Border control

"Border crossing" redirects here. For other uses, see Border Crossing.

The border gate between Phuentsholing, Bhutan and Jaigaon, India seen from Bhutan.

The border as seen from the Indian side.

File:Bordercontrol.jpg

Border control at a US airport.

North Korean border control at Pyongyang Sunan International Airport.

Border controls are measures taken by a country or a bloc of countries to regulate and monitor its borders. Border controls are put in place to regulate the movement of people, animals and goods into as well as out of a country.

Border controls are usually the responsibility of specialised government agencies. Such agencies may oversee various aspects of border control, such as customs, immigration policy, border security, quarantine, and other such aspects. Official designations, jurisdictions and command structures of these agencies vary considerably, and some countries split border control functions across multiple agencies (such as the various agencies under the American Department of Homeland Security).

History

States and rulers have always regarded the ability to determine who enters or remains in their territories as a key test of their sovereignty, but prior to World War I, border controls were only sporadically implemented. In medieval Europe, for example, the boundaries between rival countries and centres of power were largely symbolic or consisted of amorphous borderlands, ‘marches’ and ‘debatable lands’ of indeterminate or contested status and the real ‘borders’ consisted of the fortified walls that surrounded towns and cities, where the authorities could exclude undesirable or incompatible people at the gates, from vagrants, beggars and the ‘wandering poor’, to ‘masterless women’, lepers, Gypsies or Jews.

The concept of a travel document such as a passport needed to clear border controls in the modern sense has been traced back to the reign of Henry V of England, as a means of helping his subjects prove who they were in foreign lands. The earliest reference to these documents is found in a 1414 Act of Parliament. In 1540, granting travel documents in England became a role of the Privy Council of England, and it was around this time that the term "passport" was used. In 1794, issuing British passports became the job of the Office of the Secretary of State. The 1548 Imperial Diet of Augsburg required the public to hold imperial documents for travel, at the risk of permanent exile. During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons, and to control the emigration of people with useful skills. These controls remained in place after the war, becoming a standard, though controversial, procedure. British tourists of the 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, which they considered led to a "nasty dehumanisation".

One of the earliest systematic attempts of a modern nation state to implement border controls to restrict entry of particular groups was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in America. This act aimed to implement discriminatory immigration controls on East Asians. The strict and racist border control policies had a negative impact not only on the Chinese alone but also on whites and other races as well which lasted for about thirty years. The American economy suffered a great loss as a result of this Act. The Act was a sign of injustice and unfair treatment to the Chinese workers because the jobs they engaged in were mostly menial jobs.

A similarly discriminatory approach to border control was taken in Canada through the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885, imposing what came to be called the Chinese head tax.

Decolonisation during the twentieth century saw the emergence of mass emigration from nations in the Global South, thus leading former colonial occupiers to introduce stricter border controls. In the United Kingdom this process took place in stages, with British nationality law eventually shifting from recognising all Commonwealth citizens as British subjects to today’s complex British nationality law which distinguishes between British citizens, modern British Subjects, British Overseas Citizens, and overseas nationals, with each non-standard category created as a result of attempts to balance border control and the need to mitigate statelessness. This aspect of the rise of border control in the 20th century has proven controversial. The British Nationality Law 1981 has been criticised by experts, as well as by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of the United Nations, on the grounds that the different classes of British nationality it created are, in fact, closely related to the ethnic origins of their holders.

The creation of British Nationality (Overseas) status, for instance, (with fewer privileges than British citizen status) was met with criticism from many Hong Kong residents who felt that British citizenship would have been more appropriate in light of the "moral debt" owed to them by the UK. Some British politicians and magazines also criticised the creation of BN(O) status.

Ethnic tensions created during colonial occupation also resulted in discriminatory policies being adopted in newly independent African nations, such as Uganda under Idi Amin which banned Asians from Uganda, thus creating a mass exodus of the (largely Gujarati) Asian community of Uganda. Such ethnically driven border control policies took forms ranging from anti-Asian sentiment in East Africa to Apartheid policies in South Africa and Namibia (then known as Southwest Africa under South African rule) which creates bantustans and pass laws to segregate and impose border controls against non-whites, and encouraged immigration of whites at the expense of Blacks as well as Indians and other Asians. Whilst border control in Europe and east of the Pacific have tightened over time, they have largely been liberalised in Africa, from Yoweri Museveni’s reversal of Idi Amin’s anti-Asian border controls to the fall of Apartheid (and thus racialised border controls) in South Africa.

The development of border control policies over the course of the 20th century also saw the standardisation of refugee travel documents under the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951 and the 1954 Convention travel document for stateless people under the similar 1954 statelessness convention.

Aspects

There are multiple aspects of border control.

Quarantine

Quarantine operations deployed by mainland Chinese border control.

Main article: Quarantine

Quarantine policies exist to control the spread of disease. When applied as a component of border control, such policies focus primarily on mitigating the entry of infected individuals, plants, or animals into a country.

Customs

Southern edge (customs border) of Captain Cook wharf, Ports of Auckland, New Zealand. An electric fence is faintly visible behind the historical fence

Main article: Customs

Each country has its own laws and regulations for the import and export of goods into and out of a country, which its customs authority enforces. The import or export of some goods may be restricted or forbidden, in which case customs controls enforce such policies. Customs enforcement at borders can also entail collecting excise tax and preventing the smuggling of dangerous or illegal goods. A customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation (usually) or exportation (unusually) of goods.

In many countries, border controls for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red and green channels in order to prioritise customs enforcement. Within the European Union’s common customs area, airports may operate additional blue channels for passengers arriving from within that area. For such passengers, border control may focus specifically on prohibited items and other goods that are not covered by the common policy. Luggage tags for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified. In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries within the Schengen Area can use the green lane, although airports outside the Schengen Area or with frequent flights arriving from jurisdictions within Schengen but outside the European Union may use blue channels for convenience and efficiency.

Customs area

A customs area is an area designated for storage of commercial goods that have not cleared border controls for customs purposes. It is surrounded by a customs border. Commercial goods not yet cleared through customs are often stored in a type of customs area known as a bonded warehouse, until processed or re-exported. Ports authorised to handle international cargo generally include recognised bonded warehouses.

For the purpose of customs duties, goods within the customs area are treated as being outside the country. This allows easy transshipment to a third country without customs authorities being involved. For this reason, customs areas are usually carefully controlled and fenced to prevent smuggling. However, the area is still territorially part of the country, so the goods within the area are subject to other local laws (for example drug laws and biosecurity regulations), and thus may be searched, impounded or turned back.

The term is also sometimes used to define an area (usually composed of several countries) which form a customs union, a customs territory, or to describe the area at airports and ports where travellers are checked through customs.

Duty-free shops

Duty Free Shop at Pyongyang Sunan International Airport

Main article: Duty-free shop

Common at international airports and occasionally at seaports or land crossings, duty-free shops sell products tax-free to customers who have cleared exit border controls prior to boarding an international flight and, in some airports, to passengers arriving from overseas. Most countries impose limits on how much of each type of duty-free goods, may be purchased by each passenger. The airport with the most duty-free sales is Seoul Incheon Airport, with US$1.85 billion in 2016. Dubai International Airport is second, recording transactions worth $1.82 billion in 2016.

Border security

Border security measures are border control policies adopted by a country or group of countries to fight against unauthorised travel or trade across its borders, tlimit illegal immigration, combat transnational crime, and prevent wanted criminals from travelling.

As a border security measure, some jurisdictions in the west (such as Germany and Israel) have historically stamped denied entries on passports. This stamp was issued by Israeli authorities at the Taba Border Crossing (and misspells the English word "entry").

The border fence built by India, as seen from near the Hili border station on the Bangladeshi side.

In India, border security focuses primarily on the Bangladeshi and Pakistani borders. In order to deter unlawful immigration and drug trafficking from Bangladesh, India is constructing the India-Bangladesh barrier. On the Pakistani border, the Border Security Force aims to prevent the infiltration of Indian territory by terrorists from Pakistan and other countries in the west (Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, etc).

American border security focuses primarily on the Mexico-United States border. Security along this border is composed of many distinct elements, including physical barriers, patrol routes, lighting, and the deployment of border patrol personnel. President Donald Trump's proposal to build a wall along the border was a major feature of his campaign, and he has since attempted to have Congress pay US$18 billion for its cost in the short term. Democrats and members of the Republican Party who do not support President Trump argue that other measures would be more effective at reducing illegal immigration than building a wall, including border surveillance and an increase in the number of customs agents.

Similar to India's barrier with Bangladesh and the proposed wall between America and Mexico, Iran has constructed a wall on its frontier with Pakistan. The wall aims to reduce unauthorised border crossings and stem the flow of drugs, and is also a response to terrorist attacks, notably the one in the Iranian border town of Zahedan on 17 February 2007, which killed thirteen people, including nine Iranian Revolutionary Guard officials.

Hungarian border barrier with Serbia

Border security has, over the first two decades of the century, also become a major concern in the Schengen Area, specifically as a result of the European migrant crisis. The walls at Melilla and at Ceuta on Spain’s border with Morocco are a part of the trend towards increasing border security in response to an unprecedented rise in both refugees and economic migrants from countries in Sub Saharan Africa. Similar, though less drastic, measures have been taken on the Schengen area’s borders with Turkey in response to the refugee crisis created in Syria by terrorist organisations such as Daesh and the Syrian Free Army. The creation of European Union’s collective border security organisation, Frontex, is another aspect of the bloc’s growing focus on border security. Within the Schengen Area, border security has become an especially prominent priority for the Hungarian government under right-wing strongman Viktor Orbán. Hungary completed the construction of a 175 kilometre wall between with Serbia in September 2015 and on the border with Croatia in October 2015 to stop unauthorised border crossings. In April 2016, Hungarian government announced construction of reinforcements of the barrier, which it described as "temporary". In July 2016, nearly 1,300 migrants were "stuck" on the Serbian side of the border. In August 2016, Orbán announced that Hungary will build another larger barrier on its southern border. On April 28, 2017, the Hungarian government announced it had completed a second fence, 155 kilometres long with Serbia. On September 24, 2015, Hungary began building fence on its border with Slovenia, in the area around Tornyiszentmiklós–Pince border crossing. The razor wire obstacle was removed two days later. As of March 2016, everything is in place if Hungary decides to build a border barrier on the Hungarian–Romanian border – the military is "only waiting for the command from the government".

Another example of border security in the west is the Israeli anti-tunnel barrier along its border with the Gaza Strip, a part of the State of Palestine under the control of Hamas (a militant group backed by the Muslim Brotherhood, a Qatari-sponsored fundamentalist organisation). In order to curtail Hamas’s ability to build tunnels into Israeli-controlled territory, Israel have built a slurry wall.

In 2003, Botswana began building a 480 kilometre long electric fence along its border with Zimbabwe. The official reason for the fence is to stop the spread of foot-and-mouth disease among livestock. Zimbabweans argue that the height of the fence is clearly intended to keep out people. Botswana has responded that the fence is designed to keep out cattle, and to ensure that entrants have their shoes disinfected at legal border crossings. Botswana also argued that the government continues to encourage legal movement into the country. Zimbabwe was unconvinced, and the barrier remains a source of tension.

Border zones

Frontier Closed Area signboard at Lo Wu

Border zone marked on a tree on the Finland–Russia border: no entry.

Border zones are areas near borders that have special restrictions on movement. Governments may forbid unauthorised entry to or exit from border zones and restrict property ownership in the area. The zones function as buffer zones specifically monitored by border patrols in order to prevent illegal entry or exit. Restricting entry aids in pinpointing illegal intruders, since by nulla poena sine lege ("no penalty without a law"), any person could be present in the area near the border, and illegal intruders, such as illegal immigrants, smugglers or spies could blend in. However, if all unauthorised presence is forbidden, their mere presence of intruders allows the authorities to arrest them. Border zones between hostile states can be heavily militarised, with minefields, barbed wire and watchtowers. Some border zones are designed to prevent illegal immigration or emigration, and do not have many restrictions but may operate checkpoints to check immigration status. In most places, a border vista is usually included and/or required. In some nations, movement inside a border zone without a licence is an offence and will result in arrest. No probable cause is required as mere presence inside the zone is an offence, if it is intentional. Even with a licence to enter, photography, making fires, and carrying of firearms and hunting are prohibited.

Examples of international border zones are the Border Security Zone of Russia and the Finnish border zone on the Finnish–Russian border. There are also intra-country zones such as the Cactus Curtain surrounding the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba, the Korean Demilitarised Zone along the North Korea-South Korea demarcation line and the Frontier Closed Area in Hong Kong, China. Important historical examples are the Wire of Death set up by Nazi Germany to control the Belgium–Netherlands border and the Iron Curtain, a set of border zones maintained by the Soviet Union and its satellite states along their borders with Western states. One of the most militarised parts was the restricted zone of the inner German border. While initially and officially the zone was for border security, eventually it was engineered to prevent escape from the Soviet sphere into the West. Ultimately, the Eastern Bloc governments resorted to using lethal countermeasures against those trying to cross the border, such as mined fences and orders to shoot anyone trying to cross into the West. The restrictions on building and habitation made the area a "green corridor", today established as the European Green Belt.

In the area stretching inwards from its internal border with the mainland, Hong Kong maintains a Frontier Closed Area out of bounds to those without special authorisation. The area was established in the 1950s when Hong Kong under British occupation as a consequence of the Treaty of Nanjing during the Opium Wars, prior to its return to China in 1997. The purposes of the area were to prevent illegal immigration and smuggling; smuggling had become prevalent as a consequence of the Korean war. Today, under the one country, two systems policy, the area continues to be used to curtail unauthorised migration to Hong Kong and the smuggling of goods in either direction.

As a result of the partition of the Korean peninsula by America and the Soviet Union after World War II, and exacerbated by the subsequent Korean war, there is a Demilitarised Zone spanning the de facto border between North and South Korea. The Demilitarised Zone follows the effective boundaries as of the end of the Korean War in 1953. Similarly to the Frontier Closed Area in Hong Kong, this zone and the defence apparatus that exists on both sides of the border serve to curtail unauthorised passage between the two sides. In South Korea, there is an additional fenced-off area between the Civilian Control Line and the start of the Demilitarised Zone, further strengthening border security

Immigration policy

Immigration policy is the aspect of border control concerning the transit of people into a country, especially those that intend to stay and work in the country. Immigration policies can range from allowing no migration at all to (in exceptional cases) allowing most types of migration, such as the free migration policy in force in Svalbard. Often, racial or religious bias is tied to immigration policy. Taxation, tariff and trade rules set out what goods immigrants may bring with them, and what services they may perform while temporarily in the country. Investment policy sometimes permits wealthy immigrants to invest in businesses in exchange for favourable treatment and eventual naturalisation. Agricultural policy may make exemptions for migrant farm workers, who typically enter a country only for the harvest season and then return home to a developing nation (such as Mexico or Jamaica from where America and Canada, respectively, often import temporary agricultural labour). An important aspect of immigration policy is the treatment of refugees, more or less helpless or stateless people who throw themselves on the mercy of the state they try to enter, seeking refuge from actual or purported poor treatment in their country of origin. Asylum is sometimes granted to those who face persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.

International zones

An international zone is a type of extraterritorial area not fully subject to any country’s border control policies. The term most commonly refer to the areas of international airports after exit border controls or before entry border controls. These areas often contain duty-free shopping, but they are not fully extraterritorial. In areas of conflict there may be international zones called green zones that form protective enclaves to keep diplomats safe. Countries in conflict may also have international zones separating each other.

Examples

• Iraq has its international zone around the Republican Palace in central Baghdad in a crook of the Tigris River. This area was and still is the heavily fortified headquarters for the coalition and Iraqi Reconstruction Ministries. The official name started as the "Green Zone" but was later changed to the "International Zone" in June 2004 with the return of sovereignty to the Iraqi people.

The four sectors of occupation in Vienna between 1945-1955.

• French, British, American and Soviet troops divided Vienna into four zones, and a small international zone of the historical center of Vienna was governed in rotation by troops of those countries

• The international zone in an international airport is the area where arriving international passengers have not formally entered the country by clearing arrival customs and immigration controls, and departing passengers have formally exited the country by clearing exit immigration control. Transit passengers can take connecting international flights in the international zone without clearing customs and immigration controls, and in most cases do not require a visa. Some countries, however, require passengers of certain nationalities to hold a direct airside transit visa even when they would not need to pass through border controls. A major exception is the United States, where all passengers arriving on international flights are subject to customs and immigration inspections. Hence, transiting at a U.S. airport require at least a C-1 transit visa, or a travel authorisation for Visa Waiver Program (VWP) travellers. A common feature of the international zone is duty-free shopping for departing and transit passengers. International zones in airports are fully under the jurisdiction of the country where they are located and local laws apply. Persons caught committing an unlawful act (e.g. possession of contraband such as illegal drugs) in the international zone are liable for prosecution.

United Nations Headquarters street view from First Avenue in Manhattan, New York City

• The headquarters of the United Nations is a complex in New York City that exists on international territory. The territory is administered by the United Nations, but is still subjected to most local, state, and federal laws. The United Nations has three additional, subsidiary, regional headquarters or headquarter districts. These are located in Geneva (Switzerland), Vienna (Austria), and Nairobi (Kenya). These adjunct offices also enjoy certain extraterritorial privileges.

• The United Kingdom and France established "international zones" or "control zones" at both ends of the Channel Tunnel, which crosses underneath the English Channel. British authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the French side, and French authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the UK side. Violations in the control zone are treated as if they occurred within the territory of the adjoining state within that zone, and extradition is not required to remove a violator to the operating state for prosecution. Officers of the adjoining state may carry firearms within the control zone.

• The Tangier International Zone was formally a protectorate exercised by several countries in the Moroccan city of Tangier and its environs between 1923 and 1956. It was an area of international control, that is to say, whose government and administration was in the hands of an international commission composed of a number of countries.

• Princess Margriet of the Netherlands was born in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, as the family had been living there since June 1940 after the occupation of the Netherlands by Germany. The maternity ward of Ottawa Civic Hospital in which Princess Margriet was born was temporarily declared by the Canadian government to be extraterritorial. It was thus outside the Canadian domain, unaffiliated with any jurisdiction, and international territory. This was done to ensure that the newborn princess would derive her citizenship from her mother only, thus making her solely Dutch and still eligible for the Dutch line of succession to the throne. A similar case may have occurred in 1945 when it is suggested that suite 212 of the Claridge's hotel in London was temporarily ceded to Yugoslavia for Alexander, the Crown Prince of Yugoslavia and a member of the exiled royal family, to be born in the territory of his country. However, investigations in Britain have found no official proof that this happened.

• Under the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the city of Jerusalem was supposed to become an International Zone. This was never implemented; the city was the scene of fierce fighting in 1948 which culminated in its partition between Israel and Jordan. Nineteen years later in 1967 the Jordanian-occupied part was captured and unilaterally annexed by Israel. However, the idea of an international zone in Jerusalem, embracing at least the highly sensitive Old City of Jerusalem, continues to be floated by various would-be mediators.
• The Green Line separating the Southern Cyprus and Northern Cyprus is considered an International Zone because the United Nations operate and patrol within the buffer zone. The buffer zone was established in 1974 due to ethnic tensions between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The green line is a demilitarised zone and thus acts in the same way as the 38th parallel separating the Republic of Korea and North Korea. The United Nations currently has its headquarters for the UNFICYP at the abandoned Nicosia International Airport, where the majority of peacekeepers are based and where talks between the two governments are held.

Specific requirements

The degree of strictness of border controls varies across countries and borders. In some countries, controls may be targeted at the traveller's religion, ethnicity, nationality, or other countries that have been visited. Others may need to be certain the traveller has paid the appropriate fees for their visas and has future travel planned out of the country. Yet others may concentrate on the contents of the traveler's baggage, and imported goods to ensure nothing is being carried that might bring a biosecurity risk into the country.

Border vistas

Further information: International Boundary Commission

The vista along the Canada–United States border, as seen from a wayside on the Alaska Highway.

A border vista or boundary vista is a defined cleared space between two areas of foliage located at an international border intended to provide a clear demarcation line between the two areas. Border vistas are most commonly found along undefended international boundary lines, where border security is not as much of a necessity and a built barrier is undesired, and are a treaty requirement for certain borders.

The best-known border vista is a six-metre cleared space around unguarded portions of the Canada–United States border.

Similar clearings along the border line are provided for by many international treaties. For example, the 2006 border management treaty between Russia and China provides for a 15-metre wide cleared strip along the two nations' border.

Travel documents

See also: Travel document and Passport

Different countries impose varying travel document regulations and requirements as part of their border control policies and these may vary based on the traveller's mode of transport. For instance, whilst America does not subject passengers departing by land or most boats to any border control, it does require that passengers departing by air hold a valid passport (or certain specific passport-replacing documents). Even though travellers might not require a passport to enter a certain country, they will require a valid passport booklet (booklet only, U.S. Passport Card not accepted) to depart the United States in order to satisfy the U.S. immigration authorities. Exemptions to this requirement to hold a valid passport include:

• U.S. Permanent Resident/Resident Alien Card (Form I-551);
• U.S. Military ID Cards when traveling on official orders;
• U.S. Merchant Mariner Card;
• NEXUS Card;
• U.S. Travel Document:
  • Refugee Travel Document (Form I-571); or
  • Permit to Re-Enter (Form I-327)
• Emergency Travel Document (e.g. Consular Letter) issued by a Foreign Embassy or Consulate specifically for the purpose of travel to the bearer's home country.
• Nationals of Mexico holding one of the following documents:
  • (expired) "Matricula Consular"; or
  • Birth Certificate with consular registration; or
  • Certificate of Nationality issued by a Mexican consulate abroad; or
  • Certificate of Military Duty (Cartilla Militar); or
  • Voter's Certificate (Credencial IFE or Credencial para Votar).

Canada requires any Canadian Permanent Residents entering the country by air to use their Permanent Resident Card or a special document authorising their return. No such requirement is imposed on a permanent resident entering by land or sea. Canadian citizens are prohibited from using a foreign passport to enter the country.

Facilitated Rail Transit Document issued in Saint Petersburg by the Lithuanian consulate general to permit a Russian citizen to travel by rail to Kaliningrad

Other countries, including most countries in Western Europe and China, permit (or in China's case require) citizens to utilise national identity cards to clear immigration when travelling between adjacent jurisdictions. As a consequence of awkward border situations created by the fall of the Soviet Union, certain former members of the USSR and their neighbours require few or no travel documents for travellers transiting across international boundaries between two points in a single country. For instance, Russia permits vehicles to transit across the Saatse Boot between the Estonian villages of Lutepää and Sesniki without any border control provided that they do not stop. Similar provisions are made for the issuance of Facilitated Rail Transit Documents by Schengen Area members for travel between Kaliningrad and the Russian mainland.

Quilantan entry

A ‘Quilantan’ or ‘Wave Through’ Entry is a phenomenon in American border control law authorising a form of non-standard but legal entry without any inspection of travel documents. It occurs when the border security personnel present at a border crossing choose to summarily admit some number of persons without performing a standard interview or document examination.

Typically this can occur when an official border crossing is busy and an immigration officer waves a car through without first checking all passengers for their travel documents. If an individual can prove that they were waved into the United States in this manner, then they are considered to have entered with inspection despite not having answered any questions or received a passport entry stamp.

This definition of legal entry does not apply to situations where foreigners entered the United States but have not crossed at a legal, manned border station. Thus it does not provide a path to legal residency for those who have entered into the United State by crossing accidental gaps in the borders around geological formations.

Border areas

The front of the updated version of the American Border Crossing Card issued to Mexican nationals

In certain cases, countries adopt border control policies imposing reduced border controls for frequent travellers intending to remain within a border area. For example, the relaxed border controls maintained by Bhutan for those not proceeding past Phuentsholing and certain other border cities enable travellers to enter without going through any document check whatsoever. The American Border Crossing Card issued to Mexican nationals enables Mexicans to enter border areas without a passport. Both America and Bhutan maintain interior checkposts to enforce compliance.

Similarly, Schengen states which share an external land border with a non-EU member state are authorised by virtue of the EU Regulation 1931/2006 to conclude or maintain bilateral agreements with neighbouring third countries for the purpose of implementing a local border traffic regime. Such agreements define a border area on either side of the border, and provide for the issuance of local border traffic permits to residents of the border area. Permits may be used to cross the EU external border within the border area, are not stamped on crossing the border and must display the holder's name and photograph, as well as a statement that its holder is not authorised to move outside the border area and that any abuse shall be subject to penalties.

Agricultural restrictions

In certain countries, border control focuses extensively on curtailing and regulating the import of foreign agricultural products. Australian border controls, for example, restrict virtually all food products, certain wooden products and other similar items. Similar restrictions exist in Canada, America and New Zealand.

Drugs

Border controls in many countries in the Greater India region prioritise mitigating trade in narcotics. For instance, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia impose mandatory death sentences on individuals caught smuggling restricted substances across their borders. India and Malaysia are focusing resources on eliminating drug smuggling from Myanmar and Thailand respectively. The issue stems largely from the high output of dangerous drugs in the Golden Triangle as well as in regions further west such as Afghanistan.

A similar problem exists east of the pacific, and has resulted in countries such as Mexico and America tightening border control in response to the northward flow of illegal substances from regions such as Colombia. The Mexican Drug War and similar cartel activity in neighbouring areas has exacerbated the problem.

Visas

Example of a tourist visa placed directly inside a travel document.

Sample of printed out eNTRI slip, a system which enables Indian citizens and citizens of China from the mainland to clear Malaysian border controls without a visa by registering the details of their trip online prior to arrival.

Visa issued on arrival in Thailand

Most countries impose visa requirements on foreign nationals, and depending on the country's border control strategy these can be liberal or restrictive. Many countries in the Greater India region have liberalised their visa controls in recent years to encourage transnational business and tourism. For example India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka have introduced electronic visas to make border control less of a bureaucratic hurdle for business travellers and tourists. Malaysia has introduced similar eVisa facilities, and has also introduced the eNTRI programme to expedite clearance for Indian citizens and Chinese citizens from the mainland. Thailand regularly issues visas on arrival to many non-exempt visitors at major ports of entry in order to encourage tourism. Indonesia, in recent years, has progressively liberalised its visa regime, no longer requiring visas or on-arrival visas from most nationals, while Singapore has signed visa waiver agreements with many countries in recent years and has introduced electronic visa facilities for Indians, Eastern Europeans, and mainland Chinese.

East of the Pacific, America and Canada have introduced electronic travel authorisations for certain nationalities to simplify border control. Bermuda has ceased to issue its own visas and instead requires that travellers either clear immigration in one of the three countries (America, Canada, and the United Kingdom) to/from which it has direct visa-free flights, or hold a visa for one of them.

Substitute visas

Many countries let individuals clear border controls using foreign visas. For instance, the following countries accept American visas in lieu of their own:

• Albania — 90 days;
• Antigua and Barbuda — 30 days; USD 100 visa waiver fee applies.
• Belize — 30 days; USD 50 visa waiver fee applies.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina — 30 days;
• Canada — up to 6 months; only for citizens of Brazil, arriving by air with Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA).
• Chile — 90 days; for nationals of China only.
• Colombia — 90 days; applicable to certain nationalities only.
• Costa Rica — 30 days or less if the visa is about to expire; must hold a multiple entry visa.
• Dominican Republic — 90 days;
• El Salvador — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
• Georgia — 90 days within any 180-day period;
• Guatemala — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
• Honduras — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
• Jamaica — 30 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
• Macedonia — 15 days;
• Mexico — 180 days;
• Montenegro — 30 days;
• Nicaragua — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
• Oman — certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Omani visa if holding a valid US visa.
• Panama — 30/180 days; must hold a visa valid for at least 2 more entries.
• Peru — 180 days; applicable to nationals of China and India only.
• Philippines — 7 days for nationals of China from the mainland; 14 days for nationals of India.
• Qatar — Non-visa-free nationals can obtain an electronic travel authorization for 30 days if holding a valid US visa.
• São Tomé and Príncipe — 15 days;
• Serbia — 90 days;
• South Korea — 30 days;
• Taiwan — certain nationalities, including Indian citizens, can obtain an online travel authority if holding a valid US visa.
• Turkey — certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Turkish visa if holding a valid US visa.
• UAE — Visa on arrival for 14 days; for nationals of India only. (Also applicable for Indian Citizens holding US Green Card.)

In the Philippines, in addition to American visas, nationals of India and China can use several alternative visas to clear border controls. Nationals of China from the mainland travelling as tourists and holding a valid visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and stay without a visa for up to 7 days. Nationals of India holding a valid tourist, business or resident visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, Singapore, United Kingdom, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and stay without a visa for up to 14 days. They may enter from any port of entry.

South Korea lets passengers in transit enter for up to thirty days utilising an American, Australian, Canadian, or Schengen visa.

Exit controls

India and China, like most countries, implement border controls at both entry and exit, and consequently stamp passports upon exit

Entry stamp at Lewiston–Queenston Bridge, Ontario. Canada only conducts border control and stamps passports upon entry.

Whilst most countries implement border controls both at entry and at exit, some jurisdictions do not. For instance, America and Canada do not implement exit controls at land borders and collect exit data on foreign nationals through airlines and through information sharing with neighbouring countries’ entry border controls. These countries consequently don’t issue exit stamps even to travellers who require stamps on entry. At Singapore Changi Airport Terminal 4, there is a mechanism in place for all passengers (not just those residents and pass holders permitted to enter through automated gates) to exit through automated channels, thus not receiving exit stamps. Similarly, Australia and South Korea have eliminated exit stamps even though they continue to implement brief border control checks upon exit for most foreign nationals.

Nationality and travel history

Many nations implement border controls restricting the entry of people of certain nationalities or who have visited certain countries. For instance Georgia refuses entry to holders of passports issued by the Republic of China. Similarly, since April 2017 nationals of Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria, Yemen, and Iran have been banned from entering the parts of eastern Libya under the control of the Tobruk government. America does not currently issue new visas to nationals of Iran, North Korea, Libya, Somalia, Syria, or Yemen pursuant to restrictions imposed by the Trump administration.. In the case of the American policy, restrictions are conditional and can be lifted if those countries meet the required security standards specified by the Trump administration, and dual citizens of these countries can still enter if they present a passport from a non-designated country. As a consequence of the occupation of Palestine and the discriminatory policies imposed upon Palestinians by Israel, the majority of Arab countries, as well as Iran and Malaysia, ban Israeli citizens, however exceptional entry to Malaysia is possible with approval from the Ministry of Home Affairs. Certain countries may also restrict entry to those with Israeli stamps or visas in their passports.

Map of visa requirements for Chinese citizens of Taiwan illustrating extra border controls placed on passport holders without ID numbers.

In some cases, border control policies target stateless individuals, or individuals holding nationality statuses without right of abode, including individuals with Republic of China (ROC) passports without a national ID, and British Subjects, British Overseas Citizens without indefinite leave to remain in the United Kingdom. ROC nationals without ID numbers do not, for instance, have access to the American Visa Waiver Programme, or to visa free access to the Schengen Area or Japan. Other countries, such as India which allows all Chinese nationals to apply for eVisas, don’t make such a distinction. Singapore imposes strict controls on stateless individuals and refugees, and reduces length of stay for British nationals without right of abode, but does not distinguish between ROC passports with and without national ID numbers.

As a result of tension over the Artsakh dispute, Azerbaijan currently forbids entry to Armenian citizens as well as to individuals with proof of travel to Artsakh.

Free travel areas

Certain neighbouring countries may agree to fully or partially abolish border controls between them.

Central America-4 Border Control Agreement

Main article: Central America-4 Border Control Agreement

The Central America-4 Border Control Agreement abolishes border controls for land travel between El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. However, this does not apply to air travel.

Union State of Russia and Belarus

Main article: Union State of Russia and Belarus

The Union State of Russia and Belarus is a supranational union of Russia and Belarus, which eliminates all border controls between the two nations. However, each country continues to maintain its own visa policies, thus resulting in non-citizens of the two countries generally being barred from travelling directly between the two.

Western Europe

Main articles: Schengen Area and Common Travel Area

The two most significant free travel areas in Western Europe are the Schengen area, in which very little if any border control is generally visible, and the Common Travel Area (CTA), which partially eliminates such controls for nationals of the United Kingdom and Ireland. Between countries in the Schengen Area, and to an extent within the CTA on the British Isles, internal border control is often virtually unnoticeable, and often only performed by means of random car or train searches in the hinterland, while controls at borders with non-member states may be rather strict.

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  Irish border at Killeen (within CTA) marked only by a metric speed sign, as the Republic of Ireland uses the metric system whilst British road signs use imperial units
• 
  Open Schengen Area border crossing between Germany and the Netherlands

Greater India

Visa policy of Bhutan, showing free movement arrangement between India and Bhutan

Main articles: 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship and Visa policy of Bhutan

India and Nepal maintain a similar arrangement to the CTA and the Union State of Russia and Belarus. Indians and Nepalis aren’t subject to any migration controls in each other’s countries and there are few controls on land travel by citizens across the border.

India and Bhutan also have a similar system. The border between Jaigaon, in the Indian state of West Bengal, and the city of Phuentsholing is essentially open, and although there are internal checkpoints, Indians are allowed to proceed throughout Bhutan with a voter’s ID or an identity slip from the Indian consulate in Phuentsholing. Similarly, Bhutanese passport holders enjoy free movement in India.

Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement

A New Zealand visa stamp issued under Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement on an Australian travel document.

The Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement is an arrangement between Australia and New Zealand which allows for the free movement of citizens of one of these countries to the other.

The arrangement came into effect in 1973, and allows citizens of each country to reside and work in the other country, with some restrictions. Other details of the arrangement have varied over time. From 1 July 1981, all people entering Australia (including New Zealand citizens) have been required to carry a passport. Since 1 September 1994 Australia has had a universal visa requirement, and to specifically cater for the continued free movement of New Zealanders to Australia the Special Category Visa was introduced for New Zealanders.

Expedited border controls

Certain countries and trade blocs establish programmes for high-frequency and/or low risk travellers to expedite border controls, subjecting them to lighter or automated checks, or priority border control facilities. In some countries, citizens or residents have access to automated facilities not available to foreigners.

British Isles

United Kingdom

ePassport gates in Heathrow Airport (Terminal 4)

ePassport gates in Heathrow Airport (Terminal 5)

ePassport gates are operated by the UK Border Force and are located at immigration checkpoints in the arrival halls of some airports across the United Kingdom, offering an alternative to using desks staffed by immigration officers. The gates use facial recognition technology to verify the user's identity by comparing the user's facial features to those recorded in the photograph stored in the chip in their biometric passport.

British citizens, European Economic Area citizens and citizens of Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, and America as well as Chinese citizens of Hong Kong and Taiwan who are enrolled in the Registered Traveller Service, can use ePassport gates, provided that they are aged either 18 and over or 12 and over travelling with an adult and holding valid biometric passports.

ePassport gates are available at the following locations:

• Birmingham Airport
• Bristol Airport
• Cardiff Airport
• East Midlands Airport
• Edinburgh Airport
• Eurostar St Pancras Terminal
• Eurostar Brussels-Zuid Terminal
• Gatwick Airport (North and South Terminals)
• Glasgow Airport
• Heathrow Airport (Terminals 2, 3, 4 and 5)
• London City Airport
• Luton Airport
• Manchester Airport (Terminals 1, 2 and 3)
• Stansted Airport

Republic of Ireland

The Irish Naturalisation and Immigration Service operates eGates at Dublin Airport for arrivals at Terminal 1 (Piers 1 and 2) and Terminal 2. They are currently available to citizens of Switzerland and the European Economic Area with electronic passports aged 18 or over. There are proposals to extend the service to non-European citizens. Irish Passport Cards can not be used.

East Asia

China

e-Channel machines at Hong Kong International Airport

Main article: e-Channel

The e-Channel is an automated border control facility available at airports in Hong Kong, Macau, and at land borders between the mainland and the Special Administrative Regions. It is open to Chinese citizens with permanent residence in the appropriate regions, and to selected foreign nationals. A similar automated entry system, eGate, exists in Taiwan providing expedited border control for Chinese citizens of Taiwan as well as certain classes of residents and frequent visitors. Users simply scan their travel documents at the gate and are passed through for facial recognition.

Japan

Automated immigration at Narita Airport.

Along with the introduction of J-BIS, an "Automated gate" (自動化ゲート) was set up at Terminal 1 and 2 at Narita Airport, Haneda Airport, Chubu Centrair Airport and Kansai Airport. With this system, when a person enters or leaves the country, rather than having to be processed by an examiner there, a person can use a machine at the gate, thereby making both entry and departure simpler and easier, as well as more convenient. Japanese people with valid passports, foreigners with both valid passports (this includes refugees with valid travel certificates and re-entry permits) and re-entry permits can use this system.

South Korea

South Korea maintains a programme known as the Smart Entry Service, open for registration by South Koreans aged 7 or above and by registered foreigners aged 17 or above. Foreign nationalities eligible to register include Singaporean citizens, American citizens, and Chinese citizens of Taiwan (excluding holders of passports issued by the Republic of China to individuals without a ROC identity card).

North America

North America has a range of expedited border control programmes.

CARIPASS

Main article: CARIPASS

CARIPASS is a voluntary travel card programme that will provide secure and simple border crossings for Caribbean Community (CARICOM) citizens and some legal residents of CARICOM nations. The CARIPASS initiative is coordinated by the Implementation Agency for Crime and Security (CARICOM IMPACS), and seeks to provide standardised border control facilities within participating Caribbean communities.

CARIPASS is accepted as a valid travel document within and between participating member states and will allow cardholders to access automated gate facilities at immigration checkpoints that will use biometric technology to verify the user.

The following CARICOM jurisdictions are participating in the programme:

• Antigua and Barbuda
• Barbados
• Dominica
• Grenada
• Guyana
• Jamaica
• St. Kitts and Nevis
• Saint Lucia
• St. Vincent and the Grenadines
• Trinidad and Tobago

NEXUS and FAST

Main articles: NEXUS (frequent traveler program), Free and Secure Trade, and CANPASS

Sample NEXUS card

A NEXUS lane at the U.S. side of the Ambassador Bridge.

NEXUS is a joint Canadian-American expedited border control programme for low risk travellers holding Canadian or American citizenship or permanent residence. Membership requires approval by Canadian and American authorities and entitles members to dedicated RFID-enabled lanes when crossing the land border. A NEXUS card can also be utilised as a travel document between the two countries and entitles passengers to priority border control facilities in Canada and Global Entry facilities in America.

Free and Secure Trade (FAST) is a similar programme for commercial drivers and approved importers, reducing the amount of customs checks conducted at the border and expediting the border control process.

Canadian citizens and Permanent Residents who are approved by Canadian authorities but not by the Americans can join CANPASS, which provides similar border control benefits but solely in Canada.

Global Entry and SENTRI

Main articles: Global Entry and SENTRI

Countries participating in Global Entry

Global Entry is an American programme for frequent travellers that enables them to utilise automated border control facilities and priority security screening. In addition to Americans and Permanent Residents, the programme is open to Indian, Singaporean, and South Korean citizens amongst others.

SENTRI is a similar programme for American and Mexican citizens that additionally allows members to register their cars for expedited land border controls. When entering America across the Canadian border, it can be used as a NEXUS card, but not the other way around.

Global Entry members (as well as NEXUS and SENTRI card holders with a Known Traveller Number) are eligible to use automated Global Entry facilities at certain airports to clear border control more efficiently. Enrolled users must present their machine-readable passport or permanent residency card, and submit their fingerprints to establish identity. Users then complete an electronic customs declaration, and are issued a receipt instructing them to either proceed to baggage claim, or to a normal inspection booth for an interview.

Participants may clear American border control by utilising automated kiosks located at the following airports:

• Abu Dhabi International Airport (AUH)*
• Anchorage – Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (ANC)
• Atlanta – Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL)
• Austin-Bergstrom International Airport (AUS)
• Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (BWI)
• Boston – Logan International Airport (BOS)
• Burlington International Airport (BTV)*
• Calgary International Airport (YYC)
• Charlotte-Douglas International Airport (CLT)
• Chicago Midway International Airport (MDW)*
• Chicago O'Hare International Airport (ORD)
• Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (CVG)
• Cleveland Hopkins International Airport (CLE)
• Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW)
• Daniel K. Inouye International Airport (HNL)
• Denver International Airport (DEN)
• Detroit Metropolitan Airport (DTW)
• Dublin Airport (DUB)*
• Edmonton International Airport (YEG)
• Fairbanks International Airport (FAI)
• Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood International Airport (FLL)
• General Mitchell International Airport, Milwaukee (MKE)
• Guam International Airport (GUM)
• Halifax Stanfield International Airport (YHZ)
• Houston George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH)
• John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City (JFK)
• John Wayne Airport (SNA)*
• Lambert-St. Louis International Airport (STL)
• Los Angeles International Airport (LAX)
• McCarran International Airport, Las Vegas (LAS)
• Miami International Airport (MIA)
• Minneapolis/St. Paul International Airport (MSP)
• Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport (YUL)
• Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR)
• Oakland International Airport (OAK)*
• Orlando International Airport (MCO)
• Orlando-Sanford International Airport (SFB)
• Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport (YOW)
• Philadelphia International Airport (PHL)
• Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport (PHX)
• Pittsburgh International Airport (PIT)
• Portland International Airport (PDX)
• Queen Beatrix International Airport, Aruba (AUA)*
• Raleigh-Durham International Airport (RDU)*
• Saipan International Airport (SPN)*
• Salt Lake City International Airport (SLC)
• San Antonio International Airport (SAT)
• San Diego International Airport (SAN)
• San Francisco International Airport (SFO)
• San Jose International Airport (SJC)*
• San Juan Luis Muñoz Marin International Airport (SJU)
• Seattle-Tacoma International Airport – SeaTac (SEA)
• Shannon Airport (SNN)*
• Lynden Pindling International Airport, Bahamas (NAS)*
• Tampa International Airport (TPA)
• Toronto Pearson International Airport (YYZ)
• Vancouver International Airport (YVR)
• Washington-Dulles International Airport (IAD)
• Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport (YWG)

The * indicates there are no enrollment centres at these sites.

Viajero Confiable

Main article: Viajero Confiable

Viajero Confiable is a Mexican programme similar to Global Entry that allows expedited border controls in Mexico.

Oceania

Australia

Smartgate Arrivals at Sydney Airport

SmartGates located at major Australian airports allow Australian ePassport holders and ePassport holders of a number of other countries to clear immigration controls more rapidly, and to enhance travel security by performing passport control checks electronically. SmartGate uses facial recognition technology to verify the traveller's identity against the data stored in the chip in their biometric passport, as well as checking against immigration databases. Travellers require a biometric passport to use SmartGate as it uses information from the passport (such as photograph, name and date of birth) and in the respective countries' databases (i.e. banned travellers database) to decide whether to grant entry or departure from Australia or to generate a referral to a customs agent. These checks would otherwise require manual processing by a human which is time-consuming, costly and potentially error-prone.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, a SmartGate system exists at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Queenstown airports, enabling holders of biometric passports issued by New Zealand, Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Ireland and the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States to clear border controls using automated facilities. The system can currently only be used by travellers 12 years of age or older, however a trial is under way that may potentially lower the age of eligibility to use eGate for people with an eligible ePassport from 12 years of age to 10 years of age. New Zealand eGates utilise biometric technology, comparing the picture of your face in your ePassport with the picture it takes of you at the gate in order to confirm your identity. To make sure eGate can do this, travellers must make sure they look as similar to their ePassport photos as possible and remove glasses, scarves and hats that they were not wearing when their passport picture was taken. eGate can handle minor changes in your face, for example if the travellers' weight or hair has changed. Customs, Biosecurity and Immigration officials utilise information provided at eGates, including photos, to clear travellers and their items across New Zealand's border. Biometric information is kept for three months before destruction but other information, including about movements across New Zealand's border is kept indefinitely and handled in accordance with the Privacy Act 1993, or as the law authorises. This might include information being used by or shared with other law enforcement or border control authorities.

Singapore

Automated border controls exist at Singapore Changi Airport for Singapore residents and certain foreign nationals with long term passes. Similar facilities exist for motorcyclists at the border crossings with Malaysia.

APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC)

  Full members of the scheme

  Transitional members (United States, Canada)

Main article: APEC Business Travel Card

The ABTC is an expedited border control programme for business travellers from APEC economies (excluding Canada and America). It provides visa exemptions and access to expedited border control facilities. ABTC holders are eligible for expedited border control at Canadian airports but not for any visa exemptions.

ABTCs are generally issued only to citizens of APEC member countries, however Hong Kong issues them to Permanent Residents who are not Chinese citizens, a category primarily consisting of British, Indian, and Pakistani citizens.

The use of ABTCs in China is restricted as a result of the one country, two systems and one China policies. Chinese citizens from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan are required to use special internal travel documents to enter the mainland. Similar restrictions exist on the use of ABTC for Chinese citizens of other regions entering Taiwan. (see: Internal border controls).

Internal border controls

Asia

Some countries maintain border controls within their own territory. These are not uncommon in some parts of Asia. For example, minority regions in India and China often require special permits (i.e. Restricted Area Permits, Protected Area Permits, Tibet Travel Permits, or Alien Travel Permits) for foreign nationals to enter in addition to visas where required. In some cases, these restrictions are not limited to foreigners. For instance, certain minority areas of India additionally require Indian citizens to possess an Inner Line Permit to enter. Similarly, the Tibet Autonomous Region in China requires Chinese citizens from Taiwan to obtain TTPs and ATPs even though Chinese citizens from the mainland, Hong Kong, and Macau are exempt.

Within China, extensive border controls are maintained for those travelling between the mainland, special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, and areas controlled by the Republic of China. Foreign nationals need to present their passports or other types of travel documents when travelling between these areas. For Chinese nationals (including those with British National (Overseas) status), there are special documents for travel between these territories. Similar arrangements (i.e Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Residents and similar permits issued by Taiwan authorities) exist for travel between Taiwan and territories controlled by the People’s Republic of China.

The most restrictive internal border controls west of the Pacific are in North Korea. Citizens are not allowed to travel outside their areas of residence without explicit authorisation, and access to the capital city of Pyongyang is heavily restricted. Similar restrictions are imposed on tourists, who are only allowed to leave Pyongyang on government-authorised tours to approved tourist sites.

Another example is the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, which have maintained their own border controls since joining Malaysia in 1963.

Meanwhile in Bhutan, a microstate accessible by road only through India, there are interior border checkposts (primarily on the Lateral Road) and, additionally, certain areas require special permits to enter, whilst visitors not proceeding beyond the border city of Phuentsholing do not need permits to enter for the day (although such visitors are de facto subject to Indian visa policy since they must proceed through Jaigaon). Individuals who are not citizens of India, Bangladesh, or the Maldives are not allowed to proceed past Phuentsholing by land and are instead required to arrive by air at the country's sole international airport in Paro, which has flights from India and other countries in the Greater India region such as Thailand, Singapore, and Nepal.

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  Domestic Immigration stamp permitting entry into the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India.
• 
  Data page of a booklet type internal travel document issued by Taiwan authorities to a Mainland Chinese resident.
• 
  Internal travel document for Chinese citizens of Hong Kong or Macau to enter the mainland.
• 
  Malaysian entry stamps specify which jurisdictions (i.e. West or Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak) the bearer is permitted to enter, and there are immigration checks when entering each.
• 
  The Tibet Travel Permit, required to enter the Tibet Autonomous Region, is an example of internal border controls in minority regions of China and India

Europe

An example from Europe is the implementation of border controls on travel between Svalbard (which maintains a policy of free migration as a result of the Svalbard Treaty) and the Schengen Area, which includes the rest of Norway. Other examples of effective internal border controls in Europe include the closed cities of certain CIS members, areas of Turkmenistan that require special permits to enter, restrictions on travel to the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region in Tajikistan, and (depending on whether Northern and Southern Cyprus are considered separate countries) the Cypriot border.

In addition to the numerous closed cities of Russia, parts of 19 subjects of the Russian Federation are closed for foreigners without special permits and are consequently subject to internal border controls.

Israeli checkpoints also constitute a significant example of internal border controls. Spread throughout the State of Israel and the areas of the State of Palestine under de facto Israeli control, internal checkpoints are a key feature of Israeli and Palestinian life, and Israel’s internal border controls are amongst the most restrictive in the world.

An unusual example of internal border controls pertains to customs enforcement within the Schengen area. Even though borders are generally invisible, the existence of areas within the Schengen area but outside the European Union Value Added Tax Area, as well as jurisdictions such as Andorra which are not officially a part of the Schengen area but can not be accessed without passing through it, has resulted in the existence of sporadic internal border controls for customs purposes. Additionally, as per Schengen area rules, hotels and other types of commercial accommodation must register all foreign citizens, including citizens of other Schengen states, by requiring the completion of a registration form by their own hand. This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document has to be produced to the hotel manager or staff. The Schengen rules do not require any other procedures; thus, the Schengen states are free to regulate further details on the content of the registration forms, and identity documents which are to be produced, and may also require the persons exempted from registration by Schengen laws to be registered. A Schengen state is also permitted to reinstate border controls with another Schengen country for a short period where there is a serious threat to that state's "public policy or internal security" or when the "control of an external border is no longer ensured due to exceptional circumstances". When such risks arise out of foreseeable events, the state in question must notify the European Commission in advance and consult with other Schengen states. In April 2010 Malta introduced temporary checks due to Pope Benedict XVI's visit. It reimposed checks in 2015 in the weeks surrounding the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. In response to the European migrant crisis, several countries set up internal controls.

Another complex border control situation in Europe pertains to the United Kingdom. Whilst the crown dependencies are within the Common Travel Area, neither Gibraltar nor the sovereign British military exclaves of Akrotiri and Dhekelia are. The former maintains its own border control policies, thus requiring physical border security at its border with the Schengen Area as well as the implementation of border controls for travellers proceeding directly between Gibraltar and the British mainland. The latter maintains a relatively open border with Southern Cyprus, though not with Northern Cyprus. Consequently it is a de facto member of the Schengen Area and travel to or from the British mainland requires border controls.

• 
  Israeli checkpoint outside the Palestinian city of Ramallah. August 2004
• 
  Central entry checkpoint to the closed city of Seversk, Tomsk Oblast, Russia.
• 
  As a consequence of Svalbard's unique immigration status and exclusion from the rest of Norway for border control purposes, the city of Barentsburg is predominantly Russian and hosts the world's second northernmost statue of Lenin (the northernmost is in Pyramiden).
• 
  Border post between France and Andorra, a microstate that de facto follows Schengen immigration policies and utilises the Euro as its national currency yet is not a part of the European Union VAT and customs areas.
• 
  The Italy-Switzerland border is an internal Schengen border, but as seen at this border crossing at Chiasso, there are border control facilities since Switzerland maintains its own customs and tax area.
• 
  The red lines indicate temporary internal border controls within the Schengen Area. The blue area represents members of the Schengen area, the green area represents European Union members not in the Schengen Area, and the grey area represents the rest of western Europe.

American territories

American Samoa entry stamp

Hyder, Alaska has no border controls for travellers entering from Canada, and travellers flying between Hyder and other Alaskan cities by seaplane undergo internal border control

Multiple types of internal border controls exist in America. These include the maintenance of autonomous or separate immigration policies in each of America’s major territories in the Pacific, i.e. Guam, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Each of these territories maintains its own visa exemptions, and there are consequently immigration and customs checks on travel between the these territories and the American mainland.

The US Virgin Islands are a special case, falling within America’s immigration zone but being a customs free territory. As a result, there are no immigration checks between the two but there travellers arriving in Puerto Rico or the American mainland directly from the Virgin Islands are subject to border control for customs inspection. America also maintains interior checkpoints, similar to those maintained by Bhutan, along its borders with Mexico and Canada, subjecting people to border controls even after they have entered the country. The city of Hyder, Alaska has also been subject to internal border controls since the United States chose to stop regulating arrivals in Hyder from British Columbia. Since travellers exiting Hyder into British Columbia are subject to Canadian border controls, it is theoretically possible for someone to accidentally enter Hyder from Canada without their travel documents and then to face difficulties since both America and Canada would subject them to border controls that require travel documents.

Realm of New Zealand

Niue entry stamp issued at Hanan International Airport

Main article: Visa policy of New Zealand

Further information: Realm of New Zealand

Tokelau, Niue, and the Cook Islands maintain independent and less restrictive border controls from New Zealand. The Cook Islands further maintain a separate nationality law. Additionally, border controls for Tokelau are complicated by the fact that the territory is, for the most part, only accessible via Samoa.

Prescreening border controls

America

Main article: United States border preclearance

The American government operates border preclearance facilities at a number of ports and airports in foreign territory. They are staffed and operated by U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers. Travelers pass through U.S. Immigration and Customs, Public Health, and Agriculture inspections before boarding their aircraft, ship, or train. This process is intended to streamline border procedures, reduce congestion at ports of entry, and facilitate travel between the preclearance location and U.S. airports unequipped to handle international travellers.

These facilities are present at the majority of major Canadian airports, as well as selected airports in Bermuda, Aruba, the Bahamas, Abu Dhabi and Ireland. Facilities located in Canada accept NEXUS cards and American Passport Cards in lieu of passports. The two facilities in the Bahamas provide visa free access to Bahamian citizens, who otherwise require a visa to enter America. A preclearance facility is currently being planned at Dubai International Airport.

Preclearance facilities are also operated at Pacific Central Station, the Port of Vancouver, and the Port of Victoria in British Columbia, and there are plans to open one at Montreal Central Station in Quebec.

• 
  The interior of the American preclearance departures at Montréal.
• 
  Shannon Airport preclearance
• 
  Stamps in a United States passport, one from Canada Border Services Agency (right) and the other from US Customs (left), both issued at Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport

Hong Kong, China

Entrance of Shenzhen Bay Passenger Terminal Building (Hong Kong side)

West Kowloon railway station

Main article: West Kowloon railway station § Mainland Port Area

A component of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link, West Kowloon station will contain a “Mainland Port Area”, essentially enabling passengers and goods to clear mainland Chinese immigration on Hong Kong soil.

Shenzhen Bay Control Point

Main article: Shenzhen Bay Control Point

The Shenzhen Bay Control Point is a Hong Kong immigration facility co-located with mainland Chinese facilities at Shenzhen Bay Port. It is located in the Chinese mainland on land leased from the city of Shenzhen in Guangdong province. It essentially enables travellers to clear both mainland and Hong Kong border controls in one place, thus eliminating any need for border control on the Hong Kong side of the Shenzhen Bay Bridge.

Singapore and Malaysia

Woodlands Train Checkpoint

Singaporean exit and Malaysian entry preclearance border controls are co-located at the Woodlands Train Checkpoint, whilst Malaysian exit controls are located separately at Johor Bahru.

Johor Bahru - Singapore Rapid Transit

Map of the upcoming Rapid Transit system.

Main article: Johor Bahru–Singapore Rapid Transit System

The upcoming Rapid Transit System (RTS) connecting Singapore and Johor Bahru will feature border control preclearance both on the Singaporean side and on the Malaysian side. This will enable passengers arriving in Singapore from Malaysia or vice versa to proceed straight to their connecting transport, since the RTS will link to both the Singapore MRT system (Thomson-East Coast MRT Line) and Johor Bahru Sentral railway station. Unlike the preclearance systems adopted by the United States and Hong Kong, but similar to the United Kingdom’s juxtaposed comtrols, this system will mitigate arrival border controls on both sides of the border.

United Kingdom

Main article: Juxtaposed controls

Ferry

French entry border control for ferries between Dover and Calais or Dunkerque take place at the Port of Dover, whilst French exit and British entry border control takes place at Calais and Dunkerque.

Rail

Border control for rail travel between the United Kingdom and the Schengen Area features significant prescreening. This includes customs and immigration prescreening on both sides of the Eurotunnel, and immigration-only prescreening for the Eurostar between the United Kingdom and stations located in Belgium and France. Eurostar and Eurotunnel passengers departing from the Schengen area go through both French or Belgian exit border control and British entry border controls before departures, while passengers departing from the United Kingdom undergo French border controls on British soil.

The following juxtaposed rail border controls are currently in operation:

In Belgium

• Brussel-Zuid/Bruxelles-Midi

In France

• Bourg-St-Maurice
• Calais-Fréthun
• Coquelles
• Lille-Europe
• Moûtiers
• Paris-Nord

In the UK

• Ashford International
• Cheriton
• Ebbsfleet International
• St Pancras International

• 
  Entry stamp into the Schengen Area issued by the French Border Police at St Pancras International station. ('LFT' stands for 'Liaison fixe transmanche' (literally: cross-Channel fixed link))
• 
  Exit stamp from the Schengen Area issued by the French Border Police at Paris Gare du Nord station. ('LFT' stands for 'Liaison fixe transmanche' (literally: cross-Channel fixed link))
• 
  British entry stamp issued by the UK Border Force at Paris Gare du Nord station.

Informal prescreening

In some cases countries can introduce controls that functions as border controls but aren't border controls legally and don't need to be performed by government agencies. Normally they are performed and organised by private companies, based on a law that they have to check that passengers don't travel into a specific country if they aren't allowed to. Such controls can take effect in one country based on the law of another country without any formalised border control prescreening agreement in force. Even if they aren't border controls they function as such. The most prominent example is airlines which check passports and visa before passengers are allowed to board the aircraft. Also for some passenger boats such check are performed before boarding.

Controversies

Certain border control policies of various countries have been the subject of controversy and public debate.

Immigrant investor programmes

Main article: Immigrant investor programs

See also: Golden visa

Immigrant investor programmes, pejoratively referred to as golden visas, are border control policies designed to attract foreign capital and business people by providing the right of residence and citizenship in return. These are also known as citizenship-by-investment programmes. While several countries currently offer investors citizenship or residence in return for an economic investment, the concept is relatively new and was only brought to the focus around 2006. The roots of such programmes have been traced back to the 1980s when tax havens in the Pacific and Caribbean began "cash-for-passport" programmes that facilitated visa-free travel and provided tax advantages. For example, in 1984, St Kitts and Nevis began its programme which offered not only permanent residency but citizenship to foreign nations. The issuing of golden visas has expanded dramatically during the 21st century, with around 25% of all countries issuing such visas as of 2015. Statistics on the issuing of golden visas ares scarce, but the IMF estimated in 2015 that the vast majority of golden visas are issued to Chinese nationals.

Immigrant investor programmes usually have multiple criteria that must be fulfilled for the investment to qualify, often pertaining to job creation, purchasing of real estate, non-refundable contributions or specific targeted industries. Most of these programmes are structured to ensure that the investment contributes to the welfare, advancement and economic development of the country in which the applicant wishes to reside or belong to. It is more often more about making an economic contribution than just an investment. The United States EB-5 visa programme requires overseas applicants to invest a minimum of anywhere from $500,000 to $1 million, depending on the location of project, and requires at least 10 jobs to be either created or preserved. When these criteria are met, the applicant and their family become eligible for a green card. There is an annual cap of 10,000 applications under the EB-5 arrangement. Some countries such as Malta and Cyprus also offer citizenship ("so-called golden passports") to individuals if they invest a certain sum. Greece's Golden Visa Program. The current investment threshold is 250,000 EUR for the purchase or long term lease of property. This arrangement offers a permanent residence permit and free entry to the EU and Schengen Area to aliens, as long as they retain ownership of the investment property. The Malta Individual Investor Programme, which Henley & Partners was contracted in 2014 by the Government of Malta to design and implement, is similarly capped at 1,800 applicants. Applicants are subject to a thorough due diligence process which guarantees that only reputable applicants acquire Maltese citizenship. Moreover, applications from countries where international sanctions apply may not be accepted. Applications from a particular country can also be excluded on the basis of a Government policy decision. The minimum investment for this programme is $870,000 with a non-refundable contribution of $700,000. Portugal's golden visa was introduced during the Great Recession in order to help attract investment in the country's housing market. By 2016 the country had issued 2,788 golden visas, of which 80% had gone to Chinese nationals. A large majority of users of such programmes are wealthy Chinese seeking legal security and a better quality of life outside their home country. More than three-quarters of the applicants to Canada's (since cancelled) immigrant investor programme were Chinese. The Quebec Immigrant Investor Programme is a Canadian programme which allows investors who intend to settle in the province of Quebec to invest money in Canada. The Quebec government said it would accept a maximum of 1,750 applications to the Immigrant Investor Programme during the period from January 5 to 20, 2015. Applicants with an intermediate-advanced knowledge of French are not subject to the cap, and may apply at any time. The programme has been associated with the lack of housing affordability in Vancouver. The countries with the top ranked immigrant investor programmes in the world are Malta, Cyprus, Portugal, Austria, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Spain, Latvia, Monaco, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Grenada, Abkhazia, Saint Lucia, Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore and Dominica.

The issuing of so-called golden visas has sparked controversy in several countries. A lack of demonstrable economic benefits, and security concerns, have been among the most common criticisms of golden visas. In 2014 the Canadian government suspended their golden visa programme (although, as of 2017, Quebec maintains their own golden visa programme). The golden visas has been criticised by members of the European Parliament for disfavouring the concept of citizenship and in 2014 the European Parliament approved a non-binding resolution that an EU passport should not have a "price tag".

Discriminatory practices

Discriminatory border control practices by numerous jurisdictions have attracted controversy.

America

Since the implementation of added security measures in the aftermath of the 2001 World Trade Centre attacks, reports of discrimination against people perceived to be Muslim by American border security officers have been prevalent in the media. The travel restrictions implemented during the Trump presidency primarily against Muslim majority countries have provoked controversy over whether such measures are a legitimate Border security measure or unethically discriminatory.

Bhutan

Main articles: Lhotshampa and Bhutanese refugees

Starting primarily in the 1990s, the Bhutanese government implemented strict restrictions on Nepali residents and implemented internal border control policies to restrict immigration or return of ethnic Nepalis. This policy shift effectively ended previously liberal immigration policies with regards to Nepalis and counts amongst the most racialised border control policies in Asia.

Israel

Border control, both on entry and on exit, at Israeli airports rate passengers' potential threat to security using factors including nationality, ethnicity, and race. Instances of discrimination against Arabs, people perceived to be Muslim, and Russian Jews amongst others have been reported in the media. Security at Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion Airport relies on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalised as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology." As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor," Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using racial profiling, singling out those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance. Even as Israeli authorities argue that racist, ethnic, and religious profiling are effective security measures, according to Boaz Ganor, Israel has not undertaken any known empirical studies on the efficacy of the technique of racial profiling.

Separation of families seeking asylum in America

ProPublica recording of crying children separated from their families.

Children abducted by the American government pictured in a wire-mesh cage. (Photo taken by United States Customs and Border Protection)

In April 2018, as part of its "zero tolerance" policy, the American government ordered the separation of the children of refugees and asylum seekers from their parents. As a consequence of popular outrage,, and criticism from the medical and religious communities, the policy was put on hold by an executive order signed by President Trump on 20 June 2018. Under the policy, federal authorities separated children from their parents, relatives, or other adults who accompanied them in crossing the border, whether apprehended during an illegal crossing or, in numerous reported cases, legally presenting themselves for asylum. The policy involved prosecuting all adults detained at the Mexican border, imprisoning parents, and handing minors to the American Department of Health and Human Services. The federal government reported that the policy resulted in the separation of over 2300 children from their parents.

The Trump administration blamed Congress for the atrocity and labelled the change in policy as "the Democrats' law", even though Congress has been overwhelmingly dominated by Republicans since 2016. Regardless, members of both parties criticised the policy and detractors of the Trump administration emphasise the fact there does not seem to be any written law that required the government to implement such a policy. Attorney General Jeff Sessions, in defending the policy, quoted a passage from the Bible, notwithstanding the fact that religious doctrine carries absolutely no weight in American law. Other officials praised the policy as a deterrent to unlawful immigration.

The costs of separating migrant children from their parents and keeping them in "tent cities" are higher than keeping them with their parents in detention centres. To handle the large amount of immigration charges brought by the Trump administration, federal prosecutors had to divert resources from other crime cases. It costs $775 per person per night to house the children when they are separated but $256 per person per night when they are held in permanent HHS facilities and $298 per person per night to keep the children with their parents in immigration detention centres. The head of the Justice Department's major crimes unit in San Diego diverted staff from drug smuggling cases. Drug smuggling cases were also increasingly pursued in state courts rather than federal courts, as federal prosecutor were increasingly preoccupied with pursuing charges against illegal border crossings. The Kaiser Family Foundation said that costs associated with the policy may also divert resources from programmes within the Department of Health and Human Services. In July 2018, it was reported that HHS had diverted at least $40 million from its health programs to care for and reunify migrant children, and that the HHS was preparing to shift more than $200 million from other HHS accounts.

Australian offshore detention centres

Main articles: Pacific Solution, Nauru Regional Processing Centre, and Manus Regional Processing Centre

Beginning in 2001, Australia implemented border control policies featuring the detention of asylum seekers and economic migrants who arrived unlawfully by boat in nearby islands in the Pacific. These policies are controversial and in 2017 the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea declared the detention centre at Manus Island to be unconstitutional. The adherence of these policies to international human rights law is a matter of controversy.

North Korean refugees in China

Main article: North Korean defectors § China

China does not currently recognise North Korean defectors as refugees and subjects them to immediate deportation if caught. The China-DPRK border is fortified and both sides aim to deter refugees from crossing. This aspect of Chinese border control policy has been criticised by human rights organisations.

Restrictions on Northern Cypriot airspace

As a result of Northern Cyprus's sovereignty dispute with Southern Cyprus, the South (a member of the European Union) has imposed restrictions on the North's airports, and pressure from the European Union has resulted in all countries other than Turkey recognising the South's ability to impose a border shutdown on the North, negating the right to self determination of the predominantly Turkish Northern Cypriot population and subjecting their airports to border controls imposed by the predominantly Greek South. As a result, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic support and is unable to develop a functioning economy.

Gallery

• 
  Korean border
• 
  Thailand-Cambodia
• 
  Gibraltar-Spain border
• 
  Elbe at the German-Czech border crossing
• 
  House on Chaamseweg street in Baarle, village that is divided between Belgium and Netherlands.State border is marked by the line of white plates on the sidewalk
• 
  Jordan-Israel (Aquaba-Arava)
• 
  Car of the German Border Patrol
• 
  Cyclepath on the border of The Netherlands (cyclepath) and Germany (gravelroad)

See also

• Border barrier
• Biosecurity
• Border guard
• Coast guard
• Visa (document)

Further reading

• Susan and aramis "Residues of Border Control", Southern Spaces, 17 April 2011.
• James, Paul (2014). "Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens". Citizenship Studies. vol. 18 (no. 2): 208–23. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |1= and |2= (help)
• Philippe Legrain, Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them, Little Brown 2007, ISBN 0-316-73248-6
• Aristide Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America, Harvard University Press 2006, ISBN 0-674-02218-1
• Philippe Legrain, Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them, Little Brown 2007, ISBN 0-316-73248-6
• Ruben Rumbaut and Walter Ewing, "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men," The Immigration Policy Center (Spring 2007). https://web.archive.org/web/20070927040544/http://www.ailf.org/ipc/special_report/sr_feb07_resources.shtml
• Bryan Balin, State Immigration Legislation and Immigrant Flows: An Analysis The Johns Hopkins University, 2008
• Douglas S. Massey, Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [September 2005] https://web.archive.org/web/20070830210117/http://www.ailf.org/ipc/policy_reports_2005_beyondborder.shtml
• Immigration Policy Center, Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide, Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation [November 2005] https://web.archive.org/web/20071011192352/http://ailf.org/ipc/special_report/special_report2005_bridging.shtml
• Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait, American Immigration Council [April 2014] https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/immigrant-women-united-states
• Jill Esbenshade, Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances, American Immigration Council [Summer 2007] https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/research/division-and-dislocation-regulating-immigration-through-local-housing-ordinances
• Jeffrey S. Passel and Roberto Suro; Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration; Pew Hispanic Center (Sep. 2005)

http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=53

• Jeffrey S. Passel, Senior Research Associate; Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population; Pew Hispanic Center (March 2005)

http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=44

• Jeffrey S. Passel; Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization; Pew Hispanic Center (March 2007)

http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=74