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Revision as of 19:00, 19 August 2011

For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).

The Kaaba, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the center of Islam. Muslims from all over the world gather there to pray in unity.

Template:Islam-start Template:Contains Arabic text Islam (English: /[invalid input: 'icon']ˈɪzlɑːm/;[note 1] Template:Lang-ar al-ʾislām  IPA: [ʔɪsˈlæːm] ⓘ[note 2]) is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Template:Lang-ar Allāh), and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.

Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to worship God.[1][2] Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets .[3] Muslims maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted over time,[4] but consider the Qur'an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.[5] Religious concepts and practices include the five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from banking and welfare, to warfare and the environment.[6][7]

Most Muslims belong to one of two denominations; with 80-90% being Sunni and 10-20% being Shia.[8][9][10] About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the largest Muslim country,[11] 25% in South Asia,[11] 20% in the Middle East,[12] 2% in Central Asia, 4% in the remaining South East Asian countries, and 15% in Sub-saharan Africa.[13] Sizable communities are also found in China and Russia, and parts of Europe. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world (see Islam by country). With about 1.41-1.57 billion Muslims, comprising about 21-23% of the world's population,[13][14] Islam is the second-largest religion and one of the fastest-growing religions in the world.[15][16]

Etymology and meaning

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, completion and bonding/joining.[17] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".[18][19] Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by worshipping God and following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam."[20] Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[21] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[22] Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of worship (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).[23]

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

God

Main article: God in Islam
Allah means God in Arabic

Islam's fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawhīd (Template:Lang-ar). God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur'an as:[24] "Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him." (112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God. God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[25]

Muslims believe that creation of everything in the universe is brought into being by God’s sheer command “‘Be’ and so it is.”[8][26] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[2][27] He is viewed as a personal God who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls Him.[8][28] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states “We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein”[29]

Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning the one God, while ʾilāh (Template:Lang-ar) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[30] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish or "Khodā" in Persian.

Angels

Main article: Islamic view of angels

Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Template:Lang-ar malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malakh) and Greek (angelos). According to the Qur'an, angels do not possess free will, and worship God in total obedience.[31] Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are also thought to intercede on man's behalf. The Qur'an describes angels as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[32]

Revelations

Main articles: Islamic holy books and Qur'an
See also: History of the Qur'an
The first sura in a Qur'anic manuscript by Hattat Aziz Efendi

The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospels), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[4] The Qur'an (literally, “Reading” or “Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal Word of God and is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature work in the Arabic language.[33][34][35] Muslims believe that the verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl). On many occasions between 610 and his death on June 8, 632.[36] The Qur'an was reportedly written down by Muhammad's companions (sahabah) while he was alive, although the prime method of transmission was orally. It was compiled in the time of Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and was standardized under the administration of Uthman, the third caliph.

The Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[37] The Qur'an is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[38] Muslim jurists consult the hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Qur'an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur'anic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[39]

When Muslims speak in the abstract about "the Qur'an", they usually mean the scripture as recited in Arabic rather than the printed work or any translation of it. To Muslims, the Qur'an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language differences, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original's inspired style. Translations are therefore regarded only as commentaries on the Qur'an, or "interpretations of its meaning", not as the Qur'an itself.[40]

Prophets

Template:Hadith collections2

Main article: Prophets of Islam

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Template:Lang-ar nabī ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an [41] the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the Will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[42] Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shīʾah, has its own Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.[8]

Resurrection and judgment

Main article: Qiyama

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Qiyamah (also known as yawm ad-dīn, "Day of Judgment" and as-sā`a, "the Last Hour") is also crucial for Muslims. They believe that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[43]

The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief, riba, and dishonesty. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. There are also references to ridwān.[44] Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[45]

Predestination

Main article: Predestination in Islam

In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. This is explained in Qur'anic verses such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..."[46] For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses free will in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions. According to Islamic tradition, all that has been decreed by God is written in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, the "Preserved Tablet".[47]

Five pillars

Main article: Five Pillars of Islam

The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[48]

Testimony

Main article: Shahadah

The Shahadah,[49] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify there are no gods other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[50]

Prayer

Main article: Salah
See also: Mosque
Muslims praying

Ritual prayers, called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة), must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur'an.[51]

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, masjid. The word mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship, although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller, privately owned mosque and the larger, "collective" mosque (masjid jāmi`).[52] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[53]

Fasting

Main article: Sawm
Further information: Sawm of Ramadan

Fasting, (Template:Lang-ar ṣawm), from food and drink (among other things) must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[54]

Alms-giving

Main articles: Zakat and Sadaqah

"Zakāt" (Template:Lang-ar zakāh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". The Qur'an and the hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (ṣadaqah).[55]

The Kaaba during Hajj

Pilgrimage

Main article: Hajj

The pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Template:Lang-ar ḥaǧǧ) during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.[56]

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh
Part of a series on
Islamic jurisprudence
(fiqh)
Ritual
Shahada
Salah
Sawm
Zakat
Hajj
Political
Family
Marriage
Sexual
Criminal
Etiquette
Economic
History
Zakat
Banking
Inheritance
Hygiene
Dietary
Military
Islamic studies

The Sharia (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law formed by traditional Islamic scholarship, which most Muslim groups adhere to. In Islam, Sharia is the expression of the divine will, and "constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his religious belief".[57]

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from matters of state, like governance and foreign relations, to issues of daily living. The Qur'an defines hudud as the punishments for five specific crimes: unlawful intercourse, false accusation of unlawful intercourse, consumption of alcohol, theft, and highway robbery. The Qur'an and Sunnah also contain laws of inheritance, marriage, and restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, these prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so their application in practice varies. Islamic scholars (known as ulema) have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these rules and their interpretations.[58] Over the years there have been changing views on Islamic law but many such as Zahiri and Jariri[clarification needed] have since died out.[59][60]

Fiqh, or "jurisprudence", is defined as the knowledge of the practical rules of the religion. The method Islamic jurists use to derive rulings is known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). According to Islamic legal theory, law has four fundamental roots, which are given precedence in this order: the Qur'an, the Sunnah (actions and sayings of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). For early Islamic jurists, theory was less important than pragmatic application of the law. In the 9th century, the jurist ash-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence (including the four fundamental roots) in his book ar-Risālah.[61]

Jurists

Main articles: Ulama, Sheikh, and Imam
Ottoman miniature painters

There are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam, but "jurist" generally refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih, or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imams, and maulvis—who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that clerics must meet higher standards to be considered ulema. Some Muslims practise ijtihad whereby they do not accept the authority of clergy.[62]

Etiquette and diet

Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws

Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu `alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[63]

Family life

See also: Women in Islam
Many Muslim women do not show their hair in public.

The basic unit of Islamic society is the family, and Islam defines the obligations and legal rights of family members. The father is seen as financially responsible for his family, and is obliged to cater for their well-being. The division of inheritance is specified in the Qur'an, which states that most of it is to pass to the immediate family, while a portion is set aside for the payment of debts and the making of bequests. With some exceptions, the woman's share of inheritance is generally half of that of a man with the same rights of succession.[64] Marriage in Islam is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[65] A man may have up to four wives if he believes he can treat them equally, while a woman may have only one husband. In most Muslim countries, the process of divorce in Islam is known as talaq, which the husband initiates by pronouncing the word "divorce".[66] Scholars disagree whether Islamic holy texts justify traditional Islamic practices such as veiling and seclusion (purdah). Starting in the 20th century, Muslim social reformers argued against these and other practices such as polygamy in Islam, with varying success. At the same time, many Muslim women have attempted to reconcile tradition with modernity by combining an active life with outward modesty. Certain Islamist groups like the Taliban have sought to continue traditional law as applied to women.[67]

Government

Main articles: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic state, Islam and secularism, and Caliphate

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. In practice, Islamic rulers frequently bypassed the Sharia courts with a parallel system of so-called "Grievance courts" over which they had sole control.[citation needed] As the Muslim world came into contact with Western secular ideals, Muslim societies responded in different ways. Turkey has been governed as a secular state ever since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1923. In contrast, the 1979 Iranian Revolution replaced a mostly secular regime with an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini.[68]

Military

Main articles: Jihad and Islamic military jurisprudence

Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God) and is considered the "Sixth Pillar of Islam" by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities.[69] Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation." Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[70] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[71][72] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[73] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[74]

Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. The ultimate purpose of military jihad is debated, both within the Islamic community and without, with some claiming that it only serves to protect the Ummah, with no aspiration of offensive conflict, whereas others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against apostates, rebels, highway robbers, violent groups, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.[75][76] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare: the external Jihad includes a struggle to make the Islamic societies conform to the Islamic norms of justice.[77]

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (fard kifaya): its performance by some individuals exempts the others. Only for those vested with authority, especially the sovereign (imam), does jihad become an individual duty. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[76] For most Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[78] occultation in 868 AD.[79]

History

Main articles: Muslim history and Spread of Islam

Muhammad (610–632)

Main article: Muhammad
See also: Early social changes under Islam
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the 2nd most sacred Mosque in Islam.

Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur'an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last in a series of prophets.[80] For the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad started receiving revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions.[81] During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement, or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[82] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[83]

Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad, Muslim conquests, and Battle of Karbala

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[84]

The Muslim Caliphate, 750 CE

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.[85]

When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah, who was governor of Levant, seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty.[86]

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a.[87] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". Afterward, the Umayyad dynasty prevailed for seventy years, and was able to conquer the Maghrib and Al-Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula, former Visigothic Hispania) and the Narbonnese Gaul) in the west as well as expand Muslim territory into Sindh and the fringes of Central Asia.[88]

The Umayyad aristocracy viewed Islam as a religion for Arabs only;[89] the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of their general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[90]

"Golden Age" (750–1258)

Main article: Islamic Golden Age
The Great Mosque of Kairouan, established in 670 in Kairouan, Tunisia, represents one of the best architectural examples of Islamic civilization.[91]

Under the Abbasids, Islamic civilization flourished in the "Islamic Golden Age", with its capital at the cosmopolitan city of Baghdad.[92] Expansion of the Muslim world continued by both conquest and peaceful proselytism even as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago.[93] Many Muslims went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song Dynasty.[94]

The major hadith collections were compiled and the four modern Sunni Madh'habs were established. Islamic law was advanced greatly by the efforts of the early 9th century jurist al-Shafi'i; he codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith, a topic which had been a locus of dispute among Islamic scholars.[95] Philosophers Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Farabi sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like the 11th century theologian Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[96] The spread of the Islamic dominion induced hostility among medieval ecclesiastical Christian authors who saw Islam as an adversary in the light of the large numbers of new Muslim converts. This opposition resulted in polemical treatises which depicted Islam as the religion of the antichrist and of Muslims as libidinous and subhuman.[97] Some devout Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life, emphasizing rather poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Devout Muslim ascetic exemplars such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism.[98] Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely as a result of the efforts of al-Ghazzali to legitimize and reorganize the movement. He developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[99] Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively.

Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word[100] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine.[101][102] The Guinness Book of World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 CE.[103] The origins of the doctorate also dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in madrasahs which taught law.[104] The first establishments for taking care of the mentally ill were also created in the Muslim world.[105] During this time, standards of experimental and quantification techniques were introduced to the scientific process to distinguish between competing theories as well as the tradition of citation.[106][107] Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist."[108] In literature, the poet Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still the best selling poet in America.[109][110] Legal institutions introduced by Islamic law include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[111][112]

Decentralization

The interior of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, one of the finest examples of Ummayad architecture in Spain.

From the Berber Revolt (739/740-743) emerged some of the first Muslim states outside the Caliphate. In 836, Caliph Al-Mu'tasim moved the capital of the Caliphate from Baghdad to the new city of Samarra, which would remain the capital until 892 when it was returned to Baghdad by al-Mu'tamid. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power, nevertheless they continued to respect the caliph's titular authority.[113] The Mongol Empire finally put an end to the Abbassid dynasty, killing its last Caliph at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258.

Formidable, independent powers moved into new areas. The alliance of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars, known as the Crusades, aimed at capturing the Holy Land, though initially successful, was reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.[114] In South Asia, the Ghaznavids conquered the Afghan-Persian region and a large part of the Indian subcontinent in the 10th century. In Europe, the Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[115] In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire established itself after a string of conquests that included the Balkans, parts of Greece and the capture of Constantinople[116] and launched a European campaign which reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529.[117] Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim.

While cultural styles used to radiate from Baghdad in the 9th century, the Mongol destruction of Baghdad led Egypt to become the Arab heartland while Central Asia went its own way and was experiencing another golden age. Iran made more ties with India, whose rulers chose the Persian language and Persian poetry rose to new heights while while Arabic poetry was in state of decline. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by speaking Chinese dialects and by adopting Chinese names and culture while mosque architecture began to follow traditional Chinese architecture.[118]

The Taj Mahal was built by Muslim rulers of the Mughal Empire in Agra, India.

In the early 16th century, the Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia and established Shi'a Islam as an official religion there.

Political decline and revival movements

The Muslim world was in political decline, especially relative to the non-Islamic European powers. Large areas of Islamic Central Asia and northeastern Iran were seriously depopulated,[119] as every city or town that resisted the Mongols was subject to destruction. The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century.[120][121] This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf founded a great observatory in Istanbul and the magnificent Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.[122]

The Reconquista was launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia finally succeeded in 1492 and Muslim Italian possessions were lost to the Normans. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty,[123] and overthrew the Muslim-ruled Kingdom of Mysore. The Ottoman era came to a close at the end of World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[124][125]

During the 18th century a Salafi movement led by the preacher Ibn Abd al-Wahhab took hold in Saudi Arabia. Wahhabism is a fundamentalist ideology that condemns practices like Sufism and the veneration of saints as un-Islamic.[126] In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

Modern times

Further information: Iranian revolution and Islamic revival

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[127] Additionally, the resulting urbanization and increase in trade in Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith. As a result, Islam in sub-Saharan Africa likely doubled between 1869 and 1914.[128] Muslim immigrants, many as guest workers, began arriving, largely from former colonies, into non-Muslim Western European nations in the 1960s and 1970s.

The Sultan Ahmet Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey.

New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions to resolve these issues.[129] Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[130]

Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam because the family structure remains central to Muslim identity.[131] Also of issue is the assimilation of Muslim communities and Islamophobia in host countries.[132] Andrew Rippin states that while Muslims believe that Islam stands for both men and women, the social reality suggests otherwise.[133] Christopher Hitchens states that Islam is "dogmatic," and "the fact remains that Islam's core claim – to be unimprovable and final – is at once absurd." Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik,[134] Syed Ameer Ali,[135] Ahmed Deedat,[136] Yusuf Estes and Tariq Ramadan.

Islamist groups such as Jamaat-e-Islami in Pakistan and the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt advocate advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned in secular states such as in pre-2011 Egypt. In countries like Iran, revolutionary movement replaced secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the islamist Justice and Development Party has demoractically been in power for about a decade while islamist parties are expected to do well in elections following the Arab spring.[137] Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, who advocated for Pan-Islamic unity, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.[138] The Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation), consisting of Muslim countries, was formally established in September 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[139]

Piety appears to be deepening among Muslims worldwide.[140][141] Orthodox groups are sometimes well funded and are growing at the expense of traditional groups.[142] In some places, this is fueled by a dissatisfaction with the secular governments.[143] The prevalence of the Islamic veil is growing increasingly common[144] and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.[145] With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely state clerics who are often seen as stooges.[141] Some Muslim organizations began using the media to promote the message of Islam. The first Islamic satellite network hosting a 24-hour service worldwide was MTA International, established by the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in 1994. Zakir Naik, head of the Islamic Research Foundation, established another 24-hour Islamic international TV channel (Peace TV) in 2006.[146]

Denominations

Main article: Islamic schools and branches
Distribution of Islamic schools and branches in areas where large Muslim population are found
Movements in Islam

Sunni

Main article: Sunni Islam

Sunni Muslims are the largest group in Islam, comprising the vast bulk (80-90%[8][10][147]) of the world's 1.5 billion Muslims, hence the title Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah (people of the tradition[16] and union). In Arabic language, as-Sunnah literally means "tradition" or "path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in hadith are the primary foundations of Sunni doctrine. According to Sunni Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an.[148] Two major hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.[147][149]

There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.[150] The Salafi (also known as Ahl al-Hadith, or Wahhabi by its adversaries) is a ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.[151]

Shia

Main article: Shia Islam

The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[10][13] They believe in the political and religious leadership of Imams from the progeny of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who Shia's believe was the true successor after Muhammad. They believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs. To most Shias, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. Shias regard Ali as the prophet's true successor and believe that a caliph is appointed by divine will.[152] Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over validity of specific collections of hadith, with Shias preferring hadiths attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt.

Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers (iṯnāʿašariyya). Although the Shi'as share many core practices with the Sunni, the two branches disagree over the proper importance and validity of specific collections of hadith. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence.[153] Other smaller groups include the Ismaili and Zaidi, who differ from Twelvers in both their line of successors and theological beliefs.[154] Other smaller branches include the Alawites and Alevi.

Sufism

Main article: Sufism
Sufi whirling dervishes in Istanbul, Turkey

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[155] Sufism and Islamic law are usually considered to be complementary, although Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation.[citation needed] Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.[156][157]

Minor denominations

  • Ahmadiyya is an Messianic movement founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad that began in India in the late 19th century and is practiced by millions of people around the world.[158]
  • The Berghouata were a late first millennium Berber sect who followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhaps influenced by Judaism)[159] with elements of Sunni, Shi'a and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological and heathen traditions.
  • The Kharijites are a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites is Ibadism. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. The Imamate is an important topic in Ibadi legal literature, which stipulates that the leader should be chosen solely on the basis of his knowledge and piety, and is to be deposed if he acts unjustly. Most Ibadi Muslims live in Oman, with a number of diasporic communities in Northern Africa.[160][161]
  • The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith and/or the Sunnah.
  • Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.

Demographics

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah
See also: List of countries by Muslim population
Muslim population by percentage worldwide

A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population or 1.57 billion people are Muslims. Of those, an estimated 80–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shi'a,[8][9][10] with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 50 countries are Muslim-majority,[162] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.[163] Between 1900 and 1970 the global Muslim community grew from 200 million to 551 million;[164] between 1970 and 2009 Muslim population increased more than three times to 1.57 billion.

The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[165] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[166][167] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[168]

Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[169][170][171][172] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[173] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[174] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[13][175]

Culture

The Blue Mosque in Afghanistan
Main article: Islamic culture

Architecture

Main article: Islamic architecture

Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle).[176] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[177] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

Art

Main article: Islamic art

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[178] It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.

The Islamic calendar is based on the lunar cycle.

Calendar

Main article: Islamic calendar

The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. The assignment of this year as the year 1 AH (Anno Hegirae) in the Islamic calendar was reportedly made by Caliph Umar. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.[179] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Template:Lang-ar) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the pilgrimage to Mecca.[180]

See also

Main article: Outline of Islam

References

Notes

  1. ^ There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/, /æ/ or (when the stress is on the first syllable) /ə/ (Merriam Webster). The most common are /ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm, ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary).
  2. ^ /ʔiˈslaːm/: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from [i]~[ɪ]~[e]. The second vowel ranges from [æ]~[a]~[ä]~[ɛ]. At some geographic regions, such as Northwestern Africa they don't have stress.

Citations

  1. ^ See:
    • Quran 51:56
    • "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18. For Muslims, God is unique and without equal.
  2. ^ a b "Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence". Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
  3. ^ "People of the Book". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
  4. ^ a b See: * Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it. * Esposito (1998), pp.6,12* Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5* F. E. Peters (2003), p.9* F. Buhl. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)* Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  5. ^ Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 9780826499448.
  6. ^ Esposito (2002b), p.17
  7. ^ See: * Esposito (2002b), pp.111,112,118* "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  8. ^ a b c d e f "Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
  9. ^ a b "Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
  10. ^ a b c d "Religions". Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
  11. ^ a b Miller (2009), pp.8,17
  12. ^ See:* Esposito (2002b), p.21* Esposito (2004), pp.2,43 * Miller (2009), pp.9,19
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  17. ^ Dictionary listing for Siin roots derived from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk
  18. ^ Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis. Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. 2009. pp. 8
  19. ^ What does Islam mean? The Friday Journal, Mumbai (6 Feb 2011)
  20. ^ See:
  21. ^ Quran 5:3, Quran 3:19, Quran 3:83
  22. ^ See:
  23. ^ Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-82-322584-2.
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    • Quran 112:1–4
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.74–76
    • Esposito (2004), p.22
    • Griffith (2006), p.248
    • D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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  27. ^ Quran 51:56
  28. ^ Quran 2:186
  29. ^ Quran 50:16
  30. ^ See:
    • "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
    • "Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
    • L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  31. ^ Quran 21:19–20, Quran 35:1
  32. ^ See:
    • Quran 35:1
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.26–28
    • W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • Gisela Webb. "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  33. ^ Alan Jones, The Koran, London 1994, ISBN 1842126091, opening page.
  34. ^ Arthur Arberry, The Koran Interpreted, London 1956, ISBN 0684825074, p. x.
  35. ^ Maurice Bucaille, THE BIBLE, THE QUR'AN AND SCIENCE, 1978, ISBN 8172311613, p. 125
  36. ^ Esposito (2004), pp.17,18,21
  37. ^ See:
  38. ^ Esposito (2004), p.79
  39. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.79–81
    • "Tafsir". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  40. ^ See:
    • Teece (2003), pp.12,13
    • C. Turner (2006), p.42
    • "Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help): The word Qur'an was invented and first used in the Qur'an itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
  41. ^ "The Koran". Quod.lib.umich.edu. Retrieved 2009-12-12.
  42. ^ See:
    • Momem (1987), p.176
    • "Islam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  43. ^ See:
    • "Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
    • "Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help): Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
    • L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  44. ^ Quran 9:72
  45. ^ See:
    • Smith (2006), p.89; Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
    • "Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
    • Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Paradise". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  46. ^ See:
    • Quran 9:51
    • D. Cohen-Mor (2001), p.4: "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' "
    • Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help): The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
  47. ^ See:
    • Farah (2003), pp.119–122
    • Patton (1900), p.130
  48. ^ Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online
  49. ^ Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272
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    • Farah (1994), p.135
    • Momen (1987), p.178
    • "Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals(2004)
    • ArticleClick.com
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    • Esposito (2002b), pp.18,19
    • Hedáyetullah (2006), pp.53–55
    • Kobeisy (2004), pp.22–34
    • Momen (1987), p.178
  52. ^ Budge, E.A. Wallis (June 13, 2001). Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th Century Travel Guide. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 123–128. ISBN 0-486-41721-2.
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    • J. Pedersen. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    • "Mosque". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  54. ^ See:
  55. ^ See:
  56. ^ See:
    • Farah (1994), pp.145–147
    • Goldschmidt (2005), p.48
    • "Hajj". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  57. ^ "Shari'ah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  58. ^ See:
    • Menski (2006), p.290
    • B. Carra de Vaux. "Hadd". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
    • N. Calder. "Sharia". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  59. ^ Berg, Herbert. "Islamic Law." Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3 (2005): 1030.
  60. ^ Dien, Mawil Izzi. Islamic Law: From Historical Foundations To Contemporary Practice. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.
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  62. ^ Weiss (2002), pp.3,161
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  64. ^ "al-Mar'a". Encyclopaedia of Islam
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    • Waines (2003) pp. 93–96
    • The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
    • Esposito (1998) p. 79
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    • Esposito (2004), pp.95,96,235–241
    • Harald Motzki. "Marriage and Divorce". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • Lori Peek. "Marriage Practices". Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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    • Esposito (2004), p. 84
    • Lapidus (2002), pp. 502–507,845
    • Lewis (2003), p. 100
  69. ^ Esposito (2003), p.93
  70. ^ Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18
  71. ^ Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18
  72. ^ Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
  73. ^ See:
    • Brockopp (2003) pp. 99–100
    • Esposito (2003), p.93
    • "jihad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  74. ^ See:
    • Firestone (1999) p.17
    • "Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
  75. ^ Firestone (1999) p.17
  76. ^ a b "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  77. ^ Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118
  78. ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72
  79. ^ cf. Sachedina (1998) p. 105 and 106
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    • Esposito (1998), p.12
    • Esposito (2002b), pp.4–5
    • F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
    • "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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    • Quran 18:110
    • F. Buhl. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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    • F.E.Peters(2003), pp.78,79,194
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.23–28
  83. ^ F. Buhl. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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    • Holt (1977a), p.57
    • Hourani (2003), p.22
    • Lapidus (2002), p.32
    • Madelung (1996), p.43
    • Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
  85. ^ See
    • Holt (1977a), p.74
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  86. ^ Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
  87. ^ Waines (2003) p.46
  88. ^ Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.
  89. ^ Hawting (2000), p.4
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    • Holt (1977a), pp.80,92,105
    • Holt (1977b), pp.661–663
    • Lapidus (2002), p.56
    • Lewis (1993), p.84
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  93. ^ L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  94. ^ "Islam in China". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
  95. ^ Lapidus (2002), p.86
  96. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.160
    • Waines (2003) p.126,127
  97. ^ Tolan (2002) xv, xvi, 41
  98. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.90,91
    • "Sufism". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  99. ^ Esposito (2004), pp.104,105
  100. ^ Micheau, Françoise. : 991–2. {{cite journal}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Missing or empty |title= (help), in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007)
  101. ^ Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology. 54 (1): 112–32. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  102. ^ Imamuddin, S. M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 A.D. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 9004061312. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  103. ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, Published 1998, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2, P.242
  104. ^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (2). American Oriental Society: 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  105. ^ "The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate". Planetseed.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
  106. ^ Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1590080408 page 23, 84.

    "Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."
  107. ^ Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision", International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy:

    "According to the majority of the historians al-Haytham was the pioneer of the modern scientific method. With his book he changed the meaning of the term optics and established experiments as the norm of proof in the field. His investigations are based not on abstract theories, but on experimental evidences and his experiments were systematic and repeatable."
  108. ^ BBC News The ‘first true scientist.’
  109. ^ "The roar of Rumi - 800 years on". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
  110. ^ "Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
  111. ^ (Gaudiosi 1988)
  112. ^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)
  113. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.103–143
    • "Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  114. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.288–290,310
  115. ^ The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves. Eizo Matsuki. Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
  116. ^ See
    • Holt (1977a), p.263
    • Lapidus (2002), p.250
    • "Istanbul". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  117. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.198,234,244,245,254
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  118. ^ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. pg 292. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN 073910375X.
  119. ^ World Timelines - Western Asia - AD 1250-1500 Later Islamic
  120. ^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 516. ISBN 0313341028. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
  121. ^ Black Death, Great Moments in Science, ABC Science
  122. ^ Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. pg170. Print. ISBN 1590080408
  123. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
  124. ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.380,489–493
  125. ^ "New Turkey". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  126. ^ See:
    • Lapidus (2002), p.572
    • Watt (1973), p.18: Wahhabism should not be confused with the early Kharijite sect of Wahabiyya, which was named after Abd-Allah ibn-Wahb ar-Rasibi, who opposed Ali at Nahrawan.
  127. ^ Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271
  128. ^ Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0618427708
  129. ^ Nigosian (2004), pp.41
  130. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004), pp.118,119,179
    • Lapidus (2002), pp.823–830
  131. ^ Rippin (2001), p.288
  132. ^ Ernst (2004), p.11
  133. ^ Rippin (2001), p.288
  134. ^ For example see Major Themes of the Qur'an by Fazlur Rahman Malik in which he argues against the treatment of the Qur'an as either a piecemeal or an evolutionary progression of ideas. See review by William A. Graham (1983), p.446.
  135. ^ For example see The Spirit of Islam by Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928). It is described by David Samuel Margoliouth (1905) as "probably the best achievement in the way of an apology for Mohammed". See Margoliouth, preface Mohammed and the Rise of Islam.
  136. ^ Westerlund (2003)
  137. ^ "Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab spring?". bbcnews.com. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
  138. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson Gale, 2004
  139. ^ "Organization of the Islamic Conference". BBC News. 2008-09-18. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  140. ^ "Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast". MSNBC. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
  141. ^ a b "Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit". Economist magazine. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
  142. ^ "India's moderate Muslims see peril in growth of stricter form of Islam". Washington Post. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
  143. ^ "Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
  144. ^ "In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
  145. ^ "Why Indonesia matters". Time magazine. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
  146. ^ "24-hours Islamic International TV channel". Peace TV. Retrieved 2010-11-22.
  147. ^ a b "Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
  148. ^ See:
    • Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666
    • J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • D. W. Brown. "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  149. ^ From the article on Sunni Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
  150. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2003), pp.275,306
    • "Shariah". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Sunnite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  151. ^ Salafi Islam GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.
  152. ^ See
    • Lapidus (2002), p.46
    • "Imam". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    • "Shi'ite". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  153. ^ See:
    • Ahmed (1999), pp.44–45
    • Nasr (1994), p.466
  154. ^ See:
  155. ^ Trimingham (1998), p.1
  156. ^ "Sufism, Sufis, and Sufi Orders: Sufism's Many Paths". Uga.edu. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  157. ^ See:
  158. ^ "Ahmadiyya Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
  159. ^ It is believed that Salih Ibn Tarif was a Jew born in the Iberian Peninsula - Kitab Al-Istibsar, transl. of E. Fagnan, L'Afrique Septentrionale au XII siécle de notre Ere, Argel, 1900, p. 157.
  160. ^ See:
    • UGA.edu, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction
    • J. A. Williams (1994), p.173
    • "al-Ibāḍiyya". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  161. ^ "Valerie J. Hoffman, Ibadi Islam: An Introduction". Uga.edu. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  162. ^ Miller (2009), p.11
  163. ^ Ba-Yunus, Ilyas (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 0313328250, 9780313328251. Retrieved 2010-08-25. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  164. ^ Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 0567094529.
  165. ^ "Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
  166. ^ Secrets of Islam – U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).
  167. ^ Miller (2009), pp.15,17
  168. ^ "Number of Muslim by country". nationmaster.com. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
  169. ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – China". Cia.gov. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
  170. ^ "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". State.gov. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
  171. ^ "NW China region eyes global Muslim market". China Daily. 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  172. ^ "Muslim Media Network". Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
  173. ^ Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.
  174. ^ See:
    • Esposito (2004) pp.2,43
    • "Islamic World". Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
    "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
  175. ^ The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.
  176. ^ "Islam", The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2005)
  177. ^ Elizabeth Allo Isichei, ''A history of African societies to 1870'', page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Books.google.com. 1997. ISBN 9780521455992. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
  178. ^ Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3
  179. ^ Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com
  180. ^ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws

Books and journals

  • Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 14 (1). ISSN 0959-6410. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Adil, Hajjah Amina (2002). Muhammad: The Messenger of Islam. Islamic Supreme Council of America. ISBN 978-1930409118. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1860642579.
  • Armstrong, Karen (2006). Muhammad: A Prophet for our Time. HarperCollins. ISBN 006059897-2.
  • Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1570034710.
  • Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195133986.
  • Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0813819464.
  • Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2614-0.
  • Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4.
  • Esposito, John (1996). Islam and Democracy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510816-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195112344.
  • Esposito, John (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195107999.
  • Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195168860.
  • Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
  • Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
  • Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195182668.
  • Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0812018530.
  • Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0764-12226-2.
  • Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-5125800.
  • Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521026994.
  • Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
  • Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813342757. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Griffith, Ruth Marie (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801883709. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press.
  • Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0415240735.
  • Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1553698425.
  • Holt, P. M. (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291364. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Holt, P. M. (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291372. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Hourani, Albert (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0674010178. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Humphreys, Stephen (2005). Between Memory and Desire. University of California Press. ISBN 052-0246918.
  • Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0313324727.
  • Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad (1992). The Origins of the Ottoman Empire. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791408191. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813304533.
  • Kugle, Scott Alan (2006). Rebel Between Spirit And Law: Ahmad Zarruq, Sainthood, And Authority in Islam. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347114.
  • Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333.
  • Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0.
  • Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1928-5258-2.
  • Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0684832807.
  • Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court. ISBN 978-0812695182.
  • Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0060516055.
  • Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0812967852.
  • Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646960.
  • Malik, Jamal (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0415274087. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521858593.
  • Mohammad, Noor (1985). "The Doctrine of Jihad: An Introduction". Journal of Law and Religion. 3 (2). Journal of Law and Religion, Inc.: 381. doi:10.2307/1051182. JSTOR 1051182. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi`i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi`ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300035315.
  • Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06067-700-7.
  • Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University Press.
  • Novak, David (1999). "The Mind of Maimonides". First Things. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
  • Patton, Walter M. (1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 16 (3). Brill Academic Publishers: 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 9004103147. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest for Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
  • Peters, Rudolph (1977). Jihad in Medieval and Modern Islam. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-04854-5.
  • Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0415217811.
  • Ruthven, Malise (2005). Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 01-92-80606-8.
  • Sahas, Daniel J. (1997). John of Damascus on Islam: The Heresy of the Ishmaelites. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9004034952.
  • Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195119150.
  • Seibert, Robert F.; Daniel, Norman (1994). "Review: Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Norman Daniel)". Review of Religious Research. 36 (1). Religious Research Association, Inc.: 88. doi:10.2307/3511655. JSTOR 3511655. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Sells, Michael Anthony (2003). The New Crusades: Constructing the Muslim Enemy. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231126670. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195156492.
  • Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 1-82760-198-1.
  • Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (2002). Islamic teachings: An Overview and a Glance at the Life of the Holy Prophet of Islam. Green Gold. ISBN 0-922817-00-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0749647964.
  • Tolan, John V. (2002). Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231123329.
  • Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195120582.
  • Tritton, Arthur S. (1970) [1930]. The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Frank Cass Publisher. ISBN 0-7146-1996-5.
  • Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 041534106X. ISBN 041534106X.
  • Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0415174589.
  • Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521539064.
  • Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85-224245-X.
  • Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.
  • Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 9004120661.
  • Williams, John Alden (1994). The Word of Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-79076-7.
  • Williams, Mary E. (2000). The Middle East. Greenhaven Pr. ISBN 0737701331.

Encyclopedias

Further reading

Minorities in Islam:

  • A. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran (IB Tauris, 2006).
Academic resources
Online resources
Directories

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