Jump to content

Education in India: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Undid revision 413254166 by 123.201.77.85 (talk)
No edit summary
Line 118: Line 118:
===Technical education===
===Technical education===
[[Image:Main(Administrative)Building IIT-Roorkee.JPG|right|225px|thumb|Main (Administrative) Building, [[Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee|IIT Roorkee]]]]
[[Image:Main(Administrative)Building IIT-Roorkee.JPG|right|225px|thumb|Main (Administrative) Building, [[Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee|IIT Roorkee]]]]
From the first Five Year Plan onwards India's emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram30>"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 30</ref> India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being as the [[All India Council for Technical Education]] (AICTE) in 1987 through an act of the Indian parliament.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31>"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 31</ref> At the level of the centre the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] and the [[Indian Institutes of Information Technology]] are deemed of national importance.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31/>
From the first Five Year Plan onwards India's emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram30>"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 30</ref> India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being as the [[All India Council for Technical Education]] (AICTE) in 1987 <ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.advocatekhoj.com/library/bareacts/allindiacouncil/index.php?Title=All%20India%20Council%20for%20Technical%20Education%20Act,%201987 | title = ''All India Council for Technical Education Act'', 1987}}</ref> through an act of the Indian parliament.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31>"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 31</ref> At the level of the centre the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] and the [[Indian Institutes of Information Technology]] are deemed of national importance.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31/>


The [[Indian Institutes of Management]] are also among the nation's premier education facilities.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31/> Several Regional Engineering Colleges (REC) have been converted into [[National Institutes of Technology]].<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31/> The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]], [[New Delhi]].<ref name=Suri&Rajaram32>"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 32</ref>
The [[Indian Institutes of Management]] are also among the nation's premier education facilities.<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31/> Several Regional Engineering Colleges (REC) have been converted into [[National Institutes of Technology]].<ref name=Suri&Rajaram31/> The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the [[Jawaharlal Nehru University]], [[New Delhi]].<ref name=Suri&Rajaram32>"Infrastructure: S&T Education", ''Science and Technology in India'', 32</ref>

Revision as of 06:25, 11 February 2011

Education in Republic of India
Indian Department of Education
Ministry of Human Resource DevelopmentKapil Sibal
National education budget (2010)
Budget₹31,036 crore (US$3.7 billion) (2009-10)
General details
Primary languagesHindi, English, or State language
System typeFederal, state, private
Literacy (2001[1])
Total66%
Male76.9%
Female54.5%
Enrollment ((N/A))
Total(N/A)
Primary(N/A)
Secondary(N/A)
Post secondary(N/A)
Attainment
Secondary diploma15%
Post-secondary diploma7%

Education in India is mainly provided by the public sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. Child education is compulsory. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world. Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj. Thus India lost its native educational system.

Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the states, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are Union or State Government controlled.

India has made a huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population.[2] India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India.[3] Much of the progress in education has been credited to various private institutions.[4] The private education market in India is estimated to be worth $40 billion in 2008 and will increase to $68 billion by 2012.[4]

However, India continues to face stern challenges. Despite growing investment in education, 35% of its population is still illiterate; only 15% of Indian students reach high school, and just 7% graduate.[5] As of 2008, India's post-secondary high schools offer only enough seats for 7% of India's college-age population, 25% of teaching positions nationwide are vacant, and 57% of college professors lack either a master's or PhD degree.[6]

As of 2007, there are 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000,[7] plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the quality of education.[8]

History

Monastic orders of education under the supervision of a guru was a favored form of education for the nobility in ancient India.[9] The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform.[10] The priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare.[10] The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the lowered class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational advantages.[10] The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of the world at the time.[10]

Apart from the monastic orders, institutions of higher learning] and universities flourished in India well before the common era, and continued to deliver education into the common era.[11] Secular Buddhist institutions cropped up along with monasteries.[10] These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine.[10] A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 200 BCE to 400 CE.[12] The important urban centres of learning were Taxila and Nalanda, among others.[12] These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as logic, grammar, medicine, metaphysics, arts and crafts.[12]

By the time of the visit of the Islamic scholar Alberuni (973-1048 CE), India already had a sophisticated system of mathematics and science in place, and had made a number of inventions and discoveries.[13]

With the arrival of the British Raj in India a class of Westernized elite was versed in the Western system of education which the British had introduced.[14] This system soon became solidified in India as a number of primary, secondary, and tertiary centres for education cropped up during the colonial era.[14] Between 1867 and 1941 the British increased the percentage of the population in Primary and Secondary Education from around 0.6% of the population in 1867 to over 3.5% of the population in 1941. However this was much lower than the equivalent figures for Europe where in 1911 between 8 and 18% of the population were in Primary and Secondary education.[15] Additionally literacy was also improved. In 1901 the literacy rate in India was only about 5% though by Independence it was nearly 20%.[16]

Following independence in 1947, Maulana Azad, India's first education minister envisaged strong central government control over education throughout the country, with a uniform educational system.[17] However, given the cultural and linguistic diversity of India, it was only the higher education dealing with science and technology that came under the jurisdiction of the central government.[17] The government also held powers to make national policies for educational development and could regulate selected aspects of education throughout India.[18]

The central government of India formulated the National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1986 and also reinforced the Programme of Action (POA) in 1986.[19] The government initiated several measures the launching of DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) and SSA (Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,[20] India's initiative for Education for All) and setting up of Navodaya Vidyalaya and other selective schools in every district, advances in female education, inter-disciplinary research and establishment of open universities. India's NPE also contains the National System of Education, which ensures some uniformity while taking into account regional education needs. The NPE also stresses on higher spending on education, envisaging a budget of more than 6% of the Gross Domestic Product.[19] While the need for wider reform in the primary and secondary sectors is recognized as an issue, the emphasis is also on the development of science and technology education infrastructure.

Overview

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India.[21] The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.[22] In India, the various curriculum bodies governing school education system are:

In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)[23] and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher accreditation.[24]

Primary education

The Indian government lays emphasis to primary education up to the age of fourteen years (referred to as Elementary Education in India.[25]) The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.[25] However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.[25] 80% of all recognized schools at the Elementary Stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the Country.[26]

However, due to shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor level of teacher training. Education has also been made free[25] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009.[27]

There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system.[28] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states.[28] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.[28]

This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 93–95% for the last three years in some states.[28] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme.[28] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.

Private education

According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools[26] making the government the major provider of education. However, because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated.[29] According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a fraction of the unit cost of government schools.[30][31][32] However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation.[33]

In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.[29] The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools and more teachers in private schools are female.[34] There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (paratechers) is 54.91% in private, compared to 44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training compared to 43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit.[29]

Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools.[32]

Private schools are often operating illegally. A 2001 study found that it takes 14 different licenses from four different authorities to open a private school in New Delhi and could take years if done legally.[32] However, operation of unrecognized schools has been made illegal under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act[27] which has also significantly simplified the process of obtaining recognition.

Homeschooling

Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have the means. HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the government would not interfere.[35]

Secondary education

The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school system.[36] Secondary education covers children 14-18 which covers 88.5 million children according to the Census, 2001. However, enrolment figures show that only 31 million of these children were attending schools in 2001-02, which means that two-third of the population remained out of school.[37]

A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.[38] A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[39]

A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education.[21] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[40] Another notable special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central government of India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred.[21]

A multilingual web portal on Primary Education is available with rich multimedia content for children and forums to discuss on the Educational issues. India Development Gateway [41] is a nation wide initiative that seeks to facilitate rural empowerment through provision of responsive information, products and services in local languages.

Higher education

Main article: higher education in India

Our university system is, in many parts, in a state of disrepair...In almost half the districts in the country, higher education enrollments are abysmally low, almost two-third of our universities and 90 per cent of our colleges are rated as below average on quality parameters... I am concerned that in many states university appointments, including that of vice-chancellors, have been politicised and have become subject to caste and communal considerations, there are complaints of favouritism and corruption.

— Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2007[42]
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.

India's higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States.[43] The main governing body at the tertiary level is the University Grants Commission (India), which enforces its standards, advises the government, and helps coordinate between the centre and the state.[44] Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by 12 autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission.[45]

As of 2009, India has 20 central universities, 215 state universities, 100 deemed universities, 5 institutions established and functioning under the State Act, and 13 institutes which are of national importance.[44] Other institutions include 16000 colleges, including 1800 exclusive women's colleges, functioning under these universities and institutions.[44] The emphasis in the tertiary level of education lies on science and technology.[46] Indian educational institutions by 2004 consisted of a large number of technology institutes.[47] Distance learning is also a feature of the Indian higher education system.[47]

Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of education.[47] The IITs enroll about 8000 students annually and the alumni have contributed to both the growth of the private sector and the public sectors of India.[48] However, India has failed to produce world class universities like Harvard or Cambridge.[49]

Besides top rated universities which provide highly competitive world class education to their pupil, India is also home to many universities which have been founded with the sole objective of making easy money. Regulatory authorities like UGC and AICTE have been trying very hard to extirpate the menace of private universities which are running courses without any affiliation or recognition. Students from rural and semi urban background often fall prey to these institutes and colleges.[50][dead link‍]

Three Indian universities were listed in the Times Higher Education list of the world’s top 200 universities — Indian Institutes of Technology, Indian Institutes of Management, and Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2005 and 2006.[51] Six Indian Institutes of Technology and the Birla Institute of Technology and Science - Pilani were listed among the top 20 science and technology schools in Asia by Asiaweek.[52] The Indian School of Business situated in Hyderabad was ranked number 12 in global MBA rankings by the Financial Times of London in 2010[53] while the All India Institute of Medical Sciences has been recognized as a global leader in medical research and treatment.[54]

Technical education

Main (Administrative) Building, IIT Roorkee

From the first Five Year Plan onwards India's emphasis was to develop a pool of scientifically inclined manpower.[55] India's National Policy on Education (NPE) provisioned for an apex body for regulation and development of higher technical education, which came into being as the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) in 1987 [56] through an act of the Indian parliament.[57] At the level of the centre the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Information Technology are deemed of national importance.[57]

The Indian Institutes of Management are also among the nation's premier education facilities.[57] Several Regional Engineering Colleges (REC) have been converted into National Institutes of Technology.[57] The UGC has inter-university centres at a number of locations throughout India to promote common research, e.g. the Nuclear Science Centre at the Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.[58]

In addition to above institutes, efforts towards the enhancement of technical education are supplemented by a number of recognized Professional Engineering Societies like: (i) the Institution of Engineers (India); (ii) The Institution of Chemical Engineering (India); (iii) The Institution of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineers (India); (iv) The Indian Institute of Metals; (v) The Institution of Industrial Engineers (India); (vi) The Institute of Town Planners (India); (vii) The Indian Institute of Architects, etc., who conduct Engineering/Technical Examinations at different levels(Degree and diploma) for working professionals desirous of improving their technical qualifications

Literacy

Main article: Literacy in India

According to the Census of 2001, "every person above the age of 7 years who can read and write in any language is said to be literate". According to this criterion, the 2001 survey holds the National Literacy Rate to be around 64.84%.[59] Government statistics of 2001 also hold that the rate of increase in literacy is more in rural areas than in urban areas.[59] Female literacy was at a national average of 53.63% whereas the male literacy was 75.26%.[59] Within the Indian states, Kerala has shown the highest literacy rates of 90.02% whereas Bihar averaged lower than 50% literacy, the lowest in India.[59] The 2001 statistics also indicated that the total number of 'absolute non-literates' in the country was 304 million.[59]

Attainment

World Bank statistics found that fewer than 40 percent of adolescents in India attend secondary schools.[2] The Economist reports that half of 10-year-old rural children could not read at a basic level, over 60% were unable to do division, and half dropped out by the age 14.[30]

Only one in ten young people have access to tertiary education.[2] Out of those who receive higher education, Mercer Consulting estimates that only a quarter of graduates are "employable".[60]

An optimistic estimate is that only one in five job-seekers in India has ever had any sort of vocational training.[61]

Higher education

As per Report of the Higher education in India, Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance,[62] the access to higher education measured in term of gross enrolment ratio increased from 0.7% in 1950/51 to 1.4% in 1960-61. By 2006/7 the GER increased to about 11 percent. By 2012, (the end of 11th plan objective) is to increase it to 15%.

Women's education

Girls in Kalleda Rural School, Andhra Pradesh.
See also: Women in India

Women have much lower literacy rate than men. Far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.[63] According to a 1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority of the female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).[64] Conservative cultural attitudes, especially among Muslims, prevents some girls from attending school.[65]

The number of literate women among the female population of India was between 2-6% from the British Raj onwards to the formation of the Republic of India in 1947.[66] Concerted efforts led to improvement from 15.3% in 1961 to 28.5% in 1981.[66] By 2001 literacy for women had exceeded 50% of the overall female population, though these statistics were still very low compared to world standards and even male literacy within India.[67] Recently the Indian government has launched Saakshar Bharat Mission for Female Literacy. This mission aims to bring down female illiteracy by half of its present level.

Sita Anantha Raman outlines the progress of women's education in India:

Since 1947 the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for girls’ school attendance through programs for midday meals, free books, and uniforms. This welfare thrust raised primary enrollment between 1951 and 1981. In 1986 the National Policy on Education decided to restructure education in tune with the social framework of each state, and with larger national goals. It emphasized that education was necessary for democracy, and central to the improvement of women’s condition. The new policy aimed at social change through revised texts, curricula, increased funding for schools, expansion in the numbers of schools, and policy improvements. Emphasis was placed on expanding girls’ occupational centers and primary education; secondary and higher education; and rural and urban institutions. The report tried to connect problems like low school attendance with poverty, and the dependence on girls for housework and sibling day care. The National Literacy Mission also worked through female tutors in villages. Although the minimum marriage age is now eighteen for girls, many continue to be married much earlier. Therefore, at the secondary level, female dropout rates are high.[68]

Sita Anantha Raman also maintains that while the educated Indian women workforce maintains professionalism, the men outnumber them in most fields and, in some cases, receive higher income for the same positions.[68]

Rural education

A primary school in a village in Madhya Pradesh.

Following independence, India viewed education as an effective tool for bringing social change through community development.[69] The administrative control was effectively initiated in the 1950s, when, in 1952, the government grouped villages under a Community Development Block—an authority under national programme which could control education in up to 100 villages.[69] A Block Development Officer oversaw a geographical area of 150 square miles (390 km2) which could contain a population of as many as 70000 people.[69]

Setty and Ross elaborate on the role of such programmes, themselves divided further into individual-based, community based, or the Individual-cum-community-based, in which microscopic levels of development are overseen at village level by an appointed worker:

The community development programmes comprise agriculture, animal husbandry, cooperation, rural industries, rural engineering (consisting of minor irrigation, roads, buildings), health and sanitation including family welfare, family planning, women welfare, child care and nutrition, education including adult education, social education and literacy, youth welfare and community organisation. In each of these areas of development there are several programmes, schemes and activities which are additive, expanding and tapering off covering the total community, some segments, or specific target populations such as small and marginal farmers, artisans, women and in general people below the poverty line.[69]

Despite some setbacks the rural education programmes continued throughout the 1950s, with support from private institutions.[70] A sizable network of rural education had been established by the time the Gandhigram Rural Institute was established and 5, 200 Community Development Blocks were established in India.[71] Nursery schools, elementary schools, secondary school, and schools for adult education for women were set up.[71]

The government continued to view rural education as an agenda that could be relatively free from bureaucratic backlog and general stagnation.[71] However, in some cases lack of financing balanced the gains made by rural education institutes of India.[72] Some ideas failed to find acceptability among India's poor and investments made by the government sometimes yielded little results.[72] Today, government rural schools remain poorly funded and understaffed. Several foundations, such as the Rural Development Foundation (Hyderabad), actively build high-quality rural schools, but the number of students served is small.

Issues

Funding and infrastructure

One study found out that 25% of public sector teachers and 40% of public sector medical workers were absent during the survey. Among teachers who were paid to teach, absence rates ranged from 15% in Maharashtra to 71% in Bihar. Only 1 in nearly 3000 public school head teachers had ever dismissed a teacher for repeated absence.[73] A study on teachers by Kremer etc. found that 'only about half were teaching, during unannounced visits to a nationally representative sample of government primary schools in India.'.[73]

A study of 188 government-run primary schools found that 59% of the schools had no drinking water and 89% had no toilets.[74] 2003-04 data by National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration revealed that only 3.5% of primary schools in Bihar and Chhattisgarh had toilets for girls. In Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh, rates were 12-16%.[75]

Curriculum issues

Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather than problem solving. BusinessWeek denigrates the Indian curriculum saying it revolves around rote learning.[76] and ExpressIndia suggests that students are focused on cramming.[77]

Controversy

In January 2010, the Government of India decided to withdraw Deemed university status from as many as 44 rations were not being kept in mind by the management of these institutions and that "they were being run as family fiefdoms".[78]

Fake degrees are a problem. One raid in Bihar found 100,000 fake certificates.[79] In February 2009, the University Grant Commission found 19 fake institutions operating in India.[80]

Only 16% of manufacturers in India offer in-service training to their employees, compared with over 90% in China.[81]

Initiatives

Boys seated in school near Baroda, Gujarat.
The madrasah of Jamia Masjid mosque in Srirangapatna.

Following India's independence a number of rules were formulated for the backward Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes of India, and in 1960 a list identifying 405 Scheduled Castes and 225 Scheduled Tribes was published by the central government.[82] An amendment was made to the list in 1975, which identified 841 Scheduled Castes and 510 Scheduled Tribes.[82] The total percentage of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes combined was found to be 22.5 percent with the Scheduled Castes accounting for 17 percent and the Scheduled Tribes accounting for the remaining 7.5 percent.[82] Following the report many Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes increasingly referred to themselves as Dalit, a Marathi language terminology used by B. R. Ambedkar which literally means "oppressed".[82]

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are provided for in many of India's educational programmes.[83] Special reservations are also provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in India, e.g. a reservation of 15% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Castes and another reservation of 7.5% in Kendriya Vidyalaya for Scheduled Tribes.[83] Similar reservations are held by the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in many schemes and educational facilities in India.[83] The remote and far-flung regions of North East India are provided for under the Non Lapsible Central pool of Resources (NLCPR) since 1998-1999.[84] The NLCPR aims to provide funds for infrastructure development in these remote areas.[84]

The government objective for the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), started in 2001, is to provide education to children between 6–14 years by 2010.[85] The programme focuses specially on girls and children with challenged social or financial backgrounds.[85] The SSA also aims to provide practical infrastructure and relevant source material in form of free textbooks to children in remote areas.[85] The SSA also aims at widening computer education in rural areas.[85] SSA is currently working with Agastya International Foundation - an educational NGO - to augment its efforts in making science curriculum current and exciting. However, some objectives of the SSA, e.g. enrollment of all children under the scheme in schools by 2005 remain unfulfilled.[85] Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education are components of the SSA.[85]

Women from remote, underdeveloped areas or from weaker social groups in Andra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand, fall under the Mahila Samakhya Scheme, initiated in 1989.[86] Apart from provisions for education this programme also aims to raise awareness by holding meetings and seminars at rural levels.[86] The government allowed ₹340 million (US$4.1 million) during 2007–08 to carry out this scheme over 83 districts including more than 21, 000 villages.[86]

Currently there are 68 Bal Bhavans and 10 Bal Kendra affiliated to the National Bal Bhavan.[87] The scheme involves educational and social activities and recognising children with a marked talent for a particular educational stream.[87] A number of programmes and activities are held under this scheme, which also involves cultural exchanges and participation in several international forums.[87]

India's minorities, especially the ones considered 'educationally backward' by the government, are provided for in the 1992 amendment of the Indian National Policy on Education (NPE).[88] The government initiated the Scheme of Area Intensive Programme for Educationally Backward Minorities and Scheme of Financial Assistance or Modernisation of Madarsa Education as part of its revised Programme of Action (1992).[88] Both these schemes were started nationwide by 1994.[88] In 2004 the Indian parliament allowed an act which enabled minority education establishments to seek university affiliations if they passed the required norms.[88]

Central government involvement

Budget

As a part of the tenth Five year Plan (2002–2007), the central government of India outlined an expenditure of 65.6% of its total education budget of ₹438.25 billion (US$5.3 billion) i.e. ₹287.5 billion (US$3.4 billion) on elementary education; 9.9% i.e. ₹43.25 billion (US$520 million) on secondary education; 2.9% i.e. ₹12.5 billion (US$150 million) on adult education; 9.5% i.e. ₹41.765 billion (US$500 million) on higher education; 10.7% i.e. ₹47 billion (US$560 million) on technical education; and the remaining 1.4% i.e. ₹6.235 billion (US$75 million) on miscellaneous education schemes.[89]

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), India has the lowest public expenditure on higher education per student in the world.[90]

See also: Education in India Five Year Plan Expenditure

Public Expenditure on Education in India

In recent times, several major announcements were made for developing the poor state of affairs in education sector in India, the most notable ones being the National Common Minimum Programme (NCMP) of the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government. The announcements are; (a) To progressively increase expenditure on education to around 6 percent of GDP. (b) To support this increase in expenditure on education, and to increase the quality of education, there would be an imposition of an education cess over all central government taxes. (c) To ensure that no one is denied of education due to economic backwardness and poverty. (d) To make right to education a fundamental right for all children in the age group 6–14 years. (e) To universalize education through its flagship programmes such as Sarva Siksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal.

However, even after five years of implementation of NCMP, not much progress has been done on these promises or announcements. The public expenditure on education has actually declined from around 3.23 percent of GDP in 2000-2001 to 2.88 percent in the recent times. As a proportion of total government expenditure, it has declined from around 11.1 percent in 2000-2001 to around 9.98 percent during UPA rule. A policy brief issued by [Network for Social Accountability (NSA)][91] titled “[NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget: UPA Rule and the Education Sector][92]” provides significant revelation to this fact. Due to a declining priority of education in the public policy paradigm in India, there has been an exponential growth in the private expenditure on education also. [As per the available information, the private out of pocket expenditure by the working class population for the education of their children in India has increased by around 1150 percent or around 12.5 times over the last decade].[93]

Legislative framework

Article 45, of the Constitution of India originally stated:

The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.[17]

This article was a directive principle of state policy within India, effectively meaning that it was within a set of rules that were meant to be followed in spirit and the government could not be held to court if the actual letter was not followed.[94] However, the enforcement of this directive principle became a matter of debate since this principle held obvious emotive and practical value, and was legally the only directive principle within the Indian constitution to have a time limit.[94]

Following initiatives by the Supreme Court of India during the 1990s the Ninety-third amendment bill suggested three separate amendments to the Indian constitution:[95]

  • The constitution of India was amended to include a new article, 21A, which read:

The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in a such manner as the State may, by law, determine.[96]

  • Article 45 was proposed to be substituted by the article which read:

Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years: The State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of sixteen years.[96]

  • Another article, 51A, was to additionally have the clause:

...a parent or guardian [shall] provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may be, [a] ward between the age of six to fourteen years.[96]

The bill was passed unanimously in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament, on November 28, 2001.[97] It was later passed by the upper house—the Rajya Sabha—on May 14, 2002.[97] After being signed by the President of India the Indian constitution was amended formally for the eighty sixth time and the bill came into effect.[97] Since then those between the age of 6–14 have a fundamental right to education.[98]

Article 46 of the Constitution of India holds that:

The State shall promote, with special care, the education and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of social exploitation'.[59]

Other provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes can be found in Articles 330, 332, 335, 338–342.[59] Both the 5th and the 6th Schedules of the Constitution also make special provisions for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.[59]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Estimate for India, from India, CIA World Factbook
  2. ^ a b c "Education in India". World Bank.
  3. ^ India achieves 27% decline in poverty, Press Trust of India via Sify.com, 2008-09-12
  4. ^ a b Lesson Plans, by Anuradha Raghunathan of Forbes, 09.11.08
  5. ^ India still Asia's reluctant tiger, by Zareer Masani of BBC Radio 4, 27 February 2008
  6. ^ SPECIAL REPORT: THE EDUCATION RACE, by Newsweek, August 18–25, 2008 issue
  7. ^ "Science and Technology Education" (PDF). Press Information Bureau. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
  8. ^ How To Save The World's Back Office, by Sramana Mitra of Forbes, 03.14.08
  9. ^ Blackwell, 90
  10. ^ a b c d e f Prabhu, 24
  11. ^ Blackwell, 89
  12. ^ a b c Prabhu, 25
  13. ^ Blackwell, 89–91
  14. ^ a b Blackwell, 91–92
  15. ^ Ferguson, Niall (2003). Empire: How Britain made the Modern World. Penguin. p. 191. ISBN 0141007540.
  16. ^ "Literacy Scenario in India (1951 - 1991)". Retrieved December 29, 2009.
  17. ^ a b c Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 150
  18. ^ Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 150–151
  19. ^ a b India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 208
  20. ^ {ssa.nic.in}
  21. ^ a b c India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 233
  22. ^ India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 230–234
  23. ^ {www.nuepa.org}
  24. ^ {www.ncte-india.org}
  25. ^ a b c d Blackwell, 93–94
  26. ^ a b {http://www.dise.in/ar2005.html}
  27. ^ a b http://education.nic.in/Elementary/free%20and%20compulsory.pdf
  28. ^ a b c d e India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 215
  29. ^ a b c "Private Education in India can Benefit Poor People".
  30. ^ a b "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India's biggest handicap". The Economist. 11 December 2008. Cite error: The named reference "creaking" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  31. ^ Geeta Gandhi Kingdon. "The progress of school education in India" (PDF).
  32. ^ a b c Amit Varma (2007-01-15). "Why India Needs School Vouchers". Wall Street Journal.
  33. ^ {http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/FC02Df03.htm.}
  34. ^ {http://www.dise.in/Downloads/Publication%202007-08/Rural0708/teacher_part1.pdf}
  35. ^ "RTE: Homeschooling too is fine, says Sibal". Times of India. 2010.
  36. ^ India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 231
  37. ^ {http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/sec_overview.asp}
  38. ^ Blackwell, 94–95
  39. ^ {http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/Framework_Final_RMSA.pdf}
  40. ^ {http://www.education.nic.in/secedu/sec_iedc.asp}
  41. ^ {http://www.indg.in/primary-education/}
  42. ^ Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. "PM's address at the 150th Anniversary Function of University of Mumbai".
  43. ^ "India Country Summary of Higher Education" (PDF). World Bank.
  44. ^ a b c India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 237
  45. ^ "''Higher Education'', National Informatics Centre, Government of India". Education.nic.in. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  46. ^ Blackwell, 95–96
  47. ^ a b c Blackwell, 96
  48. ^ Vrat, 230-231
  49. ^ India doesn't figure in world top-100 universities, Press Trust of India via timesofindia.com, 2010-09-12
  50. ^ Fake and Cheat Universities in India, Think Ahead.[dead link‍]
  51. ^ "Times Higher Education". Times Higher Education. 2006-10-06. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  52. ^ "Asia's Best Science and Technology Schools". Cgi.cnn.com. 2000-06-22. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  53. ^ "MBA global Top 100 rankings - FT". ft.com. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
  54. ^ "Medical Meccas: An Oasis for India's Poorest | Newsweek Health for Life | Newsweek.com". Newsweek.com. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  55. ^ "Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India, 30
  56. ^ "All India Council for Technical Education Act, 1987".
  57. ^ a b c d "Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India, 31
  58. ^ "Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India, 32
  59. ^ a b c d e f g h India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 225
  60. ^ "Mere 25% graduates in India are employable: Mercer Consulting". 2008.
  61. ^ "A special report on India: An elephant, not a tiger". The Economist. 11 December 2008.
  62. ^ "12. Report of the HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA Issues Related to Expansion, Inclusiveness, Quality and Finance, May 2008". Ugc.ac.in. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  63. ^ Kalyani Menon-Sen, A. K. Shiva Kumar (2001). "Women in India: How Free? How Equal?". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2006-09-11. Retrieved 2006-12-24.
  64. ^ Victoria A. Velkoff (1998). "Women of the World: Women's Education in India" (PDF). U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved 2006-12-25. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  65. ^ "In India, Can Schools Offer Path Out Of Poverty?". 2010-05-14. Retrieved 2010-06-23.
  66. ^ a b Raman, 235
  67. ^ Raman, 236
  68. ^ a b Raman, 238
  69. ^ a b c d Setty and Ross, 120
  70. ^ Setty and Ross, 121
  71. ^ a b c Setty and Ross, 122
  72. ^ a b Setty and Ross, 125
  73. ^ a b 4-6 p.m. (2009-10-30). "Kremer etc. (2004), "Teacher Absence in India: A Snapshot", ''Journal of the European Economic Association''" (PDF). Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2010-09-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  74. ^ Basu, Kaushik (2004-11-29). "Combating India's truant teachers". BBC. Retrieved 2010-01-03.
  75. ^ Singh, Shivani (7 April 2005). "Education cess: Are govt schools any better now?". The Times of India.
  76. ^ "India". BusinessWeek.
  77. ^ "'Rote system of learning still rules the roost'". ExpressIndia. 2008.
  78. ^ "44 institutions to lose deemed university status - Economy and Politics". livemint.com. 2010-01-18. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  79. ^ "100,000 fake certificates found in Bihar".
  80. ^ "22 universities across India fake: UGC". ExpressIndia.
  81. ^ "Country Strategy for India (CAS) 2009-2012" (PDF). World Bank.
  82. ^ a b c d Elder, 227
  83. ^ a b c India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 226–227
  84. ^ a b India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 236–237
  85. ^ a b c d e f India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 211
  86. ^ a b c India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 216
  87. ^ a b c India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 218
  88. ^ a b c d India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 239
  89. ^ India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), 223
  90. ^ "Higher education spending: India at the bottom of BRIC". Rediff. 2005.
  91. ^ "Network for Social Accountability". NSA. 2009-12-28. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  92. ^ "345 NSA Response to Education Sector Interventions in Union Budget-UPA Rule and the Education Sector by Siba Sankar Mohanty". Nsa.org.in. 2009-02-21. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  93. ^ "309: How the Working Class has Performed in the Turbulent Years of Liberalisation-A Priliminary Study of Working Class Income and Expenditure Survey1999-2000 Page-1". Nsa.org.in. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
  94. ^ a b Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 149–50
  95. ^ Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 152–154
  96. ^ a b c Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 154
  97. ^ a b c Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 156
  98. ^ Sripati and Thiruvengadam, 149

References

  • Blackwell, Fritz (2004), India: A Global Studies Handbook, United States of America: ABC-CLIO, Inc., ISBN 1-57607-348-3.
  • Elder, Joseph W. (2006), "Caste System", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 223-229, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31350-2.
  • "Infrastructure: S&T Education", Science and Technology in India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram (2008), New Delhi: Spectrum, ISBN 81-7930-294-6.
  • India 2009: A Reference Annual (53rd edition), New Delhi: Additional Director General (ADG), Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, ISBN 978-81-230-1557-6.
  • Prabhu, Joseph (2006), "Educational Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 23–28, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
  • Raman, S.A. (2006). "Women's Education", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 4), edited by Stanley Wolpert, 235-239, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31353-7.
  • Setty, E.D. and Ross, E.L. (1987), "A Case Study in Applied Education in Rural India", Community Development Journal, 22 (2): 120–129, Oxford University Press.
  • Sripati, V. and Thiruvengadam, A.K. (2004), "India: Constitutional Amendment Making The Right to Education a Fundamental Right", International Journal of Constitutional Law, 2 (1): 148–158, Oxford University Press.
  • Vrat, Prem (2006), "Indian Institutes of Technology", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2) edited by Stanley Wolpert, 229-231, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Education_in_India&oldid=413254717"