡ʃ ਚ k ਕ
voiceless aspirated pʰ ਫ t̪ʰ ਥ ʈʰ ਠ t͡ʃʰ ਛ kʰ ਖ
voiced b ਬ d̪ ਦ ɖ ਡ d͡ʒ ਜ ɡ ਗ
Fricative (f) ਫ਼ s ਸ (z) ਜ਼ (ʃ) ਸ਼ ɦ ਹ
Flap ɾ ਰ ɽ ੜ
Approximant ʋ ਵ l ਲ ɭ ਲ਼ j ਯ
Tone

Punjabi has three phonemically distinct tones that developed from the lost murmured (or "voiced aspirate") series of consonants. Phonetically the tones are rising or rising-falling contours and they can span over one syllable or two, but phonemically they can be distinguished as high, mid, and low.

A historical murmured consonant (voiced aspirate consonant) in word initial position became tenuis and left a low tone on the two syllables following it: ghoṛā [kòːɽɑ̀ː] "horse". A stem final murmured consonant became voiced and left a high tone on the two syllables preceding it: māgh [mɑ́ːɡ] "October". A stem medial murmured consonant which appeared after a short vowel and before a long vowel became voiced and left a low tone on the two syllables following it: maghāuṇā [məɡɑ̀ːʊ̀ɳɑ̀ː] "to have something lit". Other syllables and words have mid tone.[58]

Grammar

Main article: Punjabi grammar

The grammar of the Punjabi language is the study of the word order, case marking, verb conjugation, and other morphological and syntactic structures of the Punjabi language. This main article discusses the grammar of Modern Standard Punjabi as defined by the sources cited therein.

Writing systems

Main articles: Shahmukhī alphabet, Gurmukhī alphabet, Devanagari, and Punjabi braille

There are three ways to write Punjabi – Gurmukhi, Shahmukhi and Devanagari. The word Gurmukhi translates into "Guru's mouth",[43] Shahmukhi means "from the King's mouth".[44]

In the Punjab province of Pakistan, the script used is Shahmukhi and differs from the standard Nastaʿlīq script as it has four additional letters.[59] East Punjab, located in India, is divided into three states. In the state of Punjab, the Gurmukhī script is generally used for writing Punjabi. Punjabi Hindus, who are mainly concentrated in the neighboring Indian states such as Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, as well as the national capital territory of Delhi, sometimes use the Devanāgarī script to write Punjabi.[59]

Sample text

This sample text was taken from the Punjabi Wikipedia article on Lahore and transliterated into the Latin script.

Gurmukhi: ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਪੰਜਾਬ ਦਾ ਦਾਰੁਲ ਹਕੂਮਤ ਐ। ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਦੇ ਨਾਲ ਕਰਾਚੀ ਤੋਂ ਬਾਅਦ ਲਹੌਰ ਦੂਜਾ ਸਬ ਤੋਂ ਵੱਡਾ ਸ਼ਹਿਰ ਐ। ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਸਿਆਸੀ, ਰਹਤਲੀ ਤੇ ਪੜ੍ਹਾਈ ਦਾ ਗੜ੍ਹ ਐ ਤੇ ਇਸੇ ਲਈ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਦਿਲ ਵੀ ਕਿਹਾ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਏ। ਲਹੌਰ ਦਰਿਆਏ ਰਾਵੀ ਦੇ ਕੰਡੇ ਤੇ ਵਸਦਾ ਏ ਉਹਦੀ ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਇੱਕ ਕਰੋੜ ਦੇ ਨੇੜੇ ਐ ।

Shahmukhi: لہور پاکستان پنجاب دا دارالحکومت اے۔ لوک گنتی دے نال کراچی توں بعد لہور دوجا سب توں وڈا شہر اے۔ لہور پاکستان دا سیاسی، رہتلی تے پڑھائی دا گڑھ اے تے ایسے لئی اینوں پاکستان دا دل وی کیا جاندا اے۔ لہور دریاۓ راوی دے کنڈے تے وسدا اے اسدی لوک گنتی اک کروڑ دے نیڑے اے ۔

Transliteration: lahor pākistān panjāb dā dārul hakūmat e. lōk giṇtī dē nāḷ karācī tō᷈ bāad lahor dūjā sab tō᷈ vaḍḍā shahir e. lahor pākistān dā siāsī, rahtalī tē paṛā̀ī dā gā́ṛ e tē isē laī ihnū᷈ pākistān dā dil vī kihā jāndā ē. lahor dariāē rāvī dē kanḍē tē vasdā ē uhdī lōk giṇtī ikk karōṛ dē nēṛē e.

  • Punjabi scripts
    Punjabi scripts
  • Book about Punjabi in Shahmukhi
    Book about Punjabi in Shahmukhi
  • Guru Granth Sahib in Gurmukhi
    Guru Granth Sahib in Gurmukhi
  • Punjabi Shahmukhi script
    Punjabi Shahmukhi script
  • Example of Punjabi Shahmukhi script
    Example of Punjabi Shahmukhi script
  • Bhulay Shah Poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)
    Bhulay Shah Poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)
  • Munir niazi Poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)
    Munir niazi Poetry in Punjabi (Shahmukhi script)
  • Gurmukhi alphabet
    Gurmukhi alphabet

See also

Modern Punjabi poets

Notes

  1. ^ Nationalencyklopedin "Världens 100 största språk 2010" The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2010
  2. ^ Ernst Kausen, 2006. Die Klassifikation der indogermanischen Sprachen (Microsoft Word, 133 KB)
  3. ^ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh
  4. ^ Barbara Lust, James Gair. Lexical Anaphors and Pronouns in Selected South Asian Languages. Page 637. Walter de Gruyter, 1999. ISBN 978-3-11-014388-1.
  5. ^ "Punjabi language and the Gurmukhi and Shahmuhi scripts and pronunciation". Omniglot.com. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  6. ^ Phonemic Inventory of Punjabi
  7. ^ Geeti Sen. Crossing Boundaries. Orient Blackswan, 1997. ISBN 978-81-250-1341-9. Page 132. Quote: "Possibly, Punjabi is the only major South Asian language that has this kind of tonal character. There does seem to have been some speculation among scholars about the possible origin of Punjabi's tone-language character but without any final and convincing answer..."
  8. ^ Pakistan Census
  9. ^ Census of India, 2001: population of Punjab by religion. Censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved on 2012-01-18.
  10. ^ "2011 Census: Main language (detailed), local authorities in England and Wales" (XLS). ONS. Retrieved 27 April 2013.
  11. ^ [1], Census Profile - Province/Territory
  12. ^ [2], 2006 Census of Canada: Topic-based tabulations|Detailed Mother Tongue (103), Knowledge of Official Languages
  13. ^ ‘Punjabification’ of Bollywood music - Fiji Times Online. Fijitimes.com (2013-01-08). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  14. ^ Punjabi culture a part of Bollywood, says Suniel Shetty - Times Of India. Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com (2012-07-20). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  15. ^ Punjab gatecrashes Bollywood | Culture. Times Crest (2012-05-05). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  16. ^ a b http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=95&menu=004
  17. ^ a b http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=BmA9AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
  18. ^ http://dsal.uchicago.edu/books/lsi/lsi.php?volume=8-1&pages=600#page/8/mode/1up
  19. ^ Grierson 1920:477
  20. ^ Grierson 1920:495
  21. ^ Grierson 1920:542
  22. ^ Grierson 1920:272
  23. ^ Grierson 1920:280
  24. ^ Grierson 1920:296
  25. ^ Grierson 1920:294
  26. ^ Grierson 1920:570
  27. ^ Grierson 1920:449
  28. ^ Grierson 1920:468
  29. ^ Grierson 1920:381
  30. ^ Grierson 1920:329
  31. ^ Grierson 1920:565
  32. ^ Grierson 1920:301
  33. ^ Grierson 1920:333
  34. ^ Masica 1991:25
  35. ^ Burling 1970:chapter on India
  36. ^ Shackle 1970:240
  37. ^ Dulai, Narinder K. 1989. A Pedagogical Grammar of Punjabi. Patiala: Indian Institute of Language Studies.
  38. ^ Gill, Harjeet Singh Gill and Henry A. Gleason, Jr: A Reference Grammar of Punjabi: Patiala University Press
  39. ^ Koul, Omkar N. and Madhu Bala :Punjabi Language and Linguistics: An Annotated Bibliography: New Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies
  40. ^ Malik, Amar Nath, Afzal Ahmed Cheema : 1995 : The Phonology and Morphology of Panjabi: New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
  41. ^ http://books.google.fr/books?id=C9MPCd6mO6sC&printsec=frontcover&hl=fr&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
  42. ^ http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/letters/04-May-2012/more-provinces
  43. ^ a b Khalsa, Sukhmandir. "Introduction to Gurmukhi". About.com. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
  44. ^ a b Saini, Tejinder, Lehal Gurpreet, and Kalra Virinder (2008). Shahmukhi to Gurmukhi Transliteration System. p. 177.
  45. ^ India's culture through the ages by Mohan Lal Vidyarthi. Published by Tapeshwari Sahitya Mandir, 1952. Page 148: "From the apabhramsha of Sauraseni are derived Punjabi, Western Hindi, Rajasthani and Gujerati [sic]..."
  46. ^ National Communication and Language Policy in India By Baldev Raj Nayar. Published by F. A. Praeger, 1969. Page 35. "...Sauraseni Aprabhramsa from which have emerged the modern Western Hindi and Punjabi."
  47. ^ The Sauraseni Prākrit Language. "This Middle Indic language originated in Mathura, and was the main language used in drama in Northern India in the mediaeval era. Two of its descendants are Hindi and Punjabi."
  48. ^ Shiv Kumar Batalvi sikh-heritage.co.uk.
  49. ^ Melvin Ember, Carol R. Ember, Ian A. Skoggard, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Springer. p. 1077. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  50. ^ Articles on Bulleh Shah's Poetry. Apnaorg.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  51. ^ "Balle balle! Punjabi music is flavour of Bollywood". 9 March 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
  52. ^ http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/index.html
  53. ^ a b McDonnell, John (7 March 2000). "Punjabi Community". Parliamentary Business: Commons Debates. UK Parliament. p. Column 142WH. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
  54. ^ "Punjabi is 4th most spoken language in Canada". The Times of India. 14 February 2008.
  55. ^ Pakistan 1998 census – Population by mother tongue
  56. ^ Indian Census
  57. ^ Population by mother tongue in Canada
  58. ^ Harjeet Singh Gill, "The Gurmukhi Script", p. 397. In Daniels and Bright, The World's Writing Systems. 1996.
  59. ^ a b "Punjabi". University of California, Los Angeles. Retrieved 2009–10–31. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

References

Further reading

  • Bhatia, Tej. 1993 and 2010. Punjabi : a cognitive-descriptive grammar. London: Routledge. Series: Descriptive grammars.
  • Gill H.S. [Harjit Singh] and Gleason, H.A. 1969. A reference grammar of Punjabi. Revised edition. Patiala, Punjab, India: Languages Deparmtent, Punjab University.
  • Shackle, C. 1972. Punjabi. London: English Universities Press.
  • Chopra, R. M., Perso-Arabic Words in Panjabi, in: Indo-Iranica Vol.53 (1–4).
  • Chopra, R. M.., The Legacy of The Punjab, 1997, Punjabee Bradree, Calcutta.
Punjabi edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Eastern Punjabi edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Western Punjabi edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Punjabi phrasebook.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Punjabi_language&oldid=564087663"