Fascism
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Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist political ideology and mass movement that is concerned with notions of cultural decline or decadence, and which seeks to achieve a millenarian national rebirth by exalting the nation or race, as well as promoting cults of unity, strength and purity.[1][2][3][4][5]
Various scholars attribute different characteristics to fascism, but the following elements are usually seen as its integral parts: nationalism, militarism, totalitarianism, dictatorship, populism, collectivism, statism, social interventionism, and economic planning. In addition, many scholars see fascism as opposing liberalism, communism, democratic socialism[6], and conservatism (qualified to the extent that they would make alliances with other groups but more often conservatives).[7][2][1][8][9][10][11]
Fascist governments nationalized key industries and made massive state investments. They also introduced price controls, wage controls and other types of Soviet-style economic planning measures.[12] Property rights and private initiative were contingent upon service to the state.[13].[14] Fascists promoted their ideology as a "third way" between capitalism and Marxian socialism.[15] Fascists in Germany and Italy claimed that they opposed reactionaries, and that they were actually revolutionary political movements that fused with conservative social values. Unlike reactionary political entities, fascists supported revolutionary politics, and fascists like Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler used leftist political terms such as "proletariat" and "bourgeois" to describe society. Unlike typical reactionary political forces in Europe at the time, fascists did not demonstrate fondness with having monarchies and pushed them into figurehead positions. Even in Italy where Mussolini ruled alongside the King, relations between the Fascist regime and the monarchy at times grew tense and the Fascist regime made attempts to diminish and sideline the monarchy.
Some authors reject broad usage of the term or exclude certain parties and regimes.[16] Following the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II, there have been few self-proclaimed fascist groups and individuals. In contemporary political discourse, the term fascist is often used by adherents of some ideologies as a pejorative description of their opponents.
Etymology
The term fascismo was brought into popular usage by the Italian founders of Fascism, Benito Mussolini and the Neo-Hegelian philosopher Giovanni Gentile.[17] It is derived from the Italian word fascio, which means "bundle" or "union", and from the Latin word fasces. [8] The fasces, which consisted of a bundle of rods tied around an axe, were an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrates; they were carried by his Lictors and could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command.[8] Furthermore, the symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.[18] This is a familiar theme throughout different forms of fascism; for example the Falange symbol is a bunch of arrows joined together by a yoke.[19]
Definitions
The popular presentation of Fascism in the publications of the Anglosphere have been radically different in the period during and after World War II than in the period 1919—1939, when Mussolini and the Italian Fascists were widely acclaimed.[20][21] As fascism was associated with the Axis powers who fought and lost the war, and the Anglosphere were mostly among the victorious Allied powers, it was difficult for many years to provide a neutral view of the topic. English-speaking (and other) historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism.[22] However since the 1990s, with the smoke of post-war propaganda clearing, scholars have began to gather a rough consensus on the system's core tenets, noted proponents include Payne, MacDonald, Griffin, Farrell and Paxton.
While various attempts to define Fascism have been made, the problem scholars often run into is that each form of fascism is different to each other, leaving many definitions as too wide or too narrow.[23][24] Below are two examples of attempts to define Fascism, in a concise, to the point form;
[Fascism is] a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti conservative nationalism. As such it is an ideology deeply bound up with modernization and modernity, one which has assumed a considerable variety of external forms to adapt itself to the particular historical and national context in which it appears, and has drawn a wide range of cultural and intellectual currents, both left and right, anti-modern and pro-modern, to articulate itself as a body of ideas, slogans, and doctrine. In the inter-war period it manifested itself primarily in the form of an elite-led "armed party" which attempted, mostly unsuccessfully, to generate a populist mass movement through a liturgical style of politics and a programme of radical policies which promised to overcome a threat posed by international socialism, to end the degeneration affecting the nation under liberalism, and to bring about a radical renewal of its social, political and cultural life as part of what was widely imagined to be the new era being inaugurated in Western civilization. The core mobilizing myth of fascism which conditions its ideology, propaganda, style of politics and actions is the vision of the nation's imminent rebirth from decadence. — Roger Griffin, The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology[25]
A form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion. — Robert O. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism .[1]
Political spectrum
The place of fascism in the political spectrum remains highly debated. In practice, fascism opposed communism and classic liberalism but also laissez faire capitalism and forms of socialism and conservatism. Many scholars accept fascism as a search for a Third Way among these fields.[26][27][28][29][30][31][2][32][33] Sir Oswald Mosley leader of the British Union of Fascists for example, chose to self-describe his position as "hard centre" on the political spectrum.[34] Scholar A. James Gregor asserts that the most "uninspired effort to understand fascism" is to simply place it on the right-wing, or the radical right as the common tendency was in the Anglosphere during the post-war period.[22] While Walter Laqueur asserts that historical fascism: "did not belong to the extreme Left, yet defining it as part of the extreme Right is not very illuminating either." but that it "was always a coalition between radical, populist ('fascist') elements and others gravitating toward the extreme Right".[5] Since the end of World War II, many fascist movements have become more monolithically right-wing, and became intertwined with the radical right.[35][36]
The original founders of Fascism in Italy were made up of people who were previously socialists, syndicalists, military men and anarchists but had become angered at the international left's opposition to patriotism and decided to form a new movement; Benito Mussolini, Michele Bianchi and Dino Grandi were all previously socialists.[37] The two biggest difference between the movements, is that fascism rejects the idea of class war in favor of class collaboration,[38] while also rejecting socialist internationalism in favor of statist nationalism.[39]
Post-war misusage
The word fascist has become a slur throughout the political spectrum following World War II, and it has been uncommon for political groups to call themselves fascist. Scholar Richard Griffiths asserted in 2005 that the term fascism is the "most misused, and over-used word of our times".[24] In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some political ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. In the strict sense of the word, Fascism covers movements before WWII, and later movements who some claim have a vague connection to the original form are described as neo-fascist. Some have argued that the term fascist has become hopelessly vague over the years and that it has become little more than a pejorative epithet, for example socialist George Orwell wrote in 1944;
The word ‘Fascism’ is almost entirely meaningless. In conversation, of course, it is used even more wildly than in print. I have heard it applied to farmers, shopkeepers, Social Credit, corporal punishment, fox-hunting, bull-fighting, the 1922 Committee, the 1941 Committee, Kipling, Gandhi, Chiang Kai-Shek, homosexuality, Priestley's broadcasts, Youth Hostels, astrology, women, dogs and I do not know what else... almost any English person would accept ‘bully’ as a synonym for ‘Fascist’. — George Orwell, What is Fascism?. 1944.[40]
Italian Fascism
Italian Fascism was the first form of fascism to emerge and the originator of the name. It is considered the model for the other fascisms, yet there is no agreement about which aspects of structure, tactics, culture, and ideology represent the "fascist minimum" core.
Fascism was born during a period of social and political unrest following the First World War. The war had seen Italy, born from the Italian unification less than a century earlier begin to appreciate a sense of nationalism, rather than the historic regionalism.[41] Despite the Kingdom of Italy being a fully fledged Allied Power during the war against the Central Powers, Italy was given what nationalists considered an unfair deal at the Treaty of Versailles; which they saw as the other allies "blocking" Italy from progressing to a major power.[41] A significant example of this was when the other allies told Italy to hand over the city of Fiume at the Paris Peace Conference, this saw war veteran Gabriele d'Annunzio declaring the independent state Italian Regency of Carnaro.[27] He positioned himself as Duce of the nation and declared a constitution, the Charter of Carnaro which was highly influential to early Fascism, though he himself never became a fascist.[27]
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An important factor in fascism gaining support in its earliest stages was the fact that it opposed discrimination based on social class and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war.[42] Fascism instead supported nationalist sentiments such as a strong unity, regardless of class, in the hopes of raising Italy up to the levels of its great Roman past. This side of fascism endeared itself to the aristocracy and the bourgeois, as it promised to protect their existence; after the Russian Revolution, they had greatly feared the prospect of a bloody class war coming to Italy by the hand of the communists and the socialists. Mussolini did not ignore the plight of the working class, however, and he gained their support with stances such as those in The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle, published in June 1919.[42] In the manifesto he demanded, amongst other things, creation of a minimum wage, showing the same confidence in labor unions (which prove to be technically and morally worthy) as was given to industry executives or public servants, voting rights for women, and the systemisation of public transport such as railways.[42]
Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously revolutionary and traditionalist;[43][44] because this was vastly different to anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way".[45] The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, Dino Grandi, formed armed squads of war veterans called Blackshirts (or squadristi) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists and anarchists at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, due in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew so rapidly that within two years, it transformed itself into the National Fascist Party at a congress in Rome. Also in 1921, Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies for the first time and was later appointed as Prime Minister by the King in 1922. He then went on to install a dictatorship after the 10 June 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti, who had finished writing The Fascist Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination, by Amerigo Dumini and others agents of the Ceka secret police created by Mussolini.
Influenced by the concepts of the Roman Empire, with Mussolini viewing himself as a modern day Roman Emperor, Italy set out to build the Italian Empire[46] whose colonialism would reach further into Africa in an attempt to compete with British and French colonial empires.[47] Mussolini dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of Corfu in 1923. Soon after he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in Albania and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in Libya, which had been loosely a colony since 1912. It was his dream to make the Mediterranean mare nostrum ("our sea" in Latin), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean.
Other variations and subforms
Movements identified by scholars as fascist hold a variety of views, what constitutes as fascism is often a hotly contested subject. The original movement which self-identified as Fascist was that of Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party. Intellectuals such as Giovanni Gentile produced The Doctrine of Fascism and founded the ideology. The majority of strains which emerged after the original fascism, but are sometimes placed under the wider usage of the term, self-identified their parties with different names, major examples include; Falangism, Integralism and Nazism as well as various other designations.[48]
Nazism
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The term Nazism refers to the ideology of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party and its Weltanschauung, which permeated German society (and to some degree European and American society) during the party’s years as the German government (1933 to 1945). Free elections in 1932 under Germany’s Weimar Republic made the NSDAP the largest parliamentary faction; no similar party in any country at that time had achieved comparable electoral success. Adolf Hitler’s 30 January 1933 appointment as Chancellor of Germany and his subsequent consolidation of dictatorial power marked the beginning of Nazi Germany. During its first year in power, the NSDAP announced the Tausendjähriges Reich (“Thousand Years’ Empire”) or Drittes Reich (“Third Reich”), a putative successor to the Holy Roman Empire and the German Empire).
Although the modern consensus sees Nazism as a type of generic fascism[49], some scholars, such as Gilbert Allardyce and A.F.K. Organski, argue that Nazism is not fascism — either because the differences are too great, or because they believe fascism cannot be generic.[50][51] A synthesis of these two opinions, states that German Nazism was a form of racially-oriented fascism, while Italian fascism was state-oriented.
Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race, in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state, whereas Nazism saw the individual, as well as the state, as ultimately subservient to the race.[52] Mussolini's Fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it was not necessarily in the state's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only purpose of government in Mussolini's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as statolatry. Where fascism talked of state, Nazism spoke of the Volk and of the Volksgemeinschaft [53] Despite these differences, Kevin Passmore (2002 p.62) observes:
There are sufficient similarities between Fascism and Nazism to make it worthwhile applying the concept of fascism to both. In Italy and Germany a movement came to power that sought to create national unity through the repression of national enemies and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a permanently mobilized nation.[54]
Falangism
Falangism is a form of fascism founded by José Antonio Primo de Rivera in 1933, emerging during a complex political time during the Second Spanish Republic.[55] Primo de Rivera was the son of Miguel Primo de Rivera who was appointed Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Spain by Bourbon monarch Alfonso XIII of Spain; José's father would serve as military dictator from 1923—1930. In the Spanish general election, 1931 the winners were socialists and radical republican parties; this saw Alfonso XIII "suspending the exercise of royal power" and going into exile in Rome.[56] Spain had turned from a kingdom into a republic overnight.[56] A liberal Republican Constitution was instated, giving the right of autonomy to regions, stripping the nobility of juristic status and stripping from the Catholic Church its schools.[57]
It was in this environment that José Antonio Primo de Rivera looked at Mussolini's Italy and found inspiration. Primo de Rivera founded the Falange Española party; the name is a reference to the formidable Ancient Greek military formation phalanx.[58] Just a year after foundation Falange Española merged with the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista party of Ramiro Ledesma and Onésimo Redondo.[59] The party and Primo de Rivera revealed the Falange Manifesto in November 1934; it promoted nationalism, unity, glorification of the Spanish Empire and dedication to the national syndicalism economic policy, inspired by integralism in which there is class collaboration.[60] The manifesto supported agrarianism, looking to improve the standard of living for the peasants of the rural areas. It supported anti-capitalism, anti-Marxism, repudiating the latter's divisive class war philosophy, and was directly opposed to the ruling Republican regime.[60] The Falange participated in the Spanish general election, 1936 with low results compared to the left-wing Popular Front, but soon after increased in membership rapidly, with a membership of 40,000.[61]
"We reject the capitalist system, which disregards the needs of the people, dehumanizes private property, and transforms the workers into shapeless masses that are prone to misery and despair. Our spiritual and national awareness likewise repudiates Marxism. We shall channel the drive of the working classes, that are nowadays led astray by Marxism, by demanding their direct participation in the formidable task of the national State."
— José Antonio Primo de Rivera, Falange Manifesto. 1934.[60]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bandera_FE_JONS.svg/200px-Bandera_FE_JONS.svg.png)
Primo de Rivera was captured by Republicans on 6 July 1936 and held in captivity at Alicante. The Spanish Civil War broke out on 17 July 1936 between the Republicans and the Nationalists, with the Falangistas fighting for Nationalist cause.[60] Despite his incarceration Primo de Rivera was a strong symbol of the cause, referred to as El Ausente, meaning "the Absent One"; he was summarily executed on 20 November after a trial by socialists.[62] After this, military leader Francisco Franco, who was not as ideological as his predecessor, became leader of the Falangists and continued the nationalist fight, with aid from Italy and Germany against the republicans who were supported by the Soviet Union.[63] A merger between the Falange and the Carlist traditionalists who support a different line of the monarchy to that of exiled Alfonso XIII took place in 1937, creating the FET y de las JONS, essentially a move away from fascism.[55] This is somewhat controversial in Falangist circles because some elements argue that it was a move away from "authentic Falangism".[64] Regardless nationalists won the Civil War, inserting the Spanish State in 1939 and under a single-party system Franco ruled.[55] Franco managed to balance several different interests of elements in his party, in an effort to keep them united, especially in regards to the question of monarchy.[65] The Francoist state was strongly nationalist, anti-communist and anti-separatist throughout. With his Movimiento Nacional; he supported traditional values such as Christianity, in contrast to the anti-clerical violence of the republicans.[65] Franco and Francoist Spain, although they adopted trappings of fascism, are often not considered to be fascist, for example Stanley Payne, has asserted: "scarcely any of the serious historians and analysts of Franco consider the generalissimo to be a core fascist". [66]
Iron Guard
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Legionary_stamp.jpg)
The Iron Guard was founded by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu on 24 July 1927 as the Legion of the Archangel Michael (Legiunea Arhanghelul Mihail), and led by him until Codreanu's death in 1938, adherents to the movement continued to be widely referred to as "legionnaires" (sometimes "legionaries"; Romanian: legionarii) and the organization as the "Legion" or the "Legionary Movement" (Mişcarea Legionară), despite various changes of the (intermittently banned) organization's name. In March 1930 Codreanu formed the "Iron Guard" (Garda de Fier) as a paramilitary political branch of the Legion; this name eventually came to refer to the Legion itself. Later, in June 1935, the Legion changed its official name to the Totul pentru Ţară party, literally "Everything for the Country", but commonly translated as "Everything for the Fatherland" or occasionally "Everything for the Motherland".[67]
Rexism
Rexism was the ideology of the Rexist Party (Parti Rexiste), officially called Christus Rex, founded in 1930 by Léon Degrelle, a Walloon. The name was derived from the Roman Catholic social teachings concerning Christus Rex, and it was also the title of a conservative Catholic journal. This ideology called for the moral renewal of Belgian society in conformity with the teachings of the Church, by forming a corporatist society, and abolishing democracy. As the group became more radical, it was cut off from the Church by the Belgian bishops.
Commonly alleged fascist ideologies and para-fascism
A number of states and movements have had various characteristics that are similar to fascism, but have denied being affiliated to fascism. Para-fascism is a term sometimes used to describe authoritarian regimes which appear like fascism on the surface but some scholars claim differ substantially from true fascism when a more than superficial examination is done.[68] Roger Griffin uses the term whereas Stanley Payne uses the term Radical Right. The consensus among scholars rejects these many anti-liberal, anti-communist inter-war movements which lacked fascism's revolutionary goal to create a new national character as fascist.[69] Para-fascists typically eschewed radical change and viewed genuine fascists as a threat.[70] Parafascist states were often unwillingly the home of genuine fascist movements which they eventually suppressed or co-opted.[71]
Austrian Fatherland Front
"Austrofascism" is a controversial category encompassing various para-fascist and semi-fascist movements in Austria in the 1930s.[72] Especially referring to the Fatherland Front which became Austria's sole legal political party in 1934. The Fatherland Front's ideology was partly based on a fusion of Italian fascism, as expounded by Gentile, and Austria's Political Catholicism.[citation needed] It had an ideology of the "community of the people" (Volksgemeinschaft) that was different from that of the Nazis. They were similar in that both served to attack the idea of a class struggle by accusing leftism of destroying individuality, and thus help usher in a totalitarian state. Engelbert Dollfuß claimed he wanted to "over-Hitler" (überhitlern) Nazism.
Unlike the ethnic nationalism promoted by Italian Fascists and Nazis, the Fatherland Front focused entirely on cultural nationalism such as Austrian identity and distinctness from Germany, such as extolling Austria's ties to the Roman Catholic Church. According to this philosophy, Austrians were "better Germans" (by this time, the majority of the German population was Protestant). The monarchy was elevated to the ideal of a powerful and far-reaching state, a status which Austria lost after the Treaty of Saint-Germain. The notion of the Fatherland Front being fascist was claimed due to the regime's support and similar idealogy of Fascist Italy.
Estado Novo
The Estado Novo was an authoritarian regime with an integralist orientation, which differed from fascist regimes by its lack of expansionism, lack of a charismatic leader, lack of party structure and more moderate use of state violence. [73] However it incorporated the same principles for its military from Mussolini's system. Its founder in Portugal, António de Oliveira Salazar, was a Catholic traditionalist who believed in the necessity of control over the forces of economic modernisation in order to defend the religious and rural values of the country, which he perceived as being threatened. One of the pillars of the regime was the PIDE, the secret police. Many political dissidents were imprisoned at the Tarrafal prison in the African archipelago of Cape Verde, on the capital island of Santiago, or in local jails. Strict state censorship was in place.
Another authoritarian government, installed in Brazil by President Getúlio Dornelles Vargas, lasted from 1937 to 1945. It was modelled on the Portuguese Estado Novo regime and even took its name.
Baathism
The ideology of Baathism, a totalitarian pan-Arab nationalist and Arab socialist ideology has been accused by its critics of being a fascist ideology, especially the Arab Socialist Baath Party in Iraq under Saddam Hussein from 1979 to 2003.[74] Iraqi Baathism like fascism, was nationalist and supported expansionism, was militarist, promoted a single-party state, repressed liberals and then communists from the late 1970s to 2003;[75] developed a cult of personality around Saddam Hussein, developed paramilitary organizations devoted to Baathism; advocated major social interventionism while preserving some private property.[76] However unlike fascism, Iraqi Baathism was not specifically anti-communist and prior to Saddam Hussein's rule, Baathists were on friendly terms with the Iraqi Communist Party on economic policy and sometimes advocated more radically left-wing economic policies than the Communists;[77] Saddam Hussein himself never compared himself to fascist political figures, but instead anti-imperialist and Marxist political figures such as Salvador Allende.[78] Baathism is an elite movement, not a mass movement like fascist movements; unlike fascism, Iraqi Baathists claimed to support democracy by holding elections, though these elections were rigged to ensure Baathist victory and opponents to the regime were repressed; unlike fascism, Iraqi Baathism does not endorse class collaboration as it rigorously opposes bourgeoisie society and influence; and Iraqi Baathism authorized far more nationalization of property than fascist governments did.[79]
4th of August Regime
From 1936 to 1941, Greece was ruled by an authoritarian regime under the leadership of General Ioannis Metaxas akin to that of Franco's Spain. Historians of this period in Greek history, such as Richard Clogg, John Hondros, William McNeill, C. M. Woodhouse and others, all strongly contend that the state was not "fascist" but authoritarian with fascist "leanings".[citation needed] The Metaxas regime differed from regimes such as Mussolini's and Hitler's in many notable ways: it was relatively nonviolent, did not pursue an expansionist agenda, it did not institute anti-semitic programs, and it lacked a mass political movement.
Klu Klux Klan
The Klu Klux Klan developed nearly half a century before the rise of Italian Fascism in Italy. It was formed mainly as a response to the defeat of the South in the American Civil War and the freeing of African slaves. It has noted similarities to Nazism. It promotes ethnic nationalism, nativism, populism, racism, antisemitism, and anti-Communism. However, the Klan was mostly reactionary rather than revolutionary. In addition it also was a Christian fundamentalist movement, while the Nazis attempted to enforce their racist viewpoints largely through science rather than religion.
By the late 30's, the Klan had a prolonged flirtation with fascist organization in the United States with many American fascist leaders appearing in Klan ralles.[80] The Klan had a complex relationship with the German American Bund. Some Klan groups supported it and felt that they shared the same principles while other groups were generally hostile to it.[81] After the war, neo-Nazi groups and Klan groups have been strongly allied. Some Klan groups have become increasingly "Nazified" adopting the look and emblems of the Nazi skinheads.[82] It has been stated that Klan movements have become more and more like fascist ones and the two groups are almost indistinguishable.[83]
Islamofascism
Islamofascism is a controversial neologism suggesting an association of the ideological or operational characteristics of certain Islamist movements from the late 20th century on, with European fascist movements of the early 20th century, neofascist movements, or totalitarianism. Critics of the term argue it is overly simplistic and offensive.
Core tenets
Nationalism and populism
Nationalism is an important element of fascism. Fascists believe the state to have its own distinctive characteristics, culture, and interests, and which is superior to others. Mussolini once said "Everything in the state. Nothing outside the state. Nothing against the state."
Fascism also has elements of populism and appealed to an Agrarian myth.[84] Fascism also tends to be anti-intellectual.[85] The Nazis in particular despised intellectuals and university professors. Hitler declared them unreliable, useless and even dangerous.[86] Still, Hitler has been qouted as saying "When I take a look at the intellectual classes we have - unfortunately, I suppose, they are necessary; otherwise one could one day, I don't know, exterminate them or something - but unfortunately they're necessary."[87]
Position on democracy
A key element of fascism is its endorsement of the leadership over a country of a dictator, who is often known simply as the "Leader" (Duce in Italian, Führer in German, Caudillo in Spanish, and Conducător in Romanian). Fascist leaders that rule countries are not always heads of state, but heads of government, such as Benito Mussolini who held power under the largely figurehead King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III.
In the case of Italy, Fascism arose in the 1920s as a mixture of syndicalist notions with an anti-materialist theory of the state; the latter had already been linked to an extreme nationalism.[citation needed] Fascists accused parliamentary democracy of producing division and decline, and wished to renew the nation from decadence. They viewed the state as an organic entity in a positive light rather than as an institution designed to protect individual rights, or as one that should be held in check. Fascism universally dismissed the Marxist concept of "class struggle", replacing it instead with the concept of "class collaboration".[citation needed] Fascists embraced nationalism and mysticism, advancing ideals of strength and power.[citation needed]
Fascism is typified by totalitarian attempts to impose state control over all aspects of life: political, social, cultural, and economic, by way of a strong, single-party government for enacting laws and a strong, sometimes brutal militia or police force for enforcing them.[88] Fascism exalts the nation, state, or group of people as superior to the individuals composing it, and uses explicit populist rhetoric. It calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past greatness, and demands loyalty to a single leader, leading to a cult of personality and unquestioned obedience to orders (see Führerprinzip). Fascism is also considered to be a form of collectivism.[89][90][91]
Militarism
Fascists typically advocate a strong military that is capable of both defensive and offensive actions. In Germany and Italy under Hitler and Mussolini, enormous amounts of funding was dedicated to the military. In some fascist regimes, the fascist movement itself has a paramilitary wing which is included in the armed forces of the country, such as the SS in Germany and the MVSN in Italy, which are devoted directly and specifically to the fascist movement.
Economic policies
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Fascists opposed what they believed to be laissez-faire or quasi-laissez-faire economic policies dominant in the era prior to the Great Depression.[92] People of many different political stripes blamed laissez-faire capitalism for the Great Depression, and fascists promoted their ideology as a "third way" between capitalism and Marxian socialism.[93] Their policies manifested as a radical extension of government control over the economy without wholesale expropriation of the means of production. Fascist governments nationalized some key industries, managed their currencies and made some massive state investments. They also introduced price controls, wage controls and other types of economic planning measures.[12] Fascist governments instituted state-regulated allocation of resources, especially in the financial and raw materials sectors.
Other than nationalization of certain industries, private property was allowed, but property rights and private initiative were contingent upon service to the state.[94] For example, "an owner of agricultural land may be compelled to raise wheat instead of sheep and employ more labor than he would find profitable."[95][95] According to historian Tibor Ivan Berend, dirigisme was an inherent aspect of fascist economies.[96] The Labour Charter of 1927, promulgated by the Grand Council of Fascism, stated in article 7:
- "The corporative State considers private initiative, in the field of production, as the most efficient and useful instrument of the Nation," then goes on to say in article 9 that: "State intervention in economic production may take place only where private initiative is lacking or is insufficient, or when are at stakes the political interest of the State. This intervention may take the form of control, encouragement or direct management."
Fascism also operated from a Social Darwinist view of human relations. Their aim was to promote "superior" individuals and weed out the weak.[97] In terms of economic practice, this meant promoting the interests of successful businessmen while destroying trade unions and other organizations of the working class.[98] Historian Gaetano Salvemini argued in 1936 that fascism makes taxpayers responsible to private enterprise, because "the State pays for the blunders of private enterprise... Profit is private and individual. Loss is public and social."[99]
Economic policy in the first few years of Italian fascism was largely liberal, with the Ministry of Finance controlled by the old liberal Alberto De Stefani. The government undertook a low-key laissez-faire program - the tax system was restructured (February 1925 law, 23 June 1927 decree-law, etc.), there were attempts to attract foreign investment and establish trade agreements, efforts were made to balance the budget and cut subsidies. The 10% tax on capital invested in banking and industrial sectors was repealed,[100] while the tax on directors and administrators of anonymous companies (SA) was cut down by half.[100] All foreign capital was exonerated of taxes, while the luxury tax was also repealed.[100] Mussolini also opposed municipalization of enterprises.[100]
The 19 April 1923 law abandoned life insurance to private companies, repealing the 1912 law which had created a State Institute for insurances and which had envisioned to give a state monopoly ten years later.[101] Furthermore, a 19 November 1922 decree suppressed the Commission on War Profits, while the 20 August 1923 law suppressed the inheritance tax inside the family circle.[100]
There was a general emphasis on what has been called productivism - national economic growth as a means of social regeneration and wider assertion of national importance. Up until 1925, the country enjoyed modest growth but structural weaknesses increased inflation and the currency slowly fell (1922 L90 to £1, 1925 L145 to £1). In 1925 there was a great increase in speculation and short runs against the lira. The levels of capital movement became so great the government attempted to intervene. De Stefani was sacked, his program side-tracked, and the Fascist government became more involved in the economy in step with the increased security of their power.
In 1925, the Italian state abandoned its monopoly on telephones' infrastructure, while the state production of matches was handed over to a private "Consortium of matches' productors."[101] In some sectors, the state did intervene. Thus, following the deflation crisis which started in 1926, banks such as the Banca di Roma, the Banca di Napoli or the Banca di Sicilia were assisted by the state.[102]
Fascists were most vocal in their opposition to finance capitalism, interest charging, and profiteering.[103] Some fascists, particularly Nazis, considered finance capitalism a "parasitic" "Jewish conspiracy".[104] Nevertheless, fascists also opposed Marxism and independent trade unions.
According to sociologist Stanislav Andreski, fascist economics "foreshadowed most of the fundamental features of the economic system of Western European countries today: the radical extension of government control over the economy without a wholesale expropriation of the capitalists but with a good dose of nationalisation, price control, incomes policy, managed currency, massive state investment, attempts at overall planning (less effectual than the Fascist because of the weakness of authority)."[12] Politics professor Stephen Haseler credits fascism with providing a model of economic planning for social democracy.[105]
In Nazi economic planning, in place of ordinary profit incentive to guide the economy, investment was guided through regulation to accord to the needs of the State. The profit incentive for business owners was retained, though greatly modified through various profit-fixing schemes: "Fixing of profits, not their suppression, was the official policy of the Nazi party." However the function of profit in automatically guiding allocation of investment and unconsciously directing the course of the economy was replaced with economic planning by Nazi government agencies.[106]
Social policies
On the question of whether one can speak of “fascist social policy” as single concept with logical and internally consistent ideas and common identifiable goals, some scholars say that one cannot, pointing for example to German National Socialism where such policy was mostly opportunistic and pragmatic. [107] Generally all fascist movements endorse social interventionism. What differentiated fascists from the right wing, namely the radical right and the conservative authoritarian right (such as Francoist Spain), was a matter of social policy, the right meant freezing the status quo but for fascists meant transformation of status and class relationships through revolutionary means (authoritarian conservatives being more conservative and radical right being more rightist than fascists). [108] Thus, from a social policy standpoint, fascism is not a socially conservative perspective.[109] Mussolini promised a “social revolution” for “remaking” the Italian people which was only achieved in part. [110] The groups that primarily benefited from Italian Fascist social policy were the middle and lower-middle classes who filled the jobs in the vastly expanding government – the government expanding from about 500,000 to a million jobs in 1930 alone. [111] Health and welfare spending grew dramatically under Italian fascism, welfare rising from 7% of the budget in 1930 to 20% in 1940. [112]
The Fascist government in Italy banned abortion and literature on birth control in 1926 and declared abortion and distribution of birth control literature as crimes against the state.[113] A year later, the Fascist government began the "Battle for Births" in 1927, a social engineering policy aimed at increasing the population of Italians. Along with the ban on abortion and birth control, during the Battle for Births the Fascist government gave financial incentrives to women who raised large families as well as policies designed to reduce the number of women employed.[114]
Fascism also tends to promote "masculine" principles of heroism, militarism, and discipline; and rejects cultural pluralism and multiculturalism.[115] The Italian Fascist government declared homosexuality illegal in Italy in 1931.[116] The Fascist government advocated a number of policies on improving living standards for labourers such as by establishing the nationwide Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro in 1925, which was a state-sponsored organization that created numerous municipal clubs across Italy that allowed lower-income citizens to attend recreational activities, watch movies, and listen to musical performances, etc. On the issue of social equality, Mussolini on a number of occasions rejected racism, and rejected the notion of the Nazis of biologically superior races. Mussolini claimed however that there were culturally and morally superior nations. However pressure placed on Mussolini by the Nazis and racist Fascist members such as Roberto Farinacci eventually resulted in the Fascists officially adopting racist rhetoric in the late 1930s and racist policies in 1938.
Nazi eugenics placed the improvement of the race through eugenics at the center of their concerns and targeted those humans they identified as "life unworthy of life" (German Lebensunwertes Leben), including but not limited to mentally and physically disabled, homosexuals, feeble-minded, insane, and the weak. Adolf Hitler personally decriminalized abortion in case of fetuses having racial or hereditary defects, while the abortion of healthy "pure" German, "Aryan" unborn remained strictly forbidden.[117] In fact, for non-Aryans abortion was not only allowed but often compelled. [118] Like their forbears, the Neo-nazi position on abortion is not about preservation of life but propagation of the race; the Aryan Nation security chief stated: “I’m just against abortion for the pure white race. For blacks and other mongrelized races, abortion is a good idea.” [119] The Nazis based their eugenics program on the United States' programs of forced sterilization.[120] Their eugenics program stemmed also from the “progressive biomedical model” of Weimar Germany. [121] The opposition to homosexuality was was based on the Nazis view that homosexuality was degenerate, effeminate, and perverted and undermined the masculinity which they promoted and becuase they did not produce children for the master race.[122] Nevertheless the Nazis considered homosexuality curable though therapy. They explained it though modern scientism and the study of sexology which said that homosexuality could be felt by "normal" people and not just an abnormal minority. [123] Critics have claimed that the Nazis' claim of scientific reasons for their promotion of racism, and hostility to homosexuals is pseudoscience (fake science),[124][125] in that scientific findings were selectively picked that promoted their pre-existing views, while scientific findings opposing those views were rejected and not taken into account.
Nazi propaganda sometimes promoted pre- and extra-marital sexual relations, unwed motherhood, and divorce and at other times opposed such behaivior. [126] The growth of Nazi power, however, was accompanied by a breakdown of traditional sexual morals with regard to extramarital sex and licentiousness. [127] Hitler was personally oppose to the idea of social welfare because, in his view, it encouraged the peservation of the degenerate and feeble.[128] However, once in power the Nazis created welfare programs to deal with the large numbers of unemployment. Nevertheless they excluded certain people from the system whom they felt were incapable of helping themselves and would only pose a threat to the future health of the German people.[129]
Positions on religion
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Many scholars believe the attitude of fascism toward religion has run the spectrum from persecution, to denunciation, to cooperation, [130] to embrace.[131] According to a biographer of Mussolini, "Initially, fascism was fiercely anti-Catholic" - the Church being a competitor for dominion of the people's hearts. [132] Mussolini, originally a socialist internationalist and atheist, published anti-Catholic writings and planned for the confiscation of Church property, but eventually moved to accommodation. [130] Hitler was born a Roman Catholic but renounced his faith at the age of twelve and largely used religious references to attract religious support to the Nazi political agenda. Mussolini largely endorsed the Roman Catholic Church for political legitimacy, as during the Lateran Treaty talks, Fascist officials engaged in bitter arguments with Vatican officials and put pressure on them to accept the terms that the regime deemed acceptable.[133] The Nazi party had decidedly pagan elements. Although both Hitler and Mussolini were anticlerical, some believe they both understood that it would be rash to begin their Kulturkampfs prematurely, such a clash, possibly inevitable in the future, being put off while they dealt with other enemies. [134]
Relations were close in the likes of the Belgian Rexists (which was eventually denounced by the Church). In addition, many Fascists were anti-clerical in both private and public life. [135] In Mexico the fascist[136][137][138] Red Shirts not only renounced religion but were vehemently atheist[139], killing priests, and on one occasion gunned down Catholics as they left Mass.[140]
Others have argued that there has been a strong connection between some versions of fascism and religion, particularly the Catholic Church.[141] Religion did play a real part in the Ustasha in Croatia which had strong religious (Catholic) overtones and clerics in positions of power.[142] Spain's Falangists emphasized the struggle against the atheism of the left. The nationalist authoritarian movement in the Slovak Republic (the People's Party) was established by a catholic priest (Father Hlinka) and presided over by another (Father Tiso). The fascist movement in Romania known as the Iron Guard or the Legion of Archangel Michael invariably preceded its meetings with a church service and "their demonstrations were usually led by priests carrying icons and religious flags." Similar to Ayatollah Khomeini's Shi'a Islamist movement in Iran, it promoted a cult of "suffering, sacrifice and martyrdom."[143] [144] In Latin America the most important Fascist movement was Plinio Salgado's Brazilian "Integralism." Built on a network of lay religious associations, its vision was of an "integral state," that `comes from Christ, is inspired in Christ, acts for Christ, and goes toward Christ.` [145][146][147] Salgado, however, criticised the "dangerous pagan tendencies of Hitlerism" [148] and maintained that his movement differed from European fascism in that it respected the "rights of the human person".[149]
One theory is that religion and fascism could never have a lasting connection because both are a "holistic Weltanschauung" claiming the whole of the person. [130] Along these lines, Yale political scientist, Juan Linz and others have noted that secularization had created a void which could be filled by a total ideology, making totalitarianism possible[150][151], and Roger Griffin has characterized fascism as a type of anti-religious political religion.[152] Such political religions vie with existing religions, and try, if possible, to replace or eradicate them. [153] Hitler and the Nazi regime attempted to found their own version of Christianity called Positive Christianity which made major changes in its interpretation of the Bible which said that Jesus Christ was the son of God, but was not a Jew and claimed that Christ despised Jews, and that the Jews were the ones solely responsible for Christ's death.
References
Notes
- ^ a b c Paxton, Robert. The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books. ISBN 1400033918. Cite error: The named reference "anatomnyfascismo" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c Griffin, Roger. The Nature of Fascism. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312071329. Cite error: The named reference "natureoffascismo" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "Fascism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 January 2008.
- ^ Passmore, Kevin. Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192801554.
- ^ a b Laqueuer, Walter. Fascism: Past, Present, Future. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019511793X. Cite error: The named reference "walterlaq" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Hawkesworth,M. E. and Maurice Kogan Encyclopedia of Government and Politics p. 175, Routledge 2004
- ^ Eatwell, Roger. Fascism: A History. University of Michigan. ISBN 071399147X.
- ^ a b c Payne, Stanley. A History of Fascism, 1914-45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299148742.
- ^ Nolte, Ernst. Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism and National Socialism. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- ^ Fritzsche, Peter. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195057805.
- ^ "Collectivism". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 January 2008.
- ^ a b c Stanislav Andreski, Wars, Revolutions, Dictatorships, Routledge 1992, page 64
- ^ James A. Gregor, The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 7
- ^ Gregor, A. James. The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521859204.
- ^ Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168.
- ^ Griffiths, Richard. Fascism. Continuum. ISBN 0826478565.
- ^ New World, Websters. Webster's II New College Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Reference Books. ISBN 0618396012.
- ^ Doordan, Dennis P. In the Shadow of the Fasces: Political Design in Fascist Italy. The MIT Press. ISBN 0299148742.
- ^ Parkins, Wendy. Fashioning the Body Politic: Dress, Gender, Citizenship. Berg Publishers. ISBN 1859735878.
- ^ "Pound in Purgatory". Leon Surette. 27 January 2008.
- ^ "A History of US: Book 9: War, Peace, and All That Jazz 1918-1945". Oxford University Press. 27 January 2008.
- ^ a b Gregor, A. James. Phoenix: Fascism in Our Time. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0765808552.
- ^ Payne, Stanley G. Fascism, Comparison and Definition. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299080641.
- ^ a b Griffiths, Richard. An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism. Duckworth. ISBN 0715629182.
- ^ Roger Griffin, The palingenetic core of generic fascist ideology, Chapter published in Alessandro Campi (ed.), Che cos'è il fascismo? Interpretazioni e prospettive di ricerche, Ideazione editrice, Roma, 2003, pp. 97-122.
- ^ Bastow, Steve. Third Way Discourse: European Ideologies in the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 074861561X.
- ^ a b c Macdonald, Hamish. Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0748733868.
- ^ Woolley, Donald Patrick. The Third Way: Fascism as a Method of Maintaining Power in Italy and Spain. University of North Carolina at Greensboro.
- ^ Heywood, Andrew. Key Concepts in Politics. Palgrave. ISBN 0312233817.
- ^ Renton, Dave. Fascism: Theory and Practice. Pluto Press. ISBN 0745314708.
- ^ Kallis, Aristotle A. The Fascism Reader. Routledge. ISBN 0415243599.
- ^ Parla, Taha. The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gökalp, 1876-1924. Brill. ISBN 9004072292.
- ^ Durham, Martin. Women and Fascism. Routledge. ISBN 0415122805.
- ^ Skidelsky, Robert Jacob Alexander. Oswald Mosley. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 0030865808.
- ^ Roger Griffin, Interregnum or Endgame?: Radical Right Thought in the ‘Post-fascist’ Era, The Journal of Political Ideologies, vol. 5, no. 2, July 2000, pp. 163-78
- ^ ‘Non Angeli, sed Angli: the neo-populist foreign policy of the "New" BNP', in Christina Liang (ed.) Europe for the Europeans: the foreign and security policy of the populist radical right (Ashgate, Hampshire,2007). ISBN 0754648516
- ^ Gregor, A. James. A Place in the Sun: Marxism and Fascism in China's Long Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 0813337828.
- ^ Counts, George Sylvester. Bolshevism, Fascism, and Capitalism: An Account of the Three Economic Systems. Ayer Publishing. ISBN 0836918665.
- ^ Gregor, A. James. Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher Of Fascism. Transaction Pub. ISBN 0765805936.
- ^ "George Orwell: 'What is Fascism?'". Orwell.ru. 8 January 2008.
- ^ a b "Mussolini and Fascism in Italy". FSmitha.com. 8 January 2008.
- ^ a b c "Flunking Fascism 101". WND.com. 8 January 2008.
- ^ "Fascist Modernization in Italy: Traditional or Revolutionary". Roland Sarti. 8 January 2008.
- ^ "Mussolini's Italy". Appstate.edu. 8 January 2008.
- ^ Macdonald, Hamish. Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0748733868.
- ^ "Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?". jch.sagepub.com. 8 January 2008.
- ^ Copinger, Stewart. The rise and fall of Western colonialism. F.A.Praeger.
- ^ Mühlberger, Detlef. The Social Basis of European Fascist Movements. Routledge. ISBN 0709935854.
- ^ Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p.8, 2004 Taylor and Francis
- ^ Gilbert Allardyce (1979). "What Fascism Is Not: Thoughts on the Deflation of a Concept". American Historical Review. 84 (2): 367–388. doi:10.2307/1855138.
- ^ Paul H. Lewis (2000). Latin Fascist Elites. Praeger/Greenwood. p. 9. ISBN 0-275-97880-X.
- ^ Grant, Moyra. Key Ideas in Politics. Nelson Thomas 2003. p. 21
- ^ Kershaw, Ian. The Nazi Dictatorship, Problems & perspectives of interpretation, 4th Edition. Hodder Arnold 2000, p41
- ^ http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/people/kp/
- ^ a b c Payne, Stanley G. Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism. Textbook Publisherss. ISBN 0758134452.
- ^ a b "Alfonso XIII, king of Spain". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. 8 January 2008.
- ^ Payne, Stanley G. Spain's First Democracy: The Second Republic, 1931-1936. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299136744.
- ^ Keefe, Eugene K. Area Handbook for Spain. American University. ISBN 0299136744.
- ^ "Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista". Britannica.com. 8 January 2008.
- ^ a b c d "Falange Española". Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk. 8 January 2008.
- ^ "José Antonio Primo de Rivera". Spartacus.Schoolnet.co.uk. 8 January 2008.
- ^ Loveday, Arthur Frederic. Spain, 1923-1948: Civil War and World War. Boswell Publishing Company.
- ^ Tucker, Spencer. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576079996.
- ^ Del Boca, Angelo. Fascism Today: A World Survey. Pantheon Books.
- ^ a b Payne, Stanley G. The Franco Regime, 1936-1975. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299110702.
- ^ Payne, Stanley Fascism in Spain, 1923-1977, p. 476 1999 Univ. of Wisconsin Press
- ^ Totul pentru Ţară is translated as "Everything for the Fatherland" in Collier's Encyclopedia material that is now incorporated into Encarta as a sidebar (1938: Rumania) and in the Encyclopædia Britannica articleIron Guard; the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania uses "Everything for the Motherland" in the English-language version of its 11 November 2004 Final Report (PDF). (All retrieved 6 Dec 2005.)
- ^ Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 3, 2002 Routledge
- ^ Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p.8, 2004 Taylor and Francis
- ^ Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 326, 2002 Routledge
- ^ Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science p.8, 2004 Taylor and Francis
- ^ Davies, Peter Jonathan and Derek Lynch The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. p. 255, 2002 Routledge
- ^ Kallis, Aristotle A. Fascism Reader p. 313-317 2003 Routledge
- ^ Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism: 1914-1945. University of Wisconson Press. Pp. 516. [1]
- ^ A People's History of Iraq: The Iraqi Communist Party, Workers' Movements and the Left, 1924-2004 Pp. 63.[2]
- ^ Payne, pp. 516
- ^ Salucci, Illario. A People's History of Iraq: The Iraqi Communist Party, Workers' Movements and the Left, 1924-2004 Pp. 61[3]
- ^ A People's History of Iraq: The Iraqi Communist Party, Workers' Movements and the Left, 1924-2004 Pp. 61[4]
- ^ Payne, pp. 516
- ^ Hooded Americanism: the history of the Ku Klux Klan, pg. 322, David Mark Chalmers, Duke University Press, 1987
- ^ Chalmers, pg. 322-323
- ^ Ku Klux Klan - Affiliations Anti-Defamation League.
- ^ THE KU KLUX KLAN AND FASCISM
- ^ Tom Brass, Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism, Routledge, 2000
- ^ Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldma Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science, 2004 Taylor and Francis
- ^ Evans, pg. 299
- ^ Domarus, Hitler II. 251-252
- ^ David Baker, The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality? New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227 – 250
- ^ Triandis, Harry C. (1998). "Converging Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and Collectivism". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74 (1): 119. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.118.
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suggested) (help); Collectivism. (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 14 November 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024764 - ^ Calvin B. Hoover, "The Paths of Economic Change: Contrasting Tendencies in the Modern World," The American Economic Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, Supplement, Papers and Proceedings of the Forty-seventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association. (Mar., 1935), pp. 13-20; Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945, New York Tayolor & Francis 2003, p. 168
- ^ Friedrich A. Hayek. 1944. The Road to Serfdom. Routledge Press
- ^ David Baker, "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?", New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227–250.
- ^ Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919–1945, Taylor & Francis, 2003, p. 168.
- ^ James A. Gregor, The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 7
- ^ a b Herbert Kitschelt, Anthony J. McGann. The Radical Right in Western Europe: a comparative analysis. 1996 University of Michigan Press. p. 30
- ^ Tibor Ivan Berend, An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p. 93
- ^ Alexander J. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge, 1995. pp. 47.
- ^ De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, pp. 48–51.
- ^ Salvemini, Gaetano. Under the Axe of Fascism 1936.
- ^ a b c d e Daniel Guérin, Fascism and Big Business, Chapter IX, Second section, p.193 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions
- ^ a b Daniel Guérin, Fascism and Big Business, Chapter IX, First section, p.191 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions
- ^ Daniel Guérin, Fascism and Big Business, Chapter IX, Fifth section, p.197 in the 1999 Syllepse Editions
- ^ Frank Bealey & others. Elements of Political Science. Edinburgh University Press, 1999, p. 202
- ^ Postone, Moishe. 1986. "Anti-Semitism and National Socialism." Germans & Jews Since the Holocaust: The Changing Situation in West Germany, ed. Anson Rabinbach and Jack Zipes. New York: Homes & Meier.
- ^ Stephen Haseler. The Death of British Democracy: Study of Britain's Political Present and Future. Prometheus Books 1976. p. 153
- ^ Arthur Scheweitzer (Nov., 1946), "Profits Under Nazi Planning", The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 61, No. 1: 5
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(help) - ^ Rimlinger, G.V. ‘’Social Policy Under German Fascism’’ in Stagnation and Renewal in Social Policy: The Rise and Fall of Policy Regimes by Martin Rein, Gosta Esping-Andersen, and Lee Rainwater, p. 61, M.E. Sharpe, 1987
- ^ Payne, Stanley G. Fascism, Comparison and Definition, pp. 19-21, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 1980
- ^ Fascism The Encyclopedia of World History, Houghton Miflin 2001
- ^ Knight, Patricia Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003
- ^ Knight, Patricia Mussolini and Fascism, p. 72, Routledge, 2003
- ^ Pollard, John Francis The Fascist Experience in Italy , p. 80 Routledge 1998
- ^ De Grazia, Victoria. 2002. How Fascism Ruled Women: Italy, 1922-1945. University of California Press. Pp. 55
- ^ McDonald, Harmish. 1999. Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. Pp. 27
- ^ Roger Griffin, The `post-fascism' of the Alleanza Nazionale: a case-study in ideological morphology, Journal of Political Ideologies, Vol. 1, No. 2, 1996
- ^ McDonald, 1999. Pp. 27
- ^ Henry Friedlander, 'The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of Northern Carolina Press, 1995): 30. Via Google Books.
- ^ McLaren, Angus Twentieth-Century Sexuality p. 139 Blackwell Publishing 1999
- ^ Griffin, Roger and Matthew Feldman [ Fascism: Critical Concepts in Political Science], p. 140, Taylor & Francis, 2004
- ^ Eugenics and the Nazis - the California connection
- ^ McLaren, Angus Twentieth-Century Sexuality p. 139 Blackwell Publishing 1999
- ^ Richard J Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939 pg. 529 The Penguin Press HC, 2005
- ^ Ann Taylor Allen. Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism H-German, H-Net Reviews, January 2006
- ^ Baumslag, Naomi; Pellgrino, Edmund D. 2005. Murderous medicine: Nazi doctors, human experimentation, and typhus. Greenwood Publishing Group. Pp. 37. Claims Nazi scientific reasoning for racial policy was pseudoscience
- ^ Lancaster, Roger N.The Trouble of Nature: Sex in Science and Popular Culture. University of California Press. Pp. 10. Claims that Nazi scientific reasoning for anti-homosexual policy was pseudoscience
- ^ Ann Taylor Allen. Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germay H-German, H-Net Reviews, January 2006
- ^ Hau, Michael, Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germany (review) Modernism/modernity - Volume 14, Number 2, April 2007, pp. 378-380, The Johns Hopkins University Press
- ^ Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, pgs. 27-28
- ^ Evans, pgs. 491-492
- ^ a b c Laqueur, Walter Fascism: Past, Present, Future p.41 1996 Oxford University Press]
- ^ Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. p.204-9
- ^ Farrell, Nicholas Mussolini: A New Life p.5 2004 Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.
- ^ Pollard, John F. (1985). The Vatican and Italian Fascism, 1929-32. Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press. p53
- ^ Laqueur, WalterFascism: Past, Present, Future pp. 31, 42, 1996 Oxford University Press]
- ^ Laqueur, WalterFascism: Past, Present, Future p.42 1996 Oxford University Press]
- ^ "Garrido Canabal, Tomás". The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition (2005).
- ^ The New International Yearbook p. 442, Dodd, Mead and Co. 1966
- ^ Millan, Verna Carleton, Mexico Reborn, p.101, 1939 Riverside Press
- ^ Krauze, Enrique THE TROUBLING ROOTS OF MEXICO'S LÓPEZ OBRADOR: Tropical Messiah The New Republic 19 June 2006
- ^ Parsons, Wilfrid Mexican Martyrdom, p. 238, 2003 Kessinger Publishing
- ^ Arjomand, Said Amir, Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran, Oxford University Press, 1988, p.208-9
- ^ Laqueur, WalterFascism: Past, Present, Future p.148 1996 Oxford University Press]
- ^ source: Weber, E. "Rumania" in H. Rogger and E. Weber, eds., The European Right: A Historical Profile. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965.
- ^ Nagy-Talavera, N. M. The Green Shirts and the Others. A History of Fascism in Hungary and Rumania. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1970; p.247, 266-70
- ^ Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. p.208-9
- ^ Hilton, S. "Acao Integralista Brasiliera: Fascism in Brazil, 1932-38" Lusa Brazilian Review, v.9, n.2, 1972: 12
- ^ Williams, M.T. "Integralism and the Brazilian Catholic Church." Hispanic American Historical Review, v.54, n.3, 1974: 436-40
- ^ Turban for the Crown : The Islamic Revolution in Iran by Said Amir Arjomand. p.208-9
- ^ Payne, Stanley A History of Fascism, 1914-1945, pp. 345-346, Routledge 1996
- ^ Griffin, Roger Fascism, Totalitarianism and Political Religion, p. 7 2005Routledge
- ^ Maier, Hans and Jodi Bruhn Totalitarianism and Political Religions, p. 108, 2004 Routledge
- ^ Eatwell, Roger The Nature of Fascism: or Essentialism by Another Name? 2004
- ^ Maier, Hans and Jodi Bruhn Totalitarianism and Political Religions, p. 108, 2004 Routledge
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- de Oliveira Salazar, António . 1939. Doctrine and Action: Internal and Foreign Policy of the New Portugal, 1928-1939. Faber and Faber.
- Mosley, Sir Oswald. 1968. My Life. Nelson Publications.
- de Rivera, José Antonio Primo. 1971. Textos de Doctrina Politica. Madrid.
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- De Felice, Renzo. 1976. Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice. Transaction Books. ISBN 0878556192
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- Ben-Am, Shlomo. 1983. Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923-1930. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198225962
- Payne, Stanley G. 1987. The Franco Regime, 1936-1975. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299110702
- Vatikiotis, Panayiotis J. 1988. Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936-1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis Metaxas. Routledge. ISBN 0714648698
- Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914-45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299148742
- Costa Pinto, António. 1995. Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: Problems of Interpretation. Social Science Monographs. ISBN 0880339683
- Griffiths, Richard. 2001. An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism. Duckworth. ISBN 0715629182
- Lewis, Paul H. 2002. Latin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar Regimes. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 027597880X
- Payne, Stanley G. 2003. Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism. Textbook Publishers. ISBN 0758134452
- Paxton, Robert O. 2005. The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books. ISBN 1400033918
- Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
- Nolte, Ernst The Three Faces Of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, translated from the German by Leila Vennewitz, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965.
- Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
- Seldes, George. 1935. Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
- Alfred Sohn-Rethel Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism,London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0906336007
- Kallis, Aristotle A. ," To Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland'" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Apr., 2003), pp. 237-260.
- Goldberg, Jonah. 2007. Liberal Fascism. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0385511841
- Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5
- Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, Routledge, London.
- Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-511793-X
- Sauer, Wolfgang "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" pages 404-424 from The American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2, December 1967.
- Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006 , pages 227 – 250
- Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
- Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)
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