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Datura

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For other uses, see Datura (disambiguation).
For other plants with the name "Angel's trumpet", see Angel's trumpet.

Datura
Datura metel
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Asterids
Order:
Solanales
Family:
Solanaceae
Subfamily:
Solanoideae
Tribe:
Datureae
Genus:
Datura

Type species
Datura stramonium
L.
Species
See text below

Datura is a genus of nine species of poisonous vespertine flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. They are known as angel's trumpets, sometimes sharing that name with the closely related genus Brugmansia, and commonly as daturas. They are also sometimes called moonflowers, one of several plant species to be so. Its precise and natural distribution is uncertain, owing to its extensive cultivation and naturalization throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the globe. Its distribution within the Americas and North Africa, however, is most likely restricted to the United States and Mexico in North America, and Tunisia in Africa, where the highest species diversity occurs.

All species of Datura are poisonous, especially their seeds and flowers.

Some South American plants formerly thought of as Datura are now treated as belonging to the distinct genus Brugmansia[1] (Brugmansia differs from Datura in that it is woody, making shrubs or small trees, and it has pendulous flowers, rather than erect ones). Other related genera include Hyoscyamus and Atropa.

Etymology

The Neo-Latin name Datura is taken from Hindi धतूरा dhatūra 'jimson weed',[2] ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर dhattūra 'white thorn-apple'.[3]

Description

Datura species are herbaceous, leafy annuals and short-lived perennials which can reach up to 2 m in height. The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The flowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of Brugmansia), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colors vary from white to yellow, pink, and pale purple. The fruit is a spiny capsule 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous seeds. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields and even wasteland locations.

Datura belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along with deadly nightshade, henbane, and mandrake. Most parts of the plants are toxic, and datura has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of potions and witches' brews.[4]

The word datura comes from the sanskrit dhatūr ("thorn apple"); In Sanskrit it is referred as "Kanak" and "Unmatt" in the ancient scriptures of Indian Ayurveda by sage Sushrut and Charaka. Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.[5] Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in The Scarlet Letter as apple-Peru. In Mexico, its common name is toloache.

In India it has been referred and attributed to as "Poisonous" and aphrodisiac. In little measures it was used in Ayurveda as a medicine from the ancient times. It is used in rituals and prayers to Shiva.

The larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, including Hypercompe indecisa, eat some Datura species.

Species and cultivars

It is difficult to classify Datura as to its species, and it often happens that the descriptions of new species are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as D. wrightii and D. inoxia, are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example, Datura species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as a person, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle-high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves.[4]

Today, experts classify only nine species of Datura:[4]

American Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants as the official International Cultivar Registration Authority for Datura. This role was delegated to ABADS by the International Society for Horticultural Science in 2002.

Past classified species

Cultivation

Fruit
D. inoxia with ripe, split-open fruit

Datura species are usually planted annually from the seed produced in the spiny pods, but with care, plants can be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so organic enrichment such as compost and manure should be avoided.[4]

Toxicity

All Datura plants contain tropane alkaloids such as scopolamine, hyoscyamine, and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers. Because of the presence of these substances, Datura has been used for centuries in some cultures as a poison.[4][6] There can be a 5:1 toxin variation between plants, and a given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. This variation makes Datura exceptionally hazardous as a drug.

In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of Datura was critical to minimize harm.[4] Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting Datura. For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media contained stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting Datura.[7][8] There are also several reports in the medical literature of deaths from D. stramonium and D. ferox intoxication.[9][10][11] Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning, and their prognosis is likely to be death.[12][13]

Datura toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of honey produced by several wasp species, including Brachygastra lecheguana, during the Datura blooming season. It appears that these semi-domesticated honey wasps collect Datura nectar for honey production which can lead to poisoning.[14]

In some parts of Europe and India, Datura has been a popular poison for suicide and murder. From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in Agra, India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting Datura.[4][15]

The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested Datura used as an ingredient in stew.[16]

In some places, it is prohibited to buy, sell, or cultivate Datura plants.[4][15]

Effects of ingestion

The strongly mind-altering and bioactive Datura is used in ritual context as a sacred hallucinogen, and as medicine by many indigenous peoples in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, including the Aztec and Zuni (who both revere it as one of the Plants of The Gods), the Kunama (who use it in dance rituals) the Navajo and the Yokut.[17] (at least twelve different tribes in California alone.)[18] Datura is used for both spiritual and medicinal puposes with great care. It is a very powerful herb, due to the potent combination of mainly anticholinergic substances it contains. At all dosages there is a degree of hyperthermia, tachycardia, and mydriasis (dilated pupils). The resultant photophobia can last several days. Outwardly, there is often bizarre, and possibly violent behavior. Pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect.[19] Datura was used for purposes such as attaining visions, spiritual healing, contact with one's Guiding Spirit, divination, and for pleasure. Aztec also used Datura for its anti-inflammatory effects, particularly to reduce swelling and relieve rheumatism. The Yaqui used it as anaesthetic during childbirth. Zuni also used it as anaesthetic in medical procedures.[20] Datura was also used medically in India and China. Buddhism valued Datura highly, and it had a divine significance in Ancient Greek temples. [21]

Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs asserts: "No other substance has received as many '“Train Wreck” severely negative experience reports' as has Datura. The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of Datura find their experiences extremely unpleasant both mentally and often physically dangerous.[19]" However, the Navajo and especially the Havasupai frequently took Datura for the pleasure of the experience.[22] It is the large doses of Datura that cause the loss-of-awareness anticholinergic delirium and violent behaviour.[23] At moderate doses Datura may be aphrodisiac (however sleepiness may result instead).[24] Datura is a complex and powerful psychedelic. Getting the dose right is critical. If an overdose occurs, the Datura experience may be overly powerful and frightening. Some have a mystical experience described in terms of a 'rebirth'.[25][26] Many experience reports can be found in Erowid's "Datura Vault"..

Treatment

Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, victims of Datura poisoning are typically hospitalized. Stomach pumping and the administration of activated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material. The drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons. Benzodiazepines can be given to curb the patient's agitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24–36 hours after ingestion of the Datura.[15][27]

  • Datura flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
    Datura flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
  • Datura flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
    Datura flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
  • Datura in bloom. Taken on Sullivan Road, Twentynine Palms, CA 28July2014
    Datura in bloom. Taken on Sullivan Road, Twentynine Palms, CA 28July2014

See also

  • Donnatal, a pharmaceutical containing the active alkaloids in Belladonna, a plant similar to Datura: scopolamine, hyoscyamine, and atropine, as a drug

References

  1. ^ Lester, R. N.; Nee, M.; Estrada, N. (1991). Hawkes, J. G. (ed.). Solanaceae III – Taxonomy, Chemistry, Evolution (Proceedings of Third International Conference on Solanaceae). Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. pp. 197–210. ISBN 0-947643-31-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ American Heritage Dictionary: datura
  3. ^ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Preissel, U.; Preissel, H.-G. (2002). Brugmansia and Datura: Angel's Trumpets and Thorn Apples. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. pp. 106–129. ISBN 1-55209-598-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ the Oxford English Dictionary or OED
  6. ^ Adams, J. D. Jr.; Garcia, C. (2005). "Spirit, Mind and Body in Chumash Healing". Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2 (4): 459–463. doi:10.1093/ecam/neh130. PMC 1297503. PMID 16322802.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Goetz, R.; Siegel, E.; Scaglione, J.; Belson, M.; Patel, M. (2003). "Suspected Moonflower Intoxication -- Ohio, 2002". MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 52 (33). CDC: 788–791. PMID 12931077.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Leinwand, D. (1 November 2006). USA TODAY http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-11-01-jimson_x.htm. Retrieved 15 February 2009. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ^ Michalodimitrakis, M.; Koutselinis, A. (1984). "Discussion of "Datura stramonium: A fatal poisoning"". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 29 (4): 961–962. PMID 6502123.
  10. ^ Boumba, V. A.; Mitselou, A.; Vougiouklakis, T. (2004). "Fatal poisoning from ingestion of Datura stramonium seeds". Veterinary and Human Toxicology. 46 (2): 81–82. PMID 15080209.
  11. ^ Steenkamp, P. A.; Harding, N. M.; Van Heerden, F. R.; Van Wyk, B.-E. (2004). "Fatal Datura poisoning: Identification of atropine and scopolamine by high performance liquid chromatography / photodiode array / mass spectrometry". Forensic Science International. 145 (1): 31–39. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.03.011. PMID 15374592.
  12. ^ Taha, S. A.; Mahdi, A. H. (1984). "Datura intoxication in Riyadh". Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 78 (1): 134–135. doi:10.1016/0035-9203(84)90196-2. PMID 6710568.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Djibo, A.; Bouzou, S. B. (2000). "[Acute intoxication with "sobi-lobi" (Datura). Four cases in Niger]". Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique (in French). 93 (4): 294–297. PMID 11204734.
  14. ^ Bequaert, J.Q. (1932). “The Nearctic social wasps of the subfamily polybiinae (Hymenoptera; Vespidae)". Entomologica Americana. 13(3):87-150.
  15. ^ a b c Andrews, Dale (28 February 2013). "Daturas". Crime Poisons. Washington: SleuthSayers. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
  16. ^ Bontoyan, W.; et al. (5 February 2010). "Jimsonweed Poisoning Associated with a Homemade Stew – Maryland, 2008" (pdf). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 59 (4): 102–103. Retrieved 11 February 2010. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)
  17. ^ Pratt, Christina (2007). An Encyclopedia of Shamanism, Volume 1. p. 134. ISBN 1404210407.
  18. ^ Fuller, Robert C (2000). Stairways to Heaven: Drugs in American Religious History. p. 32. ISBN 0813366127.
  19. ^ a b Freye, E. (2010). "Toxicity of Datura Stramonium". Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs. Netherlands: Springer. pp. 217–218. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_34. ISBN 978-90-481-2447-3.
  20. ^ Pratt, Christina (2007). An Encyclopedia of Shamanism, Volume 1. p. 134. ISBN 1404210407.
  21. ^ Goldberg, Raymond (2013). Drugs Across the Spectrum. p. 266. ISBN 0495557935.
  22. ^ Fuller, Robert C (2000). Stairways to Heaven: Drugs in American Religious History. p. 32. ISBN 0813366127.
  23. ^ Karmakarur, R. N. (2007). Forensic Medicine And Toxicology (oral, Practical & Mcq). ISBN 8189781383.
  24. ^ Jan Dirk Bloom (2009). A Dictionary of Hallucinations. ISBN 1441912231.
  25. ^ Fuller, Robert C (2000). Stairways to Heaven: Drugs in American Religious History. p. 32. ISBN 0813366127.
  26. ^ http://www.erowid.org/experiences/subs/exp_Datura.shtml
  27. ^ Bliss, M. (2001). "Datura Plant Poisoning" (pdf). Clinical Toxicology Review. 23 (6).

Further reading

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