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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by El C (talk | contribs) at 08:27, 1 July 2008 (fix spelling, grammar). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For other uses of "Canada" or "Canadian", see Canada (disambiguation) and Canadian (disambiguation).

Canada
Motto: [A Mari Usque Ad Mare] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)  (Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"
Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"
Location of Canada
CapitalOttawa
Largest cityToronto
Official languagesEnglish, French
Recognised regional languagesInuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, Cree, Dëne Sųłiné, Gwich’in, Inuvialuktun, Slavey, Tłįchǫ Yatiì
Demonym(s)Canadian
GovernmentParliamentary democracy and Constitutional monarchy
• Monarch
HM Queen Elizabeth II
Michaëlle Jean
Stephen Harper
Establishment
July 1 1867
December 11 1931
April 17 1982
Area
• Total
9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)
8.92 (891,163 km²/344,080 mi²)
Population
• 2024 estimate
38,706,000[1] (36th)
• 2006 census
31,612,897
• Density
3.2/km2 (8.3/sq mi) (219th)
GDP (PPP)2007 estimate
• Total
$1.274 trillion[2] (13th)
• Per capita
$38,200[2] (21st)
GDP (nominal)2007 estimate
• Total
$1.432 trillion [3] (9th)
• Per capita
$42,738 (14th)
Gini32.1 (2005)[2]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2007)Increase 0.961
Error: Invalid HDI value (4th)
CurrencyCanadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zoneUTC−3.5 to −8
• Summer (DST)
UTC−2.5 to −7
Calling code1
ISO 3166 codeCA
Internet TLD.ca
Canada portal

Canada (/ˈkænədə/) is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area,[2] and shares land borders with the United States to the south and northwest.

The land occupied by Canada was inhabited for millennia by various aboriginal people. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces.[4][5][6] This began an accretion of additional provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, and culminating in the Canada Act in 1982 which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.

A federation now comprising ten provinces and three territories, Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a bilingual and multicultural country, with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. Technologically advanced and industrialized, Canada maintains a diversified economy that is heavily reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade—particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship.

Etymology

Main article: Name of Canada
Jacques Cartier

The name Canada most likely comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct explorer Jacques Cartier toward the village of Stadacona.[7] Cartier used the word 'Canada' to refer to not only that village, but the entire area subject to Donnacona, Chief at Stadacona. By 1545, European books and maps began referring to this region as Canada.[8]

The French colony of Canada referred to the part of New France along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. Later, it was split into two British colonies, called Upper Canada and Lower Canada until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was adopted for the entire country, and Dominion was conferred as the country's title.[9] It was frequently referred to as the Dominion of Canada until the 1950s. As Canada asserted its political autonomy from Britain, the federal government increasingly used Canada on legal state documents and treaties. The Canada Act 1982 refers only to "Canada" and, as such, it is currently the only legal (and bilingual) name. This was reflected in 1982 with the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day.

History

Main articles: History of Canada, Timeline of Canadian history, and Territorial evolution of Canada
The fur trade was Canada's most important industry until the 19th century

Various groups of Inuit and First Peoples inhabited North America prehistorically. While no written documents exist, various forms of rock art, petroforms, petroglyphs, and ancient artifacts provide thousands of years of information about the past. Archaeological studies support a human presence in northern Yukon from 26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago.[10][11] Europeans first arrived when the Vikings settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows around AD 1000. The next Europeans to explore Canada's Atlantic coast included John Cabot in 1497 for England[12] and Jacques Cartier in 1534 for France;[13] seasonal Basque whalers and fishermen subsequently exploited the region between the Grand Banks and Tadoussac for over a century.[14]

French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608. These would become respectively the capitals of Acadia and Canada. Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the St. Lawrence River valley, Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while French fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The French and Iroquois Wars broke out over control of the fur trade.

The Death of General Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759, part of the Seven Years' War.

The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland around 1610 and colonized the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four Intercolonial Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain following the Seven Years' War.

The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. It also restricted the language and religious rights of French Canadians. In 1769, St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony. To avert conflict in Quebec, the Quebec Act of 1774 expanded Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley and re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in Quebec; it angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, helping to fuel the American Revolution.[15] The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. Approximately 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled the United States to Canada.[16] New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada and English-speaking Upper Canada, granting each their own elected Legislative Assembly.

Canada was a major front in the War of 1812 between the United States and British Empire. Its defence contributed to a sense of unity among British North Americans. Large-scale immigration to Canada began in 1815 from Britain and Ireland. The timber industry surpassed the fur trade in importance in the early nineteenth century.

File:Fathers of Canadian Confederation.jpg
Fathers of Confederation by Robert Harris, an amalgamation of Charlottetown and Quebec conference scenes.

The desire for Responsible Government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture.[17] The Act of Union (1840) merged The Canadas into a United Province of Canada. French and English Canadians worked together in the Assembly to reinstate French rights. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.

The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel and paving the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). Canada launched a series of western exploratory expeditions to claim Rupert's Land and the Arctic region. The Canadian population grew rapidly because of high birth rates; British immigration was offset by emigration to the United States, especially by French Canadians moving to New England.

An animated map, exhibiting the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation.

Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 brought about Confederation creating "one Dominion under the name of Canada" on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[18] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward Island joined Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.

Prime Minister John A. Macdonald's Conservative Party established a National Policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries. To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three trans-continental railways (most notably the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory. In 1898, after the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.

Canadian soldiers won the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917.

Canada automatically entered the First World War in 1914 with Britain's declaration of war, sending volunteers to the Western Front, who played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain; in 1931 the Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.

The Great Depression of 1929 brought economic hardship to all of Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan presaged a welfare state as pioneered by Tommy Douglas in the 1940s and 1950s. Canada declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.[19] Canadian troops played important roles in the Battle of the Atlantic, the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid in France, the Allied invasion of Italy, the D-Day landings, the Battle of Normandy and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada is credited by the Netherlands for having provided asylum and protection for its monarchy during the war after the country was occupied and the Netherlands credits Canada for its leadership and major contribution to the liberation of Netherlands from Nazi Germany. The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest armed forces in the world.[19] In 1945, during the war, Canada became one of the first countries to join the United Nations

In 1949, Newfoundland joined Confederation. Post-war prosperity and economic expansion ignited a baby boom and attracted immigration from war-ravaged European countries.[20]

Under successive Liberal governments of Lester B. Pearson and Pierre Trudeau, a new Canadian identity emerged. Canada adopted its current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965. In response to a more assertive French-speaking Quebec, the federal government became officially bilingual with the Official Languages Act of 1969. Non-discriminatory Immigration Acts were introduced in 1967 and 1976, and official multiculturalism in 1971; waves of non-European immigration had changed the face of the country. Social welfare programs such as universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans were initiated in the 1960s and consolidated in the 1970s; provincial governments, particularly Quebec, fought these as incursions into their jurisdictions. Finally, Prime Minister Trudeau pushed through the patriation of the constitution from Britain, enshrining a Charter of Rights and Freedoms based on individual rights in the Constitution Act of 1982. Canadians continue to take pride in their system of universal health care, their commitment to multiculturalism, and human rights.[21]

Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s. Quebec nationalists under Jean Lesage began pressing for greater autonomy [22]. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis in 1970 with bombings and kidnappings. The more moderate Parti Québécois of René Lévesque came to power in 1976 and held an unsuccessful referendum on a proposed "sovereignty-association" (political sovereignty and separation of Quebec from Canada while maintaining a common economy with Canada) in the 1980 Quebec referendum. An energy crisis and economic decline in the late 1970s caused the federal government of Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau to adopt price controls and redistribution of oil profits from Alberta's booming oil industry to Canada's poorer provinces as part of the National Energy Program (NEP). The NEP was fiercely opposed by Albertans and other western Canadians saw the plan as eastern Canada exploiting Alberta's oil boom which caused an increase in a sense of political and social alienation of western Canada by its residents.

Efforts by Progressive Conservative (PC) government of Brian Mulroney began to recognize Quebec as a "distinct society" and end western alienation. The National Energy Program was scrapped and talks began with Quebec in Meech Lake Accord in 1987 to officially have Quebec sign the Canadian Constitution which collapsed in 1990. In 1989, the federal government adopted the Free Trade Agreement with the United States despite significant animosity from the Canadian public who were concerned about the economic and cultural impacts of close integration with the United States.

In the 1990s, anger in predominantly French-speaking Quebec with the failure of constitutional reform talks, and the rising sense of alienation in Canada's western provinces due to the government's preoccupation with bringing Quebec into the constitution resulted in a Quebec sovereignist federal party Bloc Québécois and the Western Canada-based Reform Party of Canada rising to prominence in the election of 1993 while the Progressive Conservative Party collapsed from government to only 2 seats. Another Parti Québécois government in Quebec led by Jacques Parizeau held a second referendum in 1995 that was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.[23] In 1997, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional, and Parliament passed the "Clarity Act" outlining the terms of a negotiated departure.[23] On the international stage, the 1990s saw the rise of a major role of Canadian peacekeeping activity on behalf of the United Nations. The UN mission in Rwanda in the 1990s was led by Romeo Dallaire, which was criticized by him and by others for failing to have the mandate to prevent the Rwanda genocide. Canada also took part in peacekeeping operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo during the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s.

In the 2000s, significant social and political changes have occurred in Canada. Environmental issues increased in importance in Canada resulting in the signing of the Kyoto Accord on climate change by Canada's Liberal government in 2002 but recently nullified by the present government which has proposed a "made-in-Canada" solution to climate change. In 2000, a merger of Reform and PC Parties into the Conservative Party of Canada was completed in 2003, ending a ten year division of the conservative vote, and was elected as a minority government under the leadership of Stephen Harper in the 2006 federal election, ending thirteen years of Liberal party dominance in elections. In 2006, Canada's government declared that Quebec's predominantly French-speaking people, the Quebecois, constitute a nation within Canada. In 2008, Canada's government officially apologized for its endorsement of residential schools for Canada's aboriginal peoples which had promoted forced cultural assimilation oppression of aboriginal culture, and physical and emotional abuse of aboriginal people. Canada's aboriginal leaders accepted the government's apology.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Canada, Politics of Canada, and Monarchy of Canada
Parliament Hill, Ottawa.

Canada is a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, as head of state and the Prime Minister as the head of the government.[24][25] The country is a parliamentary democracy with a federal system of parliamentary government and strong democratic traditions.

Executive authority is formally and constitutionally vested in the monarch.[26] However, by convention, the monarch and her appointed representative, the Governor General, act in a predominantly ceremonial and apolitical role, deferring the exercise of executive power to the Cabinet,[27][28] which is made up of ministers generally accountable to the elected House of Commons, and headed by the Prime Minister, who is normally the leader of the party that holds the confidence of the House of Commons. Thus, the Cabinet is typically regarded as the active seat of executive power.[29][26] This arrangement, which stems from the principals of responsible government,[30][27] ensures the stability of government, and makes the Prime Minister's Office one of the most powerful organs of the system, tasked with selecting, besides the other Cabinet members, Senators, federal court judges, heads of Crown corporations and government agencies, and the federal and provincial viceroys for appointment.[31] However, the sovereign and Governor General do retain their right to use the Royal Prerogative in exceptional constitutional crisis situations.[32]

The leader of the party with the second most seats usually becomes the Leader of the Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system that keeps the government in check. Michaëlle Jean has served as Governor General since September 27, 2005; Stephen Harper, leader of the Conservative Party, has been Prime Minister since February 6, 2006; and Stéphane Dion, leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, has been Leader of the Opposition since December 2, 2006.

The chamber of the House of Commons.

The federal parliament is made up of the Queen (represented by the Governor General) and two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed Senate.[33][34] Each member in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in a riding or electoral district. General elections are either every four years as determined by fixed election date legislation, or triggered by the government losing the confidence of the House (usually only possible during minority governments). Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the Prime Minister and formally appointed by the Governor General, and serve until age 75.

Four parties have had substantial representation in the federal parliament since 2006 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the Liberal Party of Canada (Official Opposition), the New Democratic Party (NDP), and the Bloc Québécois. The Green Party of Canada does not have current representation in Parliament but garners a significant share of the national vote. The list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial.

In line with Canada's federalist structure, the constitution divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces, whose unicameral provincial legislatures operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the federal House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but with less constitutional responsibilities than the provinces, and with some structural differences (for example, the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut has no parties and operates on consensus).

Law

Main article: Law of Canada
See also: Court system of Canada
The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill.

The constitution is the supreme law of the country,[35] and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[36] The Constitution Act, 1867, affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent "similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom" and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments; the Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy; and the Constitution Act, 1982, added the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any level of government – though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years – and added a constitutional amending formula.[37]

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and is led by the Right Honourable Madam Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin, P.C. since 2000. Its nine members are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments.

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada, Canadian Forces, and Military history of Canada
The Peacekeeping Monument in Ottawa.

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partners. Canada has nevertheless maintained an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to participate in the Iraq War. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie (French-Speaking Countries). Canada is noted for having a strong and positive relationship with the Netherlands which Canada helped liberate during World War II, and the Dutch government traditionally gives tulips, a symbol of the Netherlands, to Canada each year in remembrance of Canada's contribution to its liberation.

Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of about 64,000 regular and 26,000 reserve personnel.[38] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the army, navy, and air force. Major CF equipment deployed includes 1,400 armoured fighting vehicles, 34 combat vessels, and 861 aircraft.[39]

Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth in English Canada led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, the First World War, and the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[40][41] Canada joined the United Nations in 1945 and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.

Canada has played a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force.[42] Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989[43] and has since maintained forces in international missions in the former Yugoslavia and elsewhere.

Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990; Canada hosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001. Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).

Canadian soldiers in Afghanistan.

Since 2001, Canada has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force. Canada's Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) has participated in three major relief efforts in the past two years; the two-hundred member team has been deployed in relief operations after the December 2004 tsunami in South Asia, Hurricane Katrina in September 2005 and the Kashmir earthquake in October 2005.

In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.[44] In August 2007, Canadian sovereignty in Arctic waters was challenged following a Russian expedition that planted a Russian flag at the seabed at the North Pole. Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[45]

Provinces and territories

Main articles: Provinces and territories of Canada and Canadian federalism
A geopolitical map of Canada, exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories.

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories; in turn, these may be grouped into regions. Western Canada consists of British Columbia and the three Prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba). Central Canada consists of Quebec and Ontario. Atlantic Canada consists of the three Maritime provinces (New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia), along with Newfoundland and Labrador. Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together. Three territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut) make up Northern Canada. Provinces have more autonomy than territories. Each has its own provincial or territorial symbols.

The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as health care, education, and welfare) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.

All provinces have unicameral, elected legislatures headed by a Premier selected in the same way as the Prime Minister of Canada. Each province also has a Lieutenant-Governor representing the Queen, analogous to the Governor General of Canada. The Lieutenant-Governor is appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, though with increasing levels of consultation with provincial governments in recent years.

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Canada and Temperature in Canada
A satellite composite image of Canada. Boreal forests prevail on the rocky Canadian Shield. Ice and tundra are prominent in the Arctic. Glaciers are visible in the Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountains. Flat and fertile Prairies facilitate agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.

Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south and with the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second largest country in the world—after Russia—and largest on the continent. By land area it ranks fourth.[46] Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60°W and 141°W longitude,[47] but this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada and in the world is Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—just 817 kilometres (450 nautical miles) from the North Pole.[48] Canada has the longest coastline in the world: 243,000 kilometres.[49]

The population density, Template:Pop density km2 to sq mi, is among the lowest in the world.[50] The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor along the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River in the southeast.[51] To the north of this region is the broad Canadian Shield, an area of rock scoured clean by the last ice age, thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers. Canada by far has more lakes than any other country and has a large amount of the world's freshwater.[52][53]

A Maritime scene at Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia, which has long been sustained by the Atlantic fishery.

In eastern Canada, most people live in large urban centres on the flat Saint Lawrence Lowlands. The Saint Lawrence River widens into the world's largest estuary before flowing into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The gulf is bounded by Newfoundland to the north and the Maritime provinces to the south. The Maritimes protrude eastward along the Appalachian Mountain range from northern New England and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are divided by the Bay of Fundy, which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. Ontario and Hudson Bay dominate central Canada. West of Ontario, the broad, flat Canadian Prairies spread toward the Rocky Mountains, which separate them from British Columbia.

In northwestern Canada, the Mackenzie River flows from the Great Slave Lake to the Arctic Ocean. A tributary of a tributary of the Mackenzie is the South Nahanni River, which is home to Virginia Falls, a waterfall about twice as high as Niagara Falls.

Northern Canadian vegetation tapers from coniferous forests to tundra and finally to Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast archipelago containing some of the world's largest islands.

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary depending on the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F) but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[54] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia is an exception and enjoys a temperate climate with a mild and rainy winter.

On the east and west coast, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (75 to 85 °F) with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[55][56] For a more complete description of climate across Canada see Environment Canada's Website.[57]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Canada, Economic history of Canada, and Agriculture in Canada
Canadian banknotes depicting, top to bottom, Wilfrid Laurier, John A. Macdonald, Queen Elizabeth II, William Lyon Mackenzie King, and Robert Borden.

Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per-capita income, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Group of Eight. Canada is a mixed market,[58] ranking lower than the U.S. but higher than most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom.[59] Since the early 1990s, the Canadian economy has been growing rapidly with low unemployment and large government surpluses on the federal level. Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards.[2] As of October 2007, Canada's national unemployment rate of 5.9% is its lowest in 33 years. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 3.6% in Alberta to a high of 14.6% in Newfoundland and Labrador.[60] 2008 forbes global 2000 list of world's largest companies, Canada had 69 companies in the list ranking 5th next to France..[61]


In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. As with other first world nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.[62] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important.

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[2] Atlantic Canada has vast offshore deposits of natural gas and large oil and gas resources are centred in Alberta. The vast Athabasca Tar Sands give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil behind Saudi Arabia.[63] In Quebec, British Columbia, Newfoundland & Labrador, New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba, hydroelectric power is a cheap and clean source of renewable energy.

Canada is one of the world's most important suppliers of agricultural products, with the Canadian Prairies one of the most important suppliers of wheat, canola and other grains.[64] Canada is the world's largest producer of zinc and uranium and a world leader in many other natural resources such as gold, nickel, aluminum, and lead;[65] many towns in the northern part of the country, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.

Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Canada-United States Automotive Agreement in 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. The Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while North American Free Trade Agreement expanded the free trade zone to include Mexico in the 1990s . Canadian nationalists continue to worry about their cultural autonomy as American television shows, movies and corporations are omnipresent.[66]

Since 2001, Canada has successfully avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the G8.[67] Since the mid-1990s, Canada's federal government has posted annual budgetary surpluses and has steadily paid down the national debt.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Canada, List of cities in Canada, List of Canadians by ethnicity, and Immigration to Canada

Template:Infobox largest cities Canada's 2006 census counted a total population of 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4% since 2001.[68] Population growth is from immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About three-quarters of Canada's population live within 150 kilometres (90 mi) of the US border.[69] A similar proportion live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor (notably the Greater Golden Horseshoe including Toronto and area, Montreal, and Ottawa), the BC Lower Mainland (consisting of the region surrounding Vancouver), and the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[70]

According to the 2006 census, there are 43 ethnic origins that at least one hundred thousand people in Canada claim in their background.[71] The largest ethnic group is English (21%), followed by French (15.8%), Scottish (15.2%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (5%), Chinese (4%), Ukrainian (3.6%), and First Nations (3.5%); Approximately, one third of respondents identified their ethnicity as "Canadian.[72] Canada's aboriginal population is growing almost twice as fast as the Canadian average. In 2006, 16.2% of the population belonged to non-aboriginal visible minorities.

According to Statistics Canada's forecasts, the number of visible minorities in Canada is expected to double by 2017. A survey released in 2007 reveals that virtually 1 in 5 Canadians (19.8%) are foreign born.[73] Nearly 60% of new immigrants hail from Asia (including the Middle East).[73]

Canada has the highest per capita immigration rate in the world,[74] driven by economic policy and family reunification; Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees. Newcomers settle mostly in the major urban areas of Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal. In the 2006 census, there were 5,068,100 people considered to belong to a visible minority, making up 16.2% of the population. Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 %.[75][76]

Support for religious pluralism is an important part of Canada's political culture. According to the 2001 census,[77] 77.1% of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians). The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada. About 16.5% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3% are affiliated with religions other than Christianity, of which the largest is Islam numbering 1.9%, followed by Judaism at 1.1%.

Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. Each system is similar, while reflecting regional history, culture and geography.[78] The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[78] contributing to an adult literacy rate that is 99%.[2] Postsecondary education is also administered by provincial and territorial governments, who provide most of the funding; the federal government administers additional research grants, student loans and scholarships. In 2002, 43% of Canadians aged between 25 and 64 had post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34 the post-secondary education rate reaches 51%.[79]

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Canada, National symbols of Canada, and Sport in Canada
A Kwakwaka'wakw totem pole and traditional "big house" in Victoria, BC.

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by British, French, and Aboriginal cultures and traditions. It has also been influenced by American culture because of its proximity and migration between the two countries. American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the U.S. and worldwide.[80] Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market.

The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[81]

Canada is a geographically vast and ethnically diverse country. Canadian culture has also been greatly influenced by immigration from all over the world. Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canadian culture as being inherently multicultural.[21] Multicultural heritage is the basis of Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

National symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and First Nations sources. Particularly, the use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates back to the early 18th century and is depicted on its current and previous flags, the penny, and on the coat of arms.[82] Other prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, the Crown, the RCMP[82], and more recently the totem pole and inukchuk.

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey in the winter and lacrosse in the summer.[83] Ice hockey is a national pastime and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is the most popular sport Canadians play, with 1.65 million active participants in 2004.[84] Canada's six largest metropolitan areas – Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmonton – have franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the league than from all other countries combined. After hockey, other popular spectator sports include curling and football; the latter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL). Golf, baseball, skiing, soccer, volleyball, and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels,[84] but professional leagues and franchises are not as widespread.

Canada hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics, the 1988 Winter Olympics, and the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Canada will be the host country for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia.[85][86]

Language

Main articles: Language in Canada, Bilingualism in Canada, Canadian English, and Canadian French
The population of Montreal, Quebec is mainly French-speaking, with a significant English-speaking community.

Canada's two official languages are English and French. Official Bilingualism in Canada is law, defined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Official Languages Act, and Official Language Regulations; it is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[87]

English and French are the mother tongues of 59.7% and 23.2% of the population respectively,[88] and the languages most spoken at home by 68.3% and 22.3% of the population respectively.[89] 98.5% of Canadians speak English or French (67.5% speak English only, 13.3% speak French only, and 17.7% speak both).[90] English and French Official Language Communities, defined by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0% and 23.6% of the population respectively.[91]

Although 85% of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in Ontario, Alberta and southern Manitoba, with an Acadian population in the northern and southeastern parts of New Brunswick constituting 35% of that province's population, as well as concentrations in southwestern Nova Scotia and on Cape Breton Island. Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec. The Charter of the French Language in Quebec makes French the official language in Quebec, and New Brunswick is the only province to have a statement of official bilingualism in its constitution.[92] Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official. Several aboriginal languages have official status in Northwest Territories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory.

Non-official languages are important in Canada, with over five million people listing one as a first language.[88] Some significant non-official first languages include Chinese (853,745 first-language speakers), Italian (469,485), German (438,080), and Punjabi (271,220).[88]

International rankings

Organization Survey Ranking
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 4 out of 177
A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine Globalization Index 2006 6 out of 111
IMD International World Competitiveness Yearbook 2007 10 out of 60
The Economist The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005 14 out of 111
Yale University/Columbia University Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005 (pdf) 6 out of 146
Reporters Without Borders World-wide Press Freedom Index 2006 16 out of 168
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2005 14 out of 159
Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom, 2007 10 out of 161
The Economist Global Peace Index 8 out of 121
Fund for Peace/ForeignPolicy.com Failed States Index, 2007 168 out of 177[93]

See also

Main article: List of basic Canada topics

Notes

  1. ^ "Canada's population clock" (source code). Statistics Canada. 2007-12-04. Retrieved 2007-12-21. StartPop = 32976026; EndPop = 33305836; StartDate = new Date(2007, 6, 1); EndDate = new Date(2008, 6, 1) {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |note= ignored (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Central Intelligence Agency (2006-05-16). "The World Factbook: Canada". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2007-05-06. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ IMF (2008 Data base)
  4. ^ "Territorial evolution" (html/pdf). Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2007-10-09. In 1867, the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are united in a federal state, the Dominion of Canada....
  5. ^ "Canada: History" (html/pdf). Country Profiles. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved 2007-10-09. The British North America Act of 1867 brought together four British colonies ... in one federal Dominion under the name of Canada.
  6. ^ Hillmer, Norman. "Commonwealth" (html). Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Project. Retrieved 2007-10-09. With CONFEDERATION in 1867, Canada became the first federation in the British Empire ... {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Trigger, Bruce G. (1978). "Saint-Lawrence Iroquoians". Handbook of North American Indians Volume 15. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. pp. pp. 357–361. OCLC 58762737. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Jacques Cartier (1545). "Relation originale de Jacques Cartier". Tross (1863 edition). Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  9. ^ J. E. Hodgetts. 2004. "Dominion". Oxford Companion to Canadian History, Gerald Hallowell, ed. (ISBN 0195415590) Toronto: Oxford University Press; p. 183: "The title conferred on Canada by the preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867, whereby the provinces declare 'their desire to be federally united into one Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom'."
  10. ^ Cinq-Mars, J. (2001). "On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia" (PDF). The World of Elephants – International Congress, Rome. Retrieved 2006-05-14.
  11. ^ Wright, J.V (2001-09-27). "A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ "John Cabot =". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica.
  13. ^ "Cartier, Jacques". World book Encyclopedia. World Book, Inc. ISBN 071660101X. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  14. ^ "Basques". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica. 2007.
  15. ^ "Wars on Our Soil, earliest times to 1885". Retrieved 2006-08-21.
  16. ^ Moore, Christopher (1994). The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-6093-9.
  17. ^ David Mills. "Durham Report". Historica Foundation of Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-18.
  18. ^ Farthing, John (1957). Freedom Wears a Crown. Toronto: Kingswood House. ASIN B0007JC4G2.
  19. ^ a b Stacey, C.P. (1948). History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. Queen's Printer.
  20. ^ Harold Troper (2000-03). "History of Immigration to Toronto Since the Second World War: From Toronto 'the Good' to Toronto 'the World in a City'". Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Retrieved 2006-05-19. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ a b Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds). (2004). Canadian Politics (4th edition ed.). Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-595-6. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Bélanger, Claude (2000-08-03). "Quiet Revolution". Quebec History. Marionopolis College, Montreal. Retrieved 2008. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  23. ^ a b Dickinson, John Alexander (2003). A Short History of Quebec (3rd edition ed.). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2450-9. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Heritage Canada (2005-04-21). "The Queen and Canada: 53 Years of Growing Together". Heritage Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ Governor General of Canada (2005-12-06). "Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General". Governor General of Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ a b "Canada's System of Justice: The Canadian Constitution". Department of Justice Canada. The executive power in Canada is vested in the Queen. In our democratic society, this is only a constitutional convention, as the real executive power rests with the Cabinet.
    "Constitution Act 1867; III.9". Queen's Printer for Canada. The Executive Government and Authority of and over Canada is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen.
    "By Executive Decree: The Governor General". Library and Archives Canada. The governor general holds formal executive power within the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, and signs orders-in-council.
  27. ^ a b "Responsible Government: Clarifying Essentials, Dispelling Myths and Exploring Change". Canada School of Public Service. Under the constitutional convention of responsible government, the powers of the Crown are exercised by Ministers, both individually and collectively.
  28. ^ Ray T. Donahue. "Diplomatic Discourse: International Conflict at the United Nations". Greenwood Publishing Group. As Head of State ... Elizabeth II has no political power, only symbolic power
    David Stewart. "Introduction: Principles of the Westminster Model of Parliamentary Democracy". Module on Parliamentary Democracy. Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, Athabasca University. the Crown now serves as the ceremonial executive
    "By Executive Decree:". Library and Archives Canada. As Canada is a constitutional monarchy, the symbolic head of the executive is the governor general.
  29. ^ McWhinney, Edward (2005). The Governor General and the Prime Ministers. Vancouver: Ronsdale Press. p. 25. ISBN 1-55380-031-1.
    "By Executive Decree: The Cabinet". Library and Archives Canada. The Cabinet as selected and directed by the prime minister constitutes the active seat of executive power in Canada.
    Joseph Magnet. "Separation of Powers in Canada". Constitutional Law of Canada. University of Ottawa Faculty of Law. ... democratic principles dictate that the bulk of the Governor General's powers be exercised in accordance with the wishes of the leadership of that government, namely the Cabinet. So the true executive power lies in the Cabinet.
    "By Executive Decree: The Cabinet". Library and Archives Canada. The Cabinet as selected and directed by the prime minister constitutes the active seat of executive power in Canada.
    W.A. Matheson. "Prime Minister". The Canadian Encyclopedia. The prime minister is the chief minister and effective head of the executive in a parliamentary system ...
    "The Prime Minister". By Executive Decree. National Archives of Canada. While the modern governor general has only a nominal influence on the operation of the Canadian government, the prime minister's influence is decisive.
  30. ^ "Canadian Cofederation: Responsible Government". Library and Archives Canada. The Executive Council would be governed by the leader of the political party that held an elected majority in the Legislative Assembly. That same leader would also appoint the members of the Executive Council. The governor would therefore be forced to accept these "ministers", and if the majority of the members of the Legislative Assembly voted against them, they would have to resign. The governor would also be obliged to ratify laws concerning the internal affairs of the colony once these laws had been passed to the Legislative Assembly.
    "The Canadian Encyclopedia: Responsible Government". Historica Foundation of Canada. This key principle of responsibility, whereby a government needed the confidence of Parliament, originated in established British practice. But its transfer to British N America gave the colonists control of their domestic affairs, since a governor would simply follow the advice (ie, policies) of responsible colonial ministers.
    "Responsible Government and Checks and Balances: The Crown". Responsible government means that the Crown no longer has the prerogative to select or remove Ministers. They are selected and removed by the first Minister — the Prime Minister.
  31. ^ "Responsible Government and Checks and Balances: The Crown". Responsible Government: Clarifying Essentials, Dispelling Myths and Exploring Change. Canada School of Public Service. Ministers are thereby accountable to the Prime Minister who, in the Canadian tradition, has the sole power to appoint and dismiss them.
  32. ^ Forsey, Eugene. "How Canadians Govern Themselves: Parliamentary Government (pg. 2)". Queen's Printer for Canada. In very exceptional circumstances, the Governor General could refuse a request for a fresh election.
    Forsey, Eugene. "How Canadians Govern Themselves: The Institutions of Our Federal Government (pg. 2)". Queen's Printer for Canada. But they almost invariably must act on their Ministers' advice, though there may be very rare occasions when they must, or may, act without advice or even against the advice of the Ministers in office.
    Forsey, Eugene. "How Canadians Govern Themselves: Canadian and American Government (pg. 2)". Queen's Printer for Canada. Yes: in Canada, the head of state can, in exceptional circumstances, protect Parliament and the people against a Prime Minister and Ministers who may forget that "minister" means "servant," and may try to make themselves masters. For example, the head of state could refuse to let a Cabinet dissolve a newly elected House of Commons before it could even meet, or could refuse to let Ministers bludgeon the people into submission by a continuous series of general elections.
    Zolf, Larry (2002-06-28). "CBC News: Boxing in a Prime Minister". CBC News. The Governor General must take all steps necessary to thwart the will of a ruthless prime minister prematurely calling for the death of a Parliament.
    "By Executive Decree: The Governor General". Library and Archives Canada. In exceptional circumstances, the governor general may appoint or dismiss a prime minister.
    "Governor General of Canada: Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General". Office of the Governor General of Canada. One of the governor general's most important responsibilities is to ensure that Canada always has a prime minister and a government in place. In the case of the death of a prime minister, it is the governor general's responsibility to ensure the continuity of government.
    McWhinney, Edward (2005). The Governor General and the Prime Ministers. Vancouver: Ronsdale Press. pp. 16–17, 34. ISBN 1-55380-031-1.
  33. ^ "Constitution Act, 1867; IV". Queen's Printer for Canada. There shall be One Parliament for Canada, consisting of the Queen, an Upper House styled the Senate, and the House of Commons.
  34. ^ "Parliament of Canada: About the Governor General of Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. Parliament is the legislative branch of Government, composed of the Sovereign (represented by the Governor General), the Senate and the House of Commons.
  35. ^ "The Constitution Act, 1982". Department of Justice Canada. "52.(1) The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of Canada, and any law that is inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution is, to the extent of the inconsistency, of no force or effect.
  36. ^ Department of Justice. "Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982". Department of Justice, Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14.
  37. ^ "The Constitution Act, 1982". Department of Justice Canada. "38.(1)
  38. ^ Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs). "The National Defence family". Department of National Defence. Retrieved 2006-05-14.
  39. ^ Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs). "Canadian Forces Equipment". Department of National Defence. Retrieved 2006-05-14.
  40. ^ Government of Canada (2005). Canada's international policy statement : a role of pride and influence in the world (PDF). Ottawa: Government of Canada. ISBN 0-662-68608-X.
  41. ^ Cooper, Andrew Fenton (1993). Relocating Middle Powers: Australia and Canada in a Changing World Order. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 0-7748-0450-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2006). "Lester B. Pearson". CBC.ca. Retrieved 2006-05-22.
  43. ^ Morton, Desmond (1999). A Military History of Canada. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. pp. pg. 258. ISBN 0-7710-6514-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  44. ^ "Rich Nations Launch Vaccine Pact". Reuters. February 10, 2007.
  45. ^ Blomfield, Adrian (2007-08-03). "Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt". Telegraph. Retrieved 2007-09-10.
  46. ^ World Factbook: Area Country Comparison Table
  47. ^ National Resources Canada (2004-04-06). "Territorial Evolution, 1927". National Resources Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  48. ^ National Defence Canada (2006-08-15). "Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert". National Defence Canada. Retrieved 2006-10-03.
  49. ^ Natural Resources Canada (2006-12-19). "CoastWeb: Facts about Canada's coastline". Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 2007-07-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); line feed character in |title= at position 10 (help)
  50. ^ WorldAtlas.com (2006-02). "Countries of the World (by lowest population density)". WorldAtlas.com. Retrieved 2006-05-16. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  51. ^ railwaypeople.com (2006). "Quebec–Windsor Corridor Jet Train, Canada". railwaypeople.com. Retrieved 2006-10-03.
  52. ^ The Atlas of Canada (2004-04-02). "Drainage patterns". National Resources Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  53. ^ Encarta (2006). "Canada". Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved 2006-06-12.
  54. ^ The Weather Network. "Statistics, Regina SK". The Weather Network. Retrieved 2006-05-18.
  55. ^ The Weather Network. "Statistics: Vancouver Int'l, BC". The Weather Network. Retrieved 2006-05-18.
  56. ^ The Weather Network. "Statistics: Toronto Pearson Int'l". The Weather Network. Retrieved 2006-05-18.
  57. ^ Environment Canada (2004-02-25). "Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971–2000". Environment Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  58. ^ "PBS, commanding heigths, map of the world's economic systems". Retrieved 2008-01-31.
  59. ^ The Heritage Foundation (2006). "Index of Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 2006-10-03.
  60. ^ Statistics Canada (2006-08-04). "Latest release from Labour Force Survey". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2006-08-04. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  61. ^ forbes (2008-04-02). "Latest release". forbes. Retrieved 2006-07-01. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  62. ^ "Employment by Industry". Statistics Canada. 2007-01-04.
  63. ^ Clarke, Tony; Campbell, Bruce; Laxer, Gordon (2006-03-10). "US oil addiction could make us sick". Parkland Institute. Retrieved 2006-05-18. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  64. ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia (2006). "Agriculture and Food: Export markets". Historical Foundation of Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-18.
  65. ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia (2006). "Canadian Mining". Historica Foundation of Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-18.
  66. ^ Granatstein, J.L. (1997). Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism. Toronto: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-638541-9.
  67. ^ Chretien, Jean (2003-12-04). "Notes for an Address by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien on the Occasion of the Commonwealth Business Forum". Privy Council Office, Government of Canada. Retrieved 2006-08-07.
  68. ^ Beauchesne, Eric (2007-03-13). "We are 31,612,897". National Post. Retrieved 2007-03-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  69. ^ Hillmer, Norman (2005-01-25). "Canada World View – Issue 24". Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. Retrieved 2006-10-03.
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  71. ^ Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlight Tables, 2006 Census
  72. ^ "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlight Tables, 2006 Census". Retrieved 2008-06-30.
  73. ^ a b The Daily, Tuesday, December 4, 2007. 2006 Census: Immigration, citizenship, language, mobility and migration
  74. ^ Benjamin Dolin and Margaret Young, Law and Government Division (2004-10-31). "Canada's Immigration Program". Library of Parliament. Retrieved 2006-11-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  75. ^ Visible minorities pass 5-million mark for first time
  76. ^ 2006 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities, place of work and mode of transportation
  77. ^ Statistics Canada (2005-01-25). "Population by religion, by provinces, and territories". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  78. ^ a b Council of Ministers of Canada. "General Overview of Education in Canada". Education@Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-22.
  79. ^ Department of Finance (2005-11-14). "Creating Opportunities for All Canadians". Department of Finance Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  80. ^ Blackwell, John D. (2005). "Culture High and Low". International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service. Retrieved 2006-03-15.
  81. ^ National Film Board of Canada (2005). "Mandate of the National Film Board". Retrieved 2006-03-15.
  82. ^ a b Canadian Heritage (2002). Symbols of Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Government Publishing. ISBN 0-660-18615-2.
  83. ^ "National Sports of Canada Act (1994)". Consolidated Statutes and Regulations. Department of Justice. Retrieved 2006-07-20.
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  85. ^ The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games (2006). "Vancouver 2010". www.vancouver2010.com. Retrieved 2006-10-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  86. ^ Canadian Soccer Association (2006). "FIFA U-20 World Cup Canada 2007". canadasoccer.com. Retrieved 2006-10-01.
  87. ^ "Federal Legislation on Official Languages". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. 2003-09-01.
  88. ^ a b c Statistics Canada (2005-01-27). "Population by mother tongue, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  89. ^ "First Official Language Spoken (7) and Sex (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas 1 , 2001 Census – 20% Sample Data". Statistics Canada, 2001 Census of Population. Retrieved 2007-03-23.
  90. ^ Statistics Canada (2005-01-27). "Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  91. ^ Statistics Canada (2005-01-27). "Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. Retrieved 2006-05-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  92. ^ "Canadian Heritage". Canadian Heritage.
  93. ^ larger number indicates sustainability

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