Mac (computer)

This article is about the family of personal computers. For other uses, see Mac.

"Macintosh" redirects here. For the original Macintosh, see Macintosh 128K. For other uses, see McIntosh (disambiguation).

The MacBook Air, Apple's best-selling Mac model

The Mac (called Macintosh until 1999) is a family of personal computers designed and marketed by Apple Inc.. Macs are known for their general ease of use and distinctive aluminium, minimalist designs. Macs are notable for their popularity among students, creative professionals, and software engineers. The current Mac lineup consists of the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro laptops, and the iMac, Mac mini, Mac Studio and Mac Pro desktop computers. Macs run the macOS operating system.

The first Mac was released in 1984 under the name Macintosh, and was advertised with Apple's now-famous 1984 ad. The Mac has undergone four major transitions: from Motorola 68000 to PowerPC processors, from Classic Mac OS to Mac OS X, from PowerPC to Intel x86 processors, and from Intel to Apple silicon processors. Since 2020, Macs share the same ARM-based Apple silicon architecture as iOS devices; the performance and power efficiency of Macs with Apple silicon chips have been universally praised by critics.

History

See also: History of Apple Inc.

1979–1997: First Macintosh and first post-Jobs era

Main article: History of the Macintosh

Steve Jobs with the original Macintosh, January 1984

The Macintosh name was conceived in 1979, when computer scientist and Apple employee Jef Raskin envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer, and wanted to name the computer after his favorite type of apple, the McIntosh (/ˈmækɪnˌtɒʃ/ MAK-in-tosh). The Macintosh initially started as a skunkworks team, with Raskin, hardware engineer Burrell Smith, and Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak working on the design and internals. Wozniak's early business partner and fellow Apple co-founder Steve Jobs was removed from the Apple Lisa team by Apple CEO John Sculley, and decided to take over the Macintosh team in 1981 after Wozniak went on temporary leave from the company due to a traumatic airplane crash. In 1983, Apple licensed the rights to the Macintosh name from audio equipment manufacturer McIntosh Laboratory, and in 1986, bought the trademark outright.

The first Macintosh, unveiled in 1984, was the first successful personal computer with a user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI). Jobs partially took the inspiration for the GUI from Xerox PARC, an R&D institute that had partnered with Apple. The Macintosh was pivotal in starting the desktop publishing revolution, in large part to the Aldus PageMaker publishing software, and Apple's LaserWriter laser printer. It had an all-in-one computer design, and was described as a "revolution" by the New York Times.

Through the 1980s, the Macintosh became dominant among creative professionals and in schools. Apple continued to release new models, including the PowerBook notebook lineup, which were the first portable computers to incorporate a keyboard behind a palm rest and a built-in pointing device (a trackball) in front of the keyboard. The second generation of PowerBooks were the first laptops in the world to have a trackpad, built-in Ethernet, and stereo speakers. System 7 introduced virtual memory and cooperative multitasking in 1991. On the hardware side, Apple discontinued the use of Frog Design's Snow White design language, and brought product design in-house under the Apple Industrial Design Group.

After 1992, Apple pursued a more aggressive business strategy, "[flooding] the market" with Mac models targeting every niche, and started a Macintosh clone program, which allowed other manufacturers to make computers that ran System 7 in order to compete with Windows. In 1994, Apple's market share fell to 8.5% compared to market leader Compaq's 10.3%. That same year, Apple abandoned Motorola CPUs in favor of the RISC PowerPC architecture developed by the AIM alliance of Apple, IBM, and Motorola. The Power Macintosh line, the first to use the new chips, proved to be highly successful, with over a million PowerPC units sold in nine months. However, Macintosh clones were cannibalizing the sales of Apple's higher-margin Macintoshes. Even after the transition to the superior PowerPC architecture in the mid-1990s, the lower prices of Wintel PCs, poor inventory management, and the release of Windows 95, contributed to a sustained decline in Macintosh sales.

1998–2005: Return of Jobs and revival

For years, Apple had "desperately" tried to develop a successor to the aging Mac OS operating system, which lacked proper multitasking and memory protection, and was prone to crashes. Apple decided to acquire another company to form the foundation of their next OS, and settled on acquiring NeXT in 1997. NeXT had been founded by Steve Jobs following his departure from Apple in 1985, and had developed the Unix-based NeXTSTEP operating system. Though Jobs initially returned under an advisory role, he was appointed Apple interim CEO on September 16, 1997, and eventually appointed as permanent CEO in January 2000. To turn the company around, Jobs improved Apple's operations, including inventory turnover, and closed the Advanced Technology Group, which previously developed QuickTime, QuickDraw 3D, and OpenDoc. Jobs also simplified the complex Macintosh product line "to make four great products": the consumer-oriented iBook (released in 1999) and iMac, and the high-performance PowerBook and Power Mac. All were successful due to their high performance, competitive prices, and appealing designs, and helped return Apple to profitability. Apple also stopped licensing Mac OS to Macintosh clone manufacturers, and changed the lineup's name from Macintosh to Mac.

iMac G3 marketing heavily emphasized its design and Internet capabilities.

The iMac G3 all-in-one computer was introduced in 1998. Its translucent and colorful plastic case is considered an industrial design landmark of the late 1990s, and is credited to Apple design chief Jony Ive. It was first available in Bondi Blue; the second revision came in Blueberry, Grape, Tangerine, Lime, and Strawberry colors. The iMac's colorful appeal, ease-of-use, and Internet capabilities were central to its marketing, leading the Associated Press to call it "futuristic" and "eye-catching". In pursuit of abandoning legacy technologies, the iMac removed the floppy disk drive, SCSI port, and proprietary ADB port, in favor of a CD-ROM drive and two USB ports. The iMac was a critical and commercial success, with Apple selling 800,000 units in 139 days, resulting in an annual profit of US$309 million in 1998, Apple's first profitable year since 1995. However, the iMac's bundled "hockey puck" mouse was universally panned for being awkward to hold, imprecise to use, and lacking a right-click button.

The iMac's colorful aesthetic was later applied to the new Power Mac G3 "Blue and White" and the iBook in 1999, which completed Apple's four-product computer lineup. The iBook was the first notebook to support Wi-Fi, and was marketed as an "iMac to Go". It received more than 140,000 preorders before it began shipping in September 1999, and was best selling portable computer in the U.S. during the fourth quarter of 1999. In 2000, Apple released the Power Mac G4 Cube, which received acclaim for its innovative design. However, the machine was expensive and non-expandable, and its translucent case was prone to developing cracks. It was discontinued a year later

Following Apple users' and developers' increasing discontent from Mac OS's technical rot, and missing features like preemptive multitasking and protected memory, in 2000, Apple released a public beta of the Unix-based successor to Classic Mac OS, Mac OS X. Mac OS X uses Darwin, XNU, and Mach as foundations, and is based on NeXTSTEP and FreeBSD. A Mac OS X Public Beta was released in September 2000, featuring a revamped user interface called Aqua. The initial version of Mac OS X, version 10.0 "Cheetah", was released on March 24, 2001. Older Mac OS applications could still run in early Mac OS X versions under a compatibility environment called Classic. Subsequent releases of Mac OS X included 10.1 "Puma" (2001), 10.2 "Jaguar" (2002), 10.3 "Panther" (2003) and 10.4 "Tiger" (2005).

At Macworld 2001, Steve Jobs unveiled a new "digital hub" strategy, describing the Mac as the centerpiece for the user's digital life. Over the following years, this effort culminated into the iLife software suite, which included iTunes, iMovie, GarageBand, iDVD, and iWeb, allowing consumers to easily listen to music, edit videos, create songs, burn homemade films to DVDs, and create websites respectively. iTunes's "Rip, Mix, Burn" ad campaign was criticized by some, who claimed it encouraged media piracy. iTunes was later expanded with the launch of the iTunes Music Store in 2003, which later became the largest music vendor in the world by 2010, assisted by the popularity of Apple's iPod line of portable music players.

Apple continued to launch more Mac models, such as the education-oriented eMac, the metal-clad PowerBook G4, and the Power Mac G5. The iMac G3 was later succeeded by the flat-panel iMac G4, and the iMac G5, both of which dropped the array of translucent colors in favor of white polycarbonate designs. On January 11, 2005, Apple introduced the Mac Mini, a affordably-priced standalone desktop computer aimed to attract desktop users on Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems to Mac.

2005–2011: Transition to Intel processors and unibody redesigns

At Apple's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) 2005, Steve Jobs announced that all Macs would switch from PowerPC to Intel processors, revealing that Mac OS X had been internally developed to run on both the Intel and PowerPC architectures since 2001. The transition aimed to make the company's Macs more power-efficient and competitive with Wintel PCs. The PowerPC G5 chip's heavy power consumption and heat output — which even required liquid cooling in the Power Mac — prevented its use in smaller form-factor Macs such as the PowerBook and Mac Mini, which remained on the previous-generation PowerPC G4 chip. The transition allowed Apple to add more powerful multi-core processors and increased battery life on its notebooks. The Rosetta translation layer enabled users to continue running PowerPC-based apps on Intel Macs, until its removal in Mac OS X Lion.

As part of the transition, the PowerBook line was renamed to MacBook Pro, the iBook line was renamed to MacBook, and the Power Mac line was renamed to Mac Pro. The MacBook and MacBook Pro additionally gained built-in iSight webcams, as well as the magnetic MagSafe charging port. The Intel transition led to a continuous increase in the Mac's market share. Intel chips also allowed users to run Microsoft Windows natively on Mac hardware; Apple released a public beta of Boot Camp in April 2006, a utility that allowed users to install Windows XP on their Mac. Later versions added support for Windows Vista and Windows 7.

Steve Jobs introducing the first-generation MacBook Air at Macworld 2008

The MacBook Air was introduced at Macworld 2008, and was touted as the "world's thinnest notebook" at launch. As a result of its ultra-light form factor, the first-generation MacBook Air's specifications were compromised compared to other MacBooks, featuring a slower low-power Core 2 Duo chip, no user-replacable battery, fewer ports, slower hard drive, and no optical drive. Despite these shortcomings, the first-generation MacBook Air launched at a steep price of US$1,799, and did not garner significant popularity until later revisions introduced better performance and lower prices.

In October 2008, the second-generation MacBook Pro switched to a more recyclable "unibody" aluminum and glass enclosure, and eliminated several toxic chemicals, representing an early step in Apple's ongoing push for environmental friendliness. Design chief Jony Ive guided products towards a minimalist and simple feel, including the elimination of replaceable batteries in notebooks.

Following the release of the iPhone, Apple began a multi-year effort to bring many iPhone innovations "back to the Mac", including multi-touch gesture support, instant wake from sleep, and flash storage. Multi-touch technology was integrated into all Apple pointing devices for the Mac, namely MacBook trackpads, the Magic Mouse, and the Magic Trackpad.

On February 24, 2011, Apple became the first company to release a computer that supported Intel's new Thunderbolt connector. Using the same physical interface as a Mini DisplayPort, and backwards compatible with that standard, Thunderbolt 1 boasted two-way transfer speeds of 10 Gbit/s.

2012–2016: Early Tim Cook era

The 2013 Mac Pro, which was widely criticized by pro users

Following a period of ailing health, Jobs resigned as CEO on August 24, 2011, and Tim Cook was named the new CEO of Apple. At WWDC 2012, the MacBook Pro with Retina display was announced, with a thinner body, faster CPUs and GPUs, a higher-resolution Retina display similar to the iPhone's, the MagSafe 2 charging port, and quieter impeller fans on the 15" model. It received mostly positive reviews, with Nilay Patel of The Verge calling it "one of the best displays to ever ship on a laptop". In November 2012, the iMac was redesigned to feature significantly thinner side edges, faster processors, and the removal of the SuperDrive.

On WWDC 2013, the new Mac Pro was unveiled, with Phil Schiller exclaiming "Can't innovate anymore, my ass!" in response to critics stating that Apple could not innovate without Jobs. It had an entirely new miniaturized design, with a glossy dark gray cylindrical body, and its internal components organized around a central cooling system. Tech reviewers praised the 2013 Mac Pro, noting its power and "futuristic" design; however, the product was poorly received by pro users, who criticized its lack of upgradability and the removal of expansion slots.

The iMac was refreshed with a 5K Retina display in 2014, making it the highest-resolution all-in-one desktop computer at release. The MacBook was re-introduced in 2015, with a completely redesigned aluminum unibody chassis, a 12" Retina display, fanless low-power Intel Core M processor, a much smaller logic board, a new Butterfly keyboard, a single USB-C port, and a solid-state Force Touch trackpad with pressure sensitivity. It was praised for its portability, but criticized for its lack of performance, the need to use adapters to use most USB peripherals, and a high starting price of US$1,299.

In 2015, Apple began a service program to resolve a widespread GPU defect in the 2011 MacBook Pro 15", which could lead to unexpected graphical artifacts, or prevent the machine from working entirely. That same year, a new MacBook Pro introduced to incorporate the same Force Touch trackpad as the MacBook.

2016–2019: Neglect of pro users and reliability issues

The 2016 15-inch MacBook Pro with Touch Bar. These generations of MacBooks had keyboards that were widely seen as unreliable.

The fourth generation MacBook Pro was released at an Apple Special Event in October 2016, with a thinner design, the replacement of all ports with four Thunderbolt 3 (USB-C) ports, the addition of the "Butterfly" keyboard, a P3 wide color gamut display, and the replacement of function keys with an OLED Touch Bar. It was released to mixed reviews, with most reviewers criticizing the Touch Bar, which made it harder to use the function keys by feel, as it had no tactile feedback. The Thunderbolt 3 ports and need to buy "dongles" were also a source of frustration for many users, especially pro users who rely on USB-A devices and SD cards. A few months later, many users reported a problem with stuck keys and letters being skipped or repeated. Electronics repair organization iFixit identified the cause as being dust or food crumbs getting under keys and jamming them. Due to the Butterfly keyboard being riveted into the laptop's case, it could only be serviced at an Apple Store or authorized service center.

After years had gone by without the Mac Pro getting any meaningful updates, in a rare omission of guilt, Apple executives admitted in 2017 that the 2013 Mac Pro did not meet expectations, and that they had designed themselves into a "thermal corner", preventing them from releasing a planned dual-GPU successor. The yearslong keyboard issue on MacBook Pros, Apple's abandonment of the Aperture pro photography app, and the lack of Mac Pro upgrades led declining sales, and a widespread belief that Apple was no longer commited to pro users. Apple also unveiled their future pro product roadmap, sharing plans of a future iMac Pro as a stopgap, and revealing an expansible next-generation Mac Pro. The iMac Pro was formally revealed at WWDC 2017, with updated Intel Xeon W processors and Radeon Pro Vega graphics.

In 2018, Apple unveiled the newly-redesigned MacBook Air, adding a Retina display, Butterfly keyboard, Force Touch trackpad, and Thunderbolt 3 USB-C ports. The third-generation Butterfly keyboard was added to the MacBook Pro and MacBook Air, adding silicone gaskets in the key mechanism to alleviate key jamming issues from trapped dust and small objects, but many users continued to experience reliability issues. In response, Apple launched a program to repair affected Butterfly keyboards free of charge. Higher-end models of the 2018 MacBook Pro 15" introduced another flaw where the Core i9 processor would reach unusually high temperatures, resulting in lower-than-expected CPU performance from rapid thermal throttling. Apple issued a patch in response via a macOS supplemental update, citing a "missing digital key" in the thermal management firmware.

The 2019 and 2020 revisions of the MacBook Pro and MacBook Air replaced the unreliable Butterfly keyboard with a redesigned scissor-switch Magic Keyboard. On the Macbook Pros, the Touch Bar and Touch ID were also made standard, and the Esc key was detached from the Touch Bar and returned to being a physical key. At WWDC 2019, Apple unveiled a new Mac Pro, with a larger case design that allows for hardware expandability, as well as introducing a new expansion module system (MPX), for modules such as an optional Afterburner card for faster video encoding. Almost every part is user-replaceable, with iFixit praising its high user-repairability. It received positive reviews, with reviewers praising its power, modularity, quiet cooling, and inceased focus on pro workflows.

2020–present: Transition to Apple silicon processors

iMac with M1 chip, praised for its new design and fast performance

In April 2018, Bloomberg reported that Apple was planning to replace Intel chips with ARM processors similar to those used in its phones, causing Intel's shares to drop by 9.2%. The Verge, commenting on the rumors, stated that such a decision made sense, as Intel was failing to make significant improvements to its lineup, and could not compete with ARM chips on battery life.

At WWDC 2020, Tim Cook announced the transition to Apple silicon, built upon an ARM architecture, over a two-year timeline. Apple also unveiled a Developer Transition Kit (DTK) for developers to port their apps to ARM, and the Rosetta 2 translation layer enabling Intel apps to run on Apple silicon Macs. This represents the Mac's fourth major transition. On November 10, 2020, Apple announced their first system-on-a-chip designed for Macs, the Apple M1, and a series of Macs to ship with the M1: the MacBook Air, Mac Mini, and the 13" MacBook Pro. These new Macs received highly positive reviews, with reviewers highlighting significant improvements in battery life, performance, and heat management compared to previous generations.

The iMac Pro was quietly discontinued on March 6, 2021 after only receiving two minor updates. On April 20, 2021, a new 24" iMac M1 was revealed, featuring seven new colors, thinner white bezels, and an enclosure made entirely from recycled aluminum. On October 18, 2021, Apple announced new 14" and 16" MacBook Pros featuring a bezel-less mini-LED 120 Hz ProMotion display, MagSafe, HDMI, and SD card ports. They can be equipped with either an M1 Pro or M1 Max chip.

On March 8, 2022, the Mac Studio was revealed, featuring more powerful M1 Max or M1 Ultra chips, in a similar footprint to the Mac mini. It drew highly positive reviews for its flexibility and wide range of available ports. Its performance was deemed "impressive", beating the highest-end Mac Pro with a 28-core Intel Xeon chip, while being signficantly more power efficient and compact. It was introduced alongside the Studio Display, replacing the 27" iMac, which was discontinued on the same day. On June 6, 2022, at WWDC 2022, Apple announced an updated MacBook Air based on a new M2 chip. It incorporates several changes from the 14" MacBook Pro, such as a flat, slab-shaped design, full-sized function keys, MagSafe charging, and a Liquid Retina display, with rounded corners and a notch incorporating a 1080p webcam.

Current product line

See also: List of Mac models

Current Mac laptop and desktop computers

MacBook Air Entry-level lightweight laptop		MacBook Pro High-performance workstation laptop
In picture: M2, 13.6", 2022		In picture: M1 Pro or M1 Max, 14.2", 2021
iMac All-in-one desktop	Mac Mini Entry-level desktop	Mac Studio High-performance workstation desktop	Mac Pro High-performance customizable workstation desktop
In picture: M1, 24", 2021	In picture: M2 or M2 Pro, 2023	In picture: M1 Max or M1 Ultra, 2022	In picture: Intel Xeon W, 2019

Mac models currently in production

Release date	Model	Processor
October 30, 2018	Mac Mini (2018)	8th gen Intel Core i5 or Core i7
December 10, 2019	Mac Pro (2019)	Intel Xeon W
November 10, 2020	Mac Mini (M1, 2020)	Apple M1
	MacBook Air (M1, 2020)
April 30, 2021	iMac (24-inch, M1, 2021)
October 18, 2021	MacBook Pro (14-inch, 2021)	Apple M1 Pro or M1 Max
	MacBook Pro (16-inch, 2021)
March 18, 2022	Mac Studio	Apple M1 Max or M1 Ultra
June 24, 2022	MacBook Pro (13-inch, M2, 2022)	Apple M2
July 15, 2022	MacBook Air (M2, 2022)

Timeline

Timeline of Mac model families
See also: Timeline of the Apple II series, List of Mac models, and Timeline of Apple Inc. products

Source: Glen Sanford, Apple History, apple-history.com

Marketing

A key frame from the "1984" ad

The original Macintosh was marketed at Super Bowl XVIII with the now-famous "1984" ad made by Ridley Scott, who had previously directed Blade Runner. The ad alludes to George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, and symbolizes Apple's desire to "rescue" humanity from the conformity of computer industry giant IBM. The ad was later considered a "watershed event" and a "masterpiece." Before the Macintosh, high-tech marketing catered to industry insiders rather than consumers, and as a result, journalists covered technology like the "steel or automobiles", with articles written for a highly technical audience. The Macintosh launch event "pioneered" event marketing techniques that have become "widely emulated" in Silicon Valley, by creating a mystique about the product and giving an inside look into a product's creation. Apple also took a new "multiple exclusives" approach regarding the press, giving "over one hundred interviews to journalists that lasted over six hours apiece," and introduced a new "Test Drive a Macintosh" campaign.

Apple's brand, which established a "heartfelt connection with consumers", is cited as one of the keys to the Mac's success. After Steve Jobs's return to the company, he unveiled the "Think different" ad claiming the legacy of pioneers like Albert Einstein, Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., with Steve Jobs saying: "if they ever used a computer, it would have been a Mac." The "Think different" campaign was critically acclaimed and garnered several awards, including the 1998 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Commercial. Other successful Mac marketing campaigns in the 2000s include "Switch" and "Get a Mac".

Apple's design ethos holds a central role in Mac product marketing. By giving Macs iconic designs, Apple gives a "human face" to technology products. The design of Mac products is a major focus of media coverage; for example, the original iMac (1998) was called "futuristic" and "eye-catching" by the Associated Press, and its ease of use was central to its marketing. For a long time, Apple has secured very prominent product placements of Macs in high-profile movies and shows, like Mission: Impossible, Legally Blonde, and Sex and the City. Apple notably does not allow moviemakers to show villains using Apple products. Apple TV+ shows feature MacBooks prominently.

The Mac is known for its high brand loyalty. In 2022, the American Customer Satisfaction Index gave the Mac the highest customer satisfaction score, at 82/100. Apple is currently in the fourth largest personal computer vendor, with 8.9% market share.

Hardware

A 2019 Mac Pro being used for color grading

Apple contracts hardware production to Asian original equipment manufacturers such as Foxconn and Pegatron, maintaining a high degree of control over the end product. Apple is a highly vertically integrated company, making their own OS and designing their own chips.

All current Macs use ARM-based Apple silicon processors, with the exception of the Mac Pro, whose Apple Silicon version is still undergoing development. The MacBook Air, the MacBook Pro, the iMac, Mac Mini, and Mac Studio use the Apple-designed chips, which have been praised for their performance and power efficiency. These Apple silicon Macs can run Intel apps through the Rosetta 2 translation layer, as well as iOS and iPadOS apps distributed via the App Store. All current Mac models ship with high-speed Thunderbolt or USB 4 connectivity, with speeds up to 40Gb/s. All Macs with Apple Silicon utilize custom-designed integrated graphics. MacBooks are recharged with either USB-C or MagSafe connectors, depending on the model.

Apple offers many accessories for the Mac, including the Studio Display and Pro Display XDR external monitors, AirPods line of wireless headphones, and input peripherals such as the Magic Keyboard, as well as the multi-touch Magic Trackpad and Magic Mouse.

Software

Main article: macOS

Screenshot of macOS Ventura, the latest release of the macOS operating system.

Macs run the macOS operating system, whose first version was released in 2001. Within the market of desktop and laptop computers, it is the second most widely used desktop OS, after Microsoft Windows and ahead of ChromeOS. macOS is based on Darwin, and the XNU kernel. macOS features the Aqua user interface, which has been described as "highly intuitive". Macs integrate deeply with other Apple devices, including the iPhone and iPad, through Continuity features like Handoff, Sidecar, Universal Control, and Universal Clipboard.

There are many popular Mac apps; including cross-platform apps like Google Chrome, Microsoft Office, Adobe Creative Cloud, Mathematica, Visual Studio Code, Ableton Live, and Cinema 4D. Apple has also developed several apps for the Mac, including Final Cut Pro, Logic Pro, iWork, GarageBand, and iMovie. A large amount of open-source software applications, like Firefox, LibreOffice, GIMP, as well as command-line programs, are cross-platform, and thereby also run natively on macOS. Many applications written for Linux or BSD also run on macOS, often using X11. Apple's official integrated development environment (IDE) for macOS is Xcode.

The current version of macOS is macOS Ventura, released on October 24, 2022.

References

Bibliography

• Deutschman, Alan (2001). The Second Coming of Steve Jobs. Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-7679-0433-9.
• Hertzfeld, Andy (2004). Revolution in the Valley:The Insanely Great Story of How the MAC was made. O'Reilly Books. ISBN 0-596-00719-1.
• Isaacson, Walter (October 24, 2011). Steve Jobs. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-4853-9.
• Kunkel, Paul (1997). AppleDesign: The Work of the Apple Industrial Design Group. Graphis Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-888001-25-9.
• Linzmayer, Owen (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0. No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-010-0. OCLC 921280642.
• Mickle, Tripp (May 3, 2022). After Steve: How Apple Became a Trillion-Dollar Company and Lost Its Soul. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-300981-3.
• Schlender, Brent; Tetzeli, Rick (March 24, 2015). Becoming Steve Jobs: The Evolution of a Reckless Upstart into a Visionary Leader. Crown. ISBN 978-0-385-34741-9.
• Singh, Amit (June 19, 2006). Mac OS X Internals: A Systems Approach. Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 978-0-13-270226-3.

Further reading

• Adams, Noah (January 25, 1984). "The MacIntosh Computer Is a Calculated Risk". All Things Considered. NPR. Archived from the original on February 3, 2014. Retrieved January 30, 2014. This is an interview about the introduction of the Macintosh.
• Apple Inc.; Raskin, Jef (1992). Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines. Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 0-201-62216-5.
• "Press release Library". Apple. Archived from the original on April 14, 2001. Retrieved November 18, 2007.
• Herrick, Dennis (2012). Technological milestones of the electronic age. ISBN 978-0-8263-5163-0. Archived from the original on August 29, 2021. Retrieved March 11, 2014.
• Hertzfeld, Andy. "folklore.org: Macintosh stories". Archived from the original on April 24, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2006.
• Kahney, Leander (2004). The Cult of Mac. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-886411-83-2.
• Kawasaki, Guy (1989). The Macintosh Way. Scott Foresman Trade. ISBN 0-673-46175-0.
• Kelby, Scott (2002). Macintosh... The Naked Truth. New Riders Press. ISBN 0-7357-1284-0.
• Knight, Dan (2005). "1984: The First Macs". Archived from the original on February 28, 2016. Retrieved April 24, 2006.
• Levy, Steven (2000). Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-029177-6.
• Page, Ian (2007). "MacTracker Macintosh model database 4.3.1". Archived from the original on January 24, 2018. Retrieved November 30, 2007.
• Singh, Amit (2005). "A History of Apple's Operating Systems" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 5, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2006.

External links

• Official website